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version: 1.
CHAPTER
1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS
Animation 1.1: Function Machine

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1. Functions and Limits eLearn.Punjab 1. Functions and Limits eLearn.Punjab
1.1.3 Notation and Value of a Function

1.1 INTRODUCTION
If a variable y depends on a variable x in such a way that each value of x determines
Functions are important tools by which we describe the real world in mathematical
exactly one value of y, then we say that “y is a function of x”.
terms. They are used to explain the relationship between variable quantities and hence play
Swiss mathematician Euler (1707-1783) invented a symbolic way to write the statement
a central role in the study of calculus.
“y is a function of x” as y = f(x) , which is read as “y is equal to f of x”.
1.1.1 Concept of Function

Note: Functions are often denoted by the letters such as f, g, h , F, G, H and so on.
The term function was recognized by a German Mathematician Leibniz (1646 - 1716)
A function can be thought as a
to describe the dependence of one quantity on another. The following examples illustrates
computing machine f that takes an input x,
how this term is used:
operates on it in some way, and produces
exactly one output f(x). This output f(x) is
(i) The area “A” of a square depends on one of its sides “x” by the formula A = x2, so
called the value of f at x or image of x under
we say that A is a function of x.
The volume “ V ” of a sphere depends on its radius “r” by the formula V = 4 pr3, so
f. The output f(x) is denoted by a single
(ii)
3 letter, say y, and we write y = f(x).
we say that V is a function of r.
The variable x is called the independent variable of f, and the variable y is called
A function is a rule or correspondence, relating two sets in such a way that each
the dependent variable of f. For now onward we shall only consider the function in
element in the irst set corresponds to one and only one element in the second set.
which the variables are real numbers and we say that f is a real valued function of real
Thus in, (i) above, a square of a given side has only one area.
numbers.
And in, (ii) above, a sphere of a given radius has only one volume.
Given f(x) = x3 - 2x2 + 4x - 1, ind

Now we have a formal deinition:
Example 1:
(i) f(0) (ii) f(1) (iii) f(-2) (iv) f(1 + x) (v) f(1/x), x ≠ 0
1.1.2 Deinition (Function - Domain - Range)
Solution: f(x) = x3 - 2x2 + 4x - 1

f(0) = 0 - 0 + 0 - 1 = - 1
A Function f from a set X to a set Y is a rule or a correspondence that assigns to each
(i)
f(1) = (1)3 - 2(1)2 + 4(1) - 1 = 1 - 2 + 4 -1 = 2
element x in X a unique element y in Y. The set X is called the domain of f.
(i)
f(-2) = (- 2)3 - 2 (-2 )2 + 4 (-2) - 1 = - 8 - 8 - 8 - 1 = -2 5
The set of corresponding elements y in Y is called the range of f.
(ii)
f(1 + x) = (1 + x)3 - 2(1 + x)2 + 4(1 + x) - 1
Unless stated to the contrary, we shall assume hereafter that the set X and Y consist of
(iii)
= 1 + 3x + 3x2 + x3 - 2 - 4x - 2x2 + 4 + 4x - 1
real numbers.
= x3 + x2 + 3x + 2
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
2 3
Explanation is given in the igure.

f(1/x) = (1/x) - 2(1/x) + 4 (1/x) - 1 = 3 - 2 + - 1, x ≠ 0
3 2
1 2 4
(iv)
x x x
Example 2: Let f(x) = x2. Find the domain and range of f.
Solution: f(x) is deined for every real number x.

Further for every real number x, f(x) = x2 is a non-negative real number. So
Domain f = Set of all real numbers.
Range f = Set of all non-negative real numbers.
x Method to draw the graph:

x -4
Example 3: Let f(x) = 2 . Find the domain and range of f. To draw the graph of y = f(x), we give arbitrary values of our choice to x and ind the
Solution: At x = 2 and x = -2, f(x) = 2

x corresponding values of y. In this way we get ordered pairs (x1 , y1) , (x2 , y2), (x3 , y3) etc. These
x -4
is not deined. So
Domain f = Set of all real numbers except -2 and 2 .
ordered pairs represent points of the graph in the Cartesian plane. We add these points and
join them together to get the graph of the function.
Range f = Set of all real numbers.
Let f(x) = x2 - 9 . Find the domain and range of f.

Example 5: Find the domain and range of the function f(x) = x2 + 1 and draw its graph.
Example 4:
Solution: We see that if x is in the interval -3 < x < 3, a square root of a negative number is
Solution: Here y = f(x) = x2 + 1
We see that f(x) = x2 +1 is deined for every real number. Further, for every real number
obtained. Hence no real number y = x2 - 9 exists. So
Domain f = { x d R : |x| 8 3 } = (-T, -3] j [3, + T)
x, y = f(x) = x2 + 1 is a non-negative real number.
Hence Domain f = set of all real numbers
Range f = set of all positive real numbers = (0, + T) and Range f = set of all non-negative real numbers except
the points 0 7 y < 1.
1.1.4 Graphs of Algebraic functions For graph of f(x) = x2 +1, we assign some values to x from its domain and ind the
corresponding values in the range f as shown in the table:
If f is a real-valued function of real numbers, then the graph of f in the xy-plane is
deined to be the graph of the equation y = f(x). x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y = f(x) 10 5 2 1 2 5 10
The graph of a function f is the set of points {(x, y)| y = f(x)} , x is in the domain of f in the
Cartesian plane for which (x, y) is an ordered pair of f. The graph provides a visual technique Plotting the points (x, y) and joining them with a smooth curve,
for determining whether the set of points represents a function or not. If a vertical line we get the graph of the function f(x) = x2 + 1, which is shown in the
intersects a graph in more than one point, it is not the graph of a function. igure.
4 5
(i) Polynomial Function

1.1.5 Graph of Functions Deined Piece-wise. A function P of the form P(x) = an xn + an-1 xn-1 + an-2 xn-2 + .... + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
for all x, where the coeicient an, an-1, an-2, .... , a2, a1, a0 are real numbers and the exponents
When the function f is deined by two rules, we draw the graphs of two functions as
are non-negative integers, is called a polynomial function.
explained in the following example:
The domain and range of P(x) are, in general, subsets of real numbers.
If an ≠ 0 , then P(x) is called a polynomial function of degree n and an is the leading
Example 7: Find the domain and range of the function deined by:
coeicient of P(x) .
[ For example, P(x) = 2x4 - 3x3 + 2x - 1 is a polynomial function of degree 4 with leading
x when 0 7x 71
x - 1 when 1 < x 72
f(x) = also draw its graph.
coeicient 2.
Solution: Here domain f = [0, 1] j [1, 2] = [0, 2]. This function is composed of the following
two functions:
(ii) f(x) = x - 1 , when 1 < x 7 2
(ii) Linear Function
(i) f(x) = x when 0 7 x 7 1
If the degree of a polynomial function is 1, then it is called a linear function. A linear
function is of the form: f(x) = ax + b (a ≠ 0), a, b are real numbers.
To ind th table of values of x and y = f(x) in each case, we take suitable values to x in the
domain f. Thus
Table of y = f(x) = x - 1:
For example f(x) = 3x + 4 or y = 3x + 4 is a linear function. Its domain and range are the
Table for y = f(x) = x
set of real numbers.
x 0 0.5 0.8 1 x 1.1 1.5 1.8 2
y = f(x) 0 0.5 0.8 1 y = f(x) 0.1 0.5 0.8 1 (iii) Identity Function
For any set X, a function I : X " X of the form I(x) = x " x d X , is called an identity
function. Its domain and range is the set X itself. In particular, if X = R , then I(x) = x , for all x
d R , is the identity function.
Plotting the points (x, y) and joining them we get
two straight lines as shown in the igure. This is (iv) Constant function
the graph of the given function. Let X and Y be sets of real numbers. A function C : X " Y deined by C(x) = a , " x d X , a
d Y and ixed, is called a constant function.
For example, C : R " R deined by C(x) = 2, " x d R is a constant function.
1.2 TYPES OF FUNCTIONS (v) Rational Function

P(x)
A function R(x) of the form , where both P(x) and Q(x) are polynomial functions and
Q(x) ≠ 0, is called a rational function.
Q(x)
Some important types of functions are given below:
The domain of a rational function R(x) is the set of all real numbers x for which Q(x) ≠ 0.
1.2.1 Algebraic Functions
1.2.2 Trigonometric Functions
Algebraic functions are those functions which are deined by algebraic expressions.
We classify algebraic functions as follows: We denote and deine trigonometric functions as follows:
6 7
(i) y = sin x, Domain = R, Range -1 7 y 7 1. 1.2.6 Hyperbolic Functions

y = cos x , Domain = R, Range -1 7 y 7 1.
p
(ii)
sinh x = (ex - e-x) is called hyperbolic sine function. Its domain and range are
1
(iii) y = tan x, Domain = {x : xdR and x = (2n + 1) , n an integer}, Range = R (i)
2
y = cot x, Domain = {x : xdR and x ≠ np, n an integer}, Range= R
2 the set of all real numbers.
p
(iv)
(e + e-x) is called hyperbolic cosine function. Its domain is the set of
1 x
y = sec x, Domain = {x : xdR and x ≠ (2n + 1) , n an integer}, Range= R
(ii) cosh x =
(v) 2
y = csc x, Domain = {x : xdR and x ≠ np, n an integer}, Range = y 8 1, y 7 -1
2 all real numbers and the range is the set of all numbers in the interval [1, +T)
(vi) (iii) The remaining four hyperbolic functions are deined in terms of the hyperbolic
sine and the hyperbolic cosine function as follows:
e x - e- x
1.2.3 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
=
=
e x + e- x e x + e- x
sinh x 1 2
tanh x = sech x =
cosh x cosh x
e x + e- x
We denote and deine inverse trigonometric functions as follows:
=
=
p p e x - e- x e - e- x
cosh x 1 2
y = sin -1 x ⇔ x = sin y, where -

≤ y ≤ , -1 ≤ x ≤ 1
coth x = csch x =
sinh x sinh x x
(i)
2 2
(ii) y = cos x ⇔ x = cos y, where 0 ≤ y ≤ p, - 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
-1 The hyperbolic functions have same properties that resemble to those of
p p
(iii) y = tan -1 x ⇔ x = tan y, where - < y < , - ∞ < x < ∞
trigonometric functions.
2 2
1.2.7 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
1.2.4 Exponential Function The inverse hyperbolic functions are expressed in terms of natural logarithms and we
shall study them in higher classes.
1  x +1 
A function, in which the variable appears as exponent (power), is
sinh -1 x = ln(x + x 2 + 1 ), for all x (iv) coth -1 x = ln  , x < 1
2  x -1 
called an exponential function. The functions, y = eax, y = ex, y = 2x = (i)
1 
ex ln 2, etc are exponential functions of x.
cosh -1 x = ln(x + x2 - 1 ) x ≥ 1 (v) sech -1 x = ln  + , 0 < x ≤1
1 - x2
x 
 
(ii)
1.2.5 Logarithmic Function x
1 1 + x  1 
ln  , x < 1 (vi) csch -1 x = ln  + , x ≠ 0
If x = ay , then y = loga x , where a > 0, a ≠ 1 is called Logarithmic Function of x. tanh -1 x =
1 + x2
2 1-x  x 
 
(iii)
x
(i) If a = 10, then we have log10 x (written as lg x) which is known as the common
logarithm of x.
(ii) If a = e, then we have loge x (written as In x) which is known as the natural 1.2.8 Explicit Function
logarithm of x.
If y is easily expressed in terms of the independent variable x, then y is called an explicit
function of x. For example
(i) y = x2 + 2x - 1 (ii) =
y x - 1 are explicit functions of x.
8 9
Symbolically it can be written as y = f(x). Note : In both the cases, for each x in the domain of f, -x must also be in the domain of f.
1.2.9 Implicit Function Example 1: Show that the parametric equations x = a cos t and y = a sin t represent
the equation of the circle x2 + y2 = a2
If x and y are so mixed up and y cannot be expressed in terms of the independent
variable x, then y is called an implicit function of x. For example, Solution: The parametric equations are
2
xy - y + 9 x = a cos t (i)
(i) x2 + xy + y2 = 2 (ii) = 1 are implicit functions of x and y.
xy y = a sin t (ii)
We eliminate the parameter “t” from equations (i) and (ii).
Symbolically it is written as f(x, y) = 0. By squaring we get, x2 = a2 cos2 t
y2 = a2 sin2 t
(ix) Parametric Functions By adding we get, x2 + y2 = a2 cos2 t + a2 sin2 t
= a2 (cos2 t + sin2 t)
Some times a curve is described by expressing both x and y as function of a third ∴ x2 + y2 = a2, which is equation of the circle.
variable “t” or “q” which is called a parameter. The equations of the type x = f(t) and y = g(t)
are called the parametric equations of the curve . Example 2: Prove the identities
The functions of the form: (i) cosh2 x - sinh2 x = 1 (ii) cosh2 x + sinh2 x = cosh 2x
x = at2 x = a cos t x = a cos q x = a sec q
y = b sin q y = a tan q
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
y = at y = a sin t e x - e- x
are called parametric functions. Here the variable t or q is called parameter.
Solution: We know that sinh x = (1)
2
1.2.10 Even Function and e x + e- x (2)

cosh x =
2
A function f is said to be even if f(-x) = f(x) , for every number x in the domain of f. Squaring (1) and (2) we have
e 2 x + e -2 x + 2
For example: f(x) = x2 and f(x) = cos x are even functions of x.
Here f(-x) = (-x)2 = x2 = f(x) and f(-x) = cos (-x) = cos x = f(x) e 2 x + e -2 x - 2
sinh 2 x = and cosh 2 x =
4 4
1.2.11 Odd Function e 2 x + e -2 x + 2 e 2 x + e -2 x - 2
cosh 2 x - sinh 2 x = -
Now (i) 4 4
A function f is said to be odd if f(-x) = -f(x) , for every number x in the domain of f. e + e + 2 - e - e -2 x + 2 4
2x -2 x 2x
= =
∴
For example, f(x) = x3 and f(x) = sin x are odd functions of x. Here 4 4
f(-x) = (-x)3 = -x3 = -f(x) and f(-x) = sin(-x) = -sin x = -f(x)
2 2
cosh x - sinh x = 1
10 11
e2 x + e-2 x + 2 e2 x + e-2 x - 2
3. Express the following:
2 2
and (ii) cosh x + sinh x = 4
+
4 (a) The perimeter P of square as a function of its area A.
e2 x + e-2 x + 2 + e2 x + e-2 x - 2 (b) The area A of a circle as a function of its circumference C.
=
4 (c) The volume V of a cube as a function of the area A of its base.
2e 2 x + 2e -2 x e 2 x + e -2 x 4. Find the domain and the range of the function g deined below, and
g(x) = 2x - 5
= =
∴ cosh 2 x + sinh 2 x = cosh 2x

4 2 (i) (ii) g (x) = x2 - 4
(iii) g (x) = x+1 (iv) g (x) = x - 3
6 x + 7 , x ≤ - 2 x -1 , x < 3
Example 3: Determine whether the following functions are even or odd.
g (x) =  g (x) = 
 4 - 3 x , -2 < x 2 x + 1 , 3 ≤ x
(v) (vi)
3x
x + 1
(a) f(x) = 3x4 - 2x2 + 7 (b) f (x) = (c) f(x) = sin x + cos x
2
, x ≠ -1 , x ≠ 4
x 2 - 3x + 2 x 2 - 16
(vii) g (x) = (viii) g (x) =
Solution:
f(-x) = 3(-x)4 - 2(-x)2 + 7 = 3x4 - 2x2 + 7 = f(x)
x+1 x -4
(a) Given f(x) = x3 - ax2 + bx + 1
f(x) = 3x4 - 2x2 + 7 is even.
5.
Thus If f(2) = -3 and f(-1) = 0 . Find the values of a and b.
3( - x)
f ( - x) = - 2 = - f (x)
6. A stone falls from a height of 60m on the ground, the height h afterx seconds is
approximately given by h(x) = 40 - 10x2
3x
( - x) + 1 x + 1
(b) 2
(i) What is the height of the stone when:.

3x
x + 1
f (x) = is odd (a) x = 1 sec ? (b) x = 1.5 sec ? (c) x = 1.7 sec ?
Thus
f(-x) = sin(-x) + cos(-x) = -sin x + cos x ≠ ± f(x)
2
(ii) When does the stone strike the ground?
(c)
7. Show that the parametric equations:
Thus f(x) = sin x + cos x is neither even nor odd
(i) x = at2 , y = 2at represent the equation of parabola
y2 = 4ax
EXERCISE 1.1
(ii) x = acosq , y = bsinq represent the equation of ellipse
x2 y2
x+4
+ =1
1. Given that: (a) f(x) = x2 - x (b) f (x) = a2 b2
(iii) x = asecq , y = btanq represent the equation of hyperbola
Find (i) f(-2) (ii) f(0) (iii) f(x - 1) (iv) f(x2 + 4)
f(a + h) - f(a)
x2 y 2
- =1
2. Find and simplify where, a 2 b2
h
f(x) = 6x - 9
8. Prove the identities:
(i) (ii) f(x) = sin x sech2 x = 1 - tanh2 x
f(x) = x3 + 2x2 - 1
(i) sinh 2x = 2sinh x cosh x (ii)
(iii) (iv) f(x) = cos x (iii) csch2 x = coth2 x - 1
12 13
Solution:
fg (x) = f (g (x)) = f ( x2 - 1) = 2 (x2 - 1) +1 = 2x2 - 1
9. Determine whether the given function f is even or odd.
(i)
(ii) gf (x) = g (f(x)) = g (2x + 1) = (2x + 1)2 - 1 = 4x2 + 4x
(i) f(x) = x3 + x (ii) f(x) = (x + 2)2
x- 1
f (x) = x x 2 + 5 , x ≠ -1
x+ 1
(iii) f2(x) = f (f(x)) = f (2x + 1) = 2(2x +1) + 1 = 4x + 3
(iv) g2(x) = g(gx) = g (x2 - 1) = (x2 - 1)2 - 1 = x4 - 2x2
(iii) (iv) f (x) =
fg (x) ≠ gf(x)
x3 - x
We observe from (i) and (ii) that
x + 1
2 3
(v) f (x) = x +6 (vi) f (x) = 2
Note:
It is important to note that, in general, gf (x) ≠ fg (x) , because gf (x)means that f is
1.3 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS AND 1.
applied irst then followed by g, whereas fg (x) means that g is applied irst then
INVERSE OF AFUNCTION followed by f.
2. We usually write f as f 2 and ff as f 3 and so on.
Let f be a function from set X to set Y and g be a function from set Y to set Z. The
composition of f and g is a function, denoted by gof, from X to Z and is deined by 1.3.2 Inverse of a Function
(gof)(x) = g(f(x)) = gf(x) , for all xdX.
Let f be a one-one function from X onto Y. The inverse function of f denoted by f -1, is
1.3.1 Composition of Functions Remember That: a function from Y onto X and is deined by:
Briely we write gof as gf. x = f -1(y), [ y d Y if and only if y = f(x) , [ x d X.
Explanation Illustration by arrow diagram
Consider two real valued functions f and g deined by The inverse function reverses the correspondence
f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = x2 of the original function, so that
then gof(x) = g(f (x) ) = g(2x + 3) = (2x + 3)2 f -1(y) = x, when f(x) = y
and f(x) = y , when f -1(y) = x
The arrow diagram of two consecutive mappings, f
We can ind the composition of the functions f and
followed by g, denoted by gf is shown in the igure.
f -1 as follows:
Thus a single composite function gf(x) is equivalent (f -1 of)(x) = f -1(f (x)) = f -1(y) = x
to two successive functions f followed by g. and (fof -1)(y) = f (f -1(y)) = f(x) = y
We note that f -1 of and fof -1 are identity mappings on the domain and range of f and
Example 1: Let the real valued functions f and g be deined by f -1 respectively.
f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = x2 - 1
Obtain the expressions for (i) fg (x) (ii) gf (x) (iii) f2 (x) (iv) g2 (x) 1.3.3 Algebraic Method to ind the Inverse Function
The inverse function can be found by using the algebraic method as explained in the
following example:
14 15
Example 2: Let f : R " R be the function deined by So the value of f(x) = 2 + x - 1 varies over the interval [2, +T).
f(x) = 2x + 1. Find f -1(x) Therefore range f = [2, +T)
By deinition of inverse function f -1, we have
Remember that: domain f -1 = range f = [2, +T)
The change of name of variable in the deinition of function does not change that function and range f -1 = domain f = [1, +T)
where the domain and range coincide.
EXERCISE 1.2
Solution: We ind the inverse of f as follows:
Write f(x) = 2x + 1 = y 1. The real valued functions f and g are deined below. Find
So that y is the image of x under f. (a) fog (x) (b) gof (x) (c) fof (x) (d) gog (x)
Now solve this equation for x as follows:
, x ≠1
y = 2x +1 3
⇒ 2x = y - 1
(i) f(x) = 2x + 1 ; g (x) =
x -1
g (x) = 2 , x ≠ 0
y-1
1
⇒
(ii) f (x) = x +1 ;
x
x=
, x ≠1
2 1
∴ (y) = ( y - 1 ) ∴ x = f -1 (y) 
-1 1 (iii) f (x) = ; g(x) = (x2 + 1)2
f x -1
f(x) = 3x4 - 2x2 , x≠ 0

2
2
-1 (iv) ; g (x) =
To ind f (x), replace y by x. x
∴ f -1 (x) =
1 2. For the real valued function, f deined below, ind
(x - 1)
2 (a) f -1(x) (b) f -1(-1) and verify f (f -1 (x)) = f -1 f(x)) = x
Veriication: (i) f(x) = -2x + 8 (ii) f(x) = 3x3 + 7
f ( f -1 (x) ) = f  (x - 1)  = 2  (x - 1)  + 1 = x
1  1 
2x + 1
(iii) f(x) = (-x + 9)3 (iv)
2  2 
f (x) = ,x>1
x -1
f -1 ( f (x) ) = f -1 ( 2x + 1) = ( 2x + 1 - 1) = x
1 3. Without inding the inverse, state the domain and range of f -1.
and
, x ≠ -3
2
1
(i) (iii)
Without inding the inverse, state the domain and range of f -1, where
f (x) = x+2 f (x) =
Example 3: x+3
f (x) = 2 + x -1 (ii) f (x) =
x -1
, x≠ 4 (iv) f(x) = (x - 5)2 , x 8 5
x -4
Solution: We see that f is not deined when x < 1.
∴ Domain f = [1, +T)
As a varies over the interval [1, +T), the value of x - 1 varies over the interval [0, +T).
16 17
1.4.4 Concept of Limit of a Function

1.4 LIMIT OF A FUNCTION AND THEOREMS
ON LIMITS (i) By inding the area of circumscribing regular polygon
Consider a circle of unit radius which circumscribes a square (4-sided regular polygon)
The concept of limit of a function is the basis on which the structure of calculus rests.
as shown in igure (1).
Before the deinition of the limit of a function, it is essential to have a clear understanding of
The side of square is 2 and its area is 2 square unit. It is clear that the area of inscribed
the meaning of the following phrases:
4-sided polygon is less than the area of the circum-circle.
1.4.1 Meaning of the Phrase “x approaches zero”
Suppose a variable x assumes in succession a series of values as
1, 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 ,... i.e., 1, 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , ... , 1 ,...

2 4 8 16 2 22 23 24 2n
We notice that x is becoming smaller and smaller as n increases and can be made as small
as we please by taking n suiciently large. This unending decrease of x is symbolically written
as x " 0 and is read as “x approaches zero” or “x tends to zero”. Bisecting the arcs between the vertices of the square, we get an inscribed 8-sided
polygon as shown in igure 2. Its area is 2 2 square unit which is closer to the area of
Note: The symbol x " 0 is quite diferent from x = 0 circum-circle. A further similar bisection of the arcs gives an inscribed 16-sided polygon as
(i) x " 0 means that x is very close to zero but not actually zero. shown in igure (3) with area 3.061 square unit which is more closer to the area of circum-
(ii) x = 0 means that x is actually zero. circle.
It follows that as ‘n’ , the number of sides of the inscribed polygon
1.4.2 Meaning of the Phrase “x approaches ininity” increases, the area of polygon increases and becoming nearer to
3.142 which is the area of circle of unit radius i.e., pr 2
= p(1)2
Suppose a variable x assumes in succession a series of values as = p c 3.1 42.
1 ,10 ,100 ,1000 ,10000 .... i.e., 1,10,102,103.......,10n,... We express this situation by saying that the limiting value of the area o f the inscribed
It is clear that x is becoming larger and larger as n increases and can be made as large polygon is the area of the circle as n approaches ininity, i.e.,
as we please by taking n suiciently large. This unending increase of x is symbolically written Area of inscribed polygon " Area of circle
as “x "T” and is read as “x approaches ininity” or “x tends to ininity”. as n "T
Thus area of circle of unit radius = p = 3.142 (approx.)
1.4.3 Meaning of the Phrase “x approaches a” (ii) Numerical Approach
Consider the function f(x) = x3
Symbolically it is written as “x " a” which means that x is suiciently close to but diferent
from the number a, from both the left and right sides of a i.e; x - a becomes smaller and
The domain of f(x) is the set of all real numbers.
Let us ind the limit of f(x) = x3 as x approaches 2.
smaller as we please but x - a ≠ 0.
18 19
The table of values of f(x) for diferent values of x as x approaches 2 from left and Theorem 2: The limit of the diference of two functions is equal to the diference
of their limits.
Lim  f ( x ) - g ( x )  = Lim f ( x ) - Lim g ( x ) = L - M
right is as follows:
from left of 2 2 from right of 2
Lim ( x - 5 ) = Lim x - Lim 5 = 3 - 5 = - 2

x →a x →a x →a
x 1 1.5 1.8 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1 2.2 2.5 3
For example, x →3 x →3 x →3
3
f(x)=x 1 3.375 5.832 6.859 7.8806 7.988 7.9988 8.0012 8.012 8.1206 9.261 10.648 15.625 27
Theorem 3: If k is any real number, then
Lim  kf ( x )  = k Lim f ( x ) = kL
The table shows that, as x gets closer and closer to 2 (suiciently close to 2), from
Lim ( 3 x ) = 3 Lim (x ) = 3 (2 ) = 6
both sides, f(x) gets closer and closer to 8. x →a x →a
We say that 8 is the limit of f(x) when x approaches 2 and is written as: For example:
f ( x ) → 8 as x → 2
x →2 x →2
3
or lim ( x ) = 8
x →2
Theorem 4: The limit of the product of the functions is equal to the product of
1.4.5 Limit of a Function their limits.
Lim  f ( x ) g ( x )  =  Lim f ( x )   Lim g ( x )  = LM

Let a function f(x) be deined in an open interval near the number “a” (need not be x →a  x →a   x →a 
For example: Lim ( 2 x )( x + 4 ) =  Lim ( 2 x )   Lim ( x + 4 )  = ( 2 )( 5 ) =10
 x→1   x→1 
at a).
x →1
If, as x approaches “a” from both left and right side of “a”, f(x) approaches a speciic
number “L” then “L”, is called the limit of f(x) as x approaches a. Theorem 5: The limit of the quotient of the functions is equal to the quotient of
Symbolically it is written as:
Lim f ( x ) = L read as “limit of f(x), as x " a , is L”.
their limits provided the limit of the denominator is non-zero.
 f ( x )  Lim f ( x)
g ( x ) ≠ 0, M ≠ 0
x →a
Lim  
( ) ( )
x →a L
 
It is neither desirable nor practicable to ind the limit of a function by numerical = = ,
x →a g x Lim g x M
x →a
 3 x + 4  Lim
approach. We must be able to evaluate a limit in some mechanical way. The theorems on
Lim  =
(3 x + 4) 6 + 4 10
x →2
 x+3 
limits will serve this purpose. Their proofs will be discussed in higher classes. For example: = = =2
x →2 Lim (x + 3) 2+3 5
x →2
Limit of  f ( x )  , where n is an integer

1.4.6 Theorems on Limits of Functions
( )
n
Theorem 6:
Let f and g be two functions, for which Lim f ( x ) = L and Lim g ( x ) = M , then Lim  f ( x )  = Lim f ( x ) = Ln
n n
x →a x →a x →a x →a
Theorem 1: The limit of the sum of two functions is equal to the sum of their limits.
Lim  f ( x ) + g ( x )  = Lim f ( x ) + Lim g ( x ) = L + M
( )
Lim ( 2 x - 3) = Lim ( 2 x - 3) = (5)3 = 125
3
3
For example:
x →4 x →4
x →a x →a x →a
Lim ( x + 5 ) = Lim x + Lim 5 = 1 + 5 = 6

We conclude from the theorems on limits that limits are evaluated by merely
For example,
x →1 x →1 x →1
substituting the number that x approaches into the function.
20 21
Example : If P(x) = anxn + an-1 x n-1

+ .... + a1 x + a0 is a polynomial function of degree n, Case II: Suppose n is a negative integer (say n = -m) , where m is a
Lim P ( x ) = P ( c )
positive integer.
then show that
x →c
xn - a n x-m - a -m
Solution: Using the theorems on limits, we have Now =
-1  x m - a m 
x -a x -a
=
Lim P=
(x) Lim+ (an x n an-1 x +
n -1
+ .... = m m  (a ≠ 0)
x a  x -a 
a1 x + a0
x →c x →c
= an Lim x n + an-1 Lim x n-1 + .... + a1 Lim x + Lim a0  -1   x - a 

∴ Lim = Lim  m m   
x →c x →c x →c x →c
xn - a n m m
= an c n + an-1 c n-1 + .... + a1c + a0

x →a x -a x →a
 x a  x - a 
∴ Lim P(x) = P(c) -1
x →c
= m m
.( ma m-1 ), (By case 1)
a a
= -ma - m-1
1.5 LIMITS OF IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS
∴ Lim = na n-1 (n = - m)
xn - a n
0 x →a
If, by substituting the number that x approaches into the function, we get   , then we
x -a
0
evaluate the limit as follows:
+a a
→
We simplify the given function by using algebraic technique of making factors if possible 1.5.2 Lim =
and cancel the common factors. The method is explained in the following important limits.
0
By substituting x = 0, we have   form, so rationalizing the numerator.
0
xn - an
= na n-1 where n is an integer and a > 0  x + a - a  
x - a ∴
1.5.1
= Lim   
Lim
x →a x+a - a x +a + a
  a
Lim
x →0 x x →0 x x +a +
Case 1: Suppose n is a positive integer. x +a -a
= Lim
x →0 x(
0
x+a + a)
By substituting x = a , we get   form. So we make factors as follows:
0
x
xn - an = (x - a) (xn-1 + axn-2 + a2 xn-2 + .... + an-1)
= Lim
x →0 x( x+a + a)
xn - an (x - a ) ( ax n-1 + ax n-2 a 2 x n-3 + . . . . + a n-1 )

∴
1
x-a x-a
= Lim
x →0
Lim = Lim
x →a x →a
= Lim (x + ax + a x + .... + an-1) (polynomial function)

x+a + a
x →a
n-1 n-2 2 n-3 1 1
= =
= an-1 + a.an-2 + a2.an-3 + .... + an-1 a+ a 2 a
= an-1 + an-1 + an-1 + .... + an-1 (n terms)
= nan-1
22 23
Example 1: Evaluate (b) Limit as x " -T. This type of limits are handled in the same way as limits as x " +T.
i.e. = 0, where x ≠ 0
1
x2 - 1 x -3 Lim
(i) Lim 2 (ii) Lim x →-∞ x
x →1 x - x x →3 x- 3
The following theorem is useful for evaluating limit at ininity.
0
  form
2
x -1 Theorem: Let p be a positive rational number. If xp is deined, then
0
Solution: (i) Lim (By making factors)
x →1 x2 - x
a a
∴
Lim = 0 and Lim p = 0 ,where a is any real number.
x2 - 1 ( x - 1)( x + 1) x+1 1+1 x →+∞ p x →-∞ x
-5 -5
Lim 2 = Lim = Lim = =2 x
x →1 x - x x →1 x( x - 1) x →1 x 1
x -3 0
6
(By making factors of x - 3)
For example, Lim 3 = 0 , Lim = Lim 1/ 2 = 0
x →±∞ x x →-∞ x →-∞ x
  form
x - 3 0
(ii) Lim x
x →3
1 1
∴ Lim
and Lim = Lim =0
x -3 ( x + 3 )( x - 3) x →+∞ x →+∞
5 1
= Lim x
x →3 x- 3 x →3 x- 3 x5
= Lim ( x + 3)
x →3 1.5.4 Method for Evaluating the Limits at Ininity
= ( 3 + 3)
=2 3 In this case we irst divide each term of both the numerator and the denominator by
the highest power of x that appears in the denominator and then use the above theorem.
1.5.3 Limit at Ininity
5 x 4 - 10x 2 + 1
x →+∞ -3 x 3 + 10x 2 + 50
Example 2: Evaluate Lim
, when x " c (a number)
f(x)
We have studied the limits of the functions f(x), f(x) g(x) and
g(x)
Let us see what happens to the limit of the function f(x) if c is +T or -T (limits at ininity)
Solution: Dividing up and down by x3 , we get
i.e. when x " +T and x " -T. ∞-0+0

=∞
5 x 4 - 10x 2 + 1 5 x - 10/x + 1/x3
x →+∞ -3 3 + 10x 2 + 50 x →+∞ -3 + 10/x + 50/ 3 -3 + 0 + 0
Lim = Li =
(a) Limit as x " +T

4 x 4 - 5x 3
f (x) = , when x ≠ 0
Example 3: Evaluate Lim
1 x →-∞ 3 x 5 + 2x 2 + 1
Let
Since x < 0, so dividing up and down by (-x)5 = -x5,
x
Solution:
This function has the property that the value of f(x) can be made as close as we please we get
-4 / x + 5/x 2 0+0
to zero when the number x is suiciently large.
4 x 4 - 5x 3
=0 x →-∞ -3 - 2/x - 1/x -3 - 0 - 0
Lim = Lim = =0
x →-∞ 3 x + 2x + 1
1 5 2 3 5
We express this phenomenon by writing Lim
x →∞ x
24 25
Example 4: Evaluate
x →0
Deduction Lim (1 + x )1 / x = e
 1
2 - 3x 2 - 3x
We know that Lim 1 +  = e
(i) L im (ii) L im n
x →-∞ x →+∞
 n
2 2
3 + 4x 3 + 4x (i)
x →∞
Solution: (i) Here x 2 = x = -x as x < 0 1 1

put n = , then = x in (i)
∴ Dividing up and down by -x, we get

x n
-2/x + 3
When x → 0, n → ∞
2 - 3x 0+3 3
Lim = L im = =
x →-∞ x →-∞
 1
3 + 4x 2 3 / x2 + 4 0+4 2
Lim 1 +  = e
n
 n
(ii) Here x == x == --xx as
a xx > 0 As
∴
x →∞
∴ Lim (1 + x )
Dividing up and down by x, we get
1/ x
-3
=e
x →0
2 - 3x 2/x + 3 0-3
Lim = Lim = =
x →+∞ x →+∞
ax - 1
3 + 4x 2 3 / x2 + 4 0+4 2
1.5.6
x →0
Lim = loge a
 1
1 +
n x
x →+∞
 n 
1.5.5 Lim = e.
Put ax - 1 = y (i)
then ax = 1 + y
By the Binomial theorem, we have
So x = loga (1 + y)
 1 1 n( n - 1 )  1  n( n - 1 )( n - 2 )  1  when x " 0, y " 0
1 +  = 1 + n     +   +...
n 2 3 From (i)
 n n n n
+
1  1 1 1  2 
2! 3!
= 1 +1 + 1 -  + 1 - 1 -  + . . .
2!  n  3 !  n  n  ∴
x
a -1 y 1
Lim = Lim = Lim
x →0 y →0 log ( 1 + y) y →0
( )
x 1
when n 
→ ∞,
1 2 3
a log a ( 1 + y)
, , , . . . all tend to zero. y
 1
n n n 1 1
 Lim( 1 + y)1/ y = e
∴ L im 1 +  = 1 + 1 +
= Lim = = log a
y →0 log ( 1 + y) y →0
n
1 1 1 1 1 / y e
 n
+ + + +... a log a e
x →∞
2! 3! 4! 5!
= 1 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.166667 + 0.0416667 + ... = 2.718281 ...  ex - 1 
Deduction Lim   = loge e = 1.
x→0  x 
As approximate value of e is = 2.718281.
 1
∴ Lim 1 +  = e .
n
 n
x
a -1
x →+∞ We know that Lim = log e a (1)
x →0 x
26 27
Put a = e in (1), we have 1.5.7 The Sandwitch Theorem

ex - 1
Lim = log e e = 1. Let f, g and h be functions such that f(x) 7 g(x) 7 h(x) for all numbers x in some open
x →0 x
interval containing “c”, except possibly at c itself.
Important Results to Remember If Lim f (x) = L and Lim h(x) = L, then Lim g ( x) = L
x →c x →c x →c
 1 
Lim (e x ) = ∞ Lim (e x ) = Lim  - x  = 0,
e 
(i) (ii) Many limit problems arise that cannot be directly evaluated by algebraic techniques. They
x →∞ x →-∞ x →-∞
a
require geometric arguments, so we evaluate an important theorem.
Lim   = 0 , where a is any real number. sinq
x If q is measured in radian, then Lim
(iii)
q
x →±∞
1.5.8 =1
q →0
Proof: To evaluate this limit, we apply a new technique. Take q a positive acute central angle
Example 5: Express each limit in terms of the number ‘e’
 3
Lim 1 + 
of a circle with radius r = 1. As shown in the igure, OAB represents a sector of the circle.
2n 1
 n
(a) (b) Lim (1+2h) h
n→+∞ h →0
Given OA = OB = 1 (radii of unit circle)
∴ In rt ∆OCB, sinq =
Solution: (a) Observe the resemblance of the limit with BC
= BC (  OB = 1)
OB
 1
Lim 1 +  = e In rt ∆OAD, tanq =
n
 n
AD
n→∞ = AD (  OA = 1)
OA
    In terms of q, the areas are expressed as:

 3       
  Produce OB to D so that AD ⊥ OA. Draw BC ⊥ OA. Join AB
6 6
 1 +  =  1 +   =  1 +
n n
2n
3 3 1 3
 n  n  n / 3
   
Area of ∆OAB = OA BC = (1)(sinq ) = sinq
1 1 1
 put m = n/3 
(i)
 3  1   when n → ∞ ,
2 2 2
∴ Lim 1 +  = Lim 1 + 
6
 Area of sector OAB = r 2q = (1)(q ) = q

2n m
 n  
 m    m → ∞ 
= e6 1 1 1
n→+∞ m→+∞ (ii) (  r = 1)

2 2 2
Area of ∆OAD = OA AD = (1)(tanq ) = tanq
1 1 1
and (iii)
2 2 2
1
(b) Observe the resemblance of the limit with Lim (1 + x) = e , x
From the igure we see that
x →0
Area of ∆OAB < Area of sector OAB < Area of ∆OAD

 
∴ Lim (1 + 2h) = Lim (1 + 2h)  (put m = 2h, when h → 0, m → 0
2
q
1 1
  ⇒ sinq < < tanq

h 2h
h →0 h →0 1 1
  As sin q is positive, so on division by sin q, we get

2 2 2
= Lim (1 + m)  = e 2
2
1 1
 
m
m →0 2
28 29
EXERCISE 1.3
q  p
 q 
sinq cos q
1
 2
1< < 0 < <
sinq sinq
1. Evaluate each limit by using theorems of limits:
> cos q cos q < (ii) Lim (3x 2 - 2x + 4)
q q
i.e., 1> or <1 (i) Lim (2x + 4) (iii) Lim x2 + x + 4
x →3 x →1 x →3
when q " 0, cos q " 1
Sin q x2 - 4
2 x 3 + 5x
q
(iv) Lim (v) Lim ( x3 + 1 - x2 + 5 ) (vi) Lim
x →2 x →2 x →-2
Since is sandwitched between 1 and a quantity approaching 1 itself.
3x - 2
So, by the sandwitch theorem, it must also approach 1. 2. Evaluate each limit by using algebraic techniques.
sinq
x3 - x  3 x3 + 4x  x3 - 8
q (ii) Lim  2 
i.e., lim =1
q →0
x →2 x + x - 6
 x +x 
(i) Lim (iii) Lim 2
x →-1 x →0
Note: The same result holds for -p/2 < q < q
x+1
x 3 - 3 x 2 + 3x - 1  x3 + x 2  2x 2 - 32
sin 7q Lim  2 
x3 - x  x - 1 x - 4x 2
(iv) Lim (v) (vi) Lim 3
x →1 x →-1 x →4
q x- 2 x+h - x
Example 6: Evaluate: lim
q →0
sinq
xn - an
x - 2
(vii) Lim (viii) Lim (ix) Lim
x →2 h →0 x →a
q
Solution: Observe the resemblance of the limit with lim =1 h xm - am
q →0
Let x = 7q so that q = x/7
when q " 0 we have x " 0
3. Evaluate the following limits
1 - cos q
,
sin 7q
sin x 0
sinq
sin 7 x
∴
(i) Lim (ii) Lim (iii) Lim
x →0 q →0
q
x →0
sin x sin x
Lim = Lim = 7 Lim = (7)(1) = 7 x x
q →0 x →0 x/7 x →0 x
x →p p - x
sin x sina x x
1 - cos q
(iv) Lim (v) Lim (vi) Lim
x →0 sinbx x →0 tan x
Example 7: Evaluate: Lim

q →0 q 1 - cos 2 x 1 - cos x sin 2 q
1 - cos q 1 - cos q 1 + cos q q
(vii) Lim (viii) Lim (ix) Lim
x →0 x2 x →0 sin 2 x q →0
q q 1 + cos q sec x - cos x 1 - cos p q tanq - sinq

Solution: = .
q →0 1 - cos qq sin3 q
1 - cos 2 q sin 2 q  sinq 
(x) Lim (xi) Lim (xii) Lim
q →0

x →0
= sinq 
x
q (1 + cos q ) q (1 + cos q )  
 q  1 + cos q 
1
= =
1 - cos q sinq
4. Express each limit in terms of e:
∴ = lim sinq lim
q q q →0 1 + cos q
1
 1  1 2  1
lim lim
q →0 q →0 q →0
Lim 1 +  Lim 1 +  (iii) Lim 1 - 
n
2n n
 n  n  n
(i) (ii)
1 n→+∞ n→+∞ n→+∞
1+1
= (0)(1)( )
 1   4
(iv) Lim 1 +  Lim 1 +  (vi) Lim (1 + 3 x ) x
n n
2
 3n   n
= (0) (v)
n→+∞ n→+∞ x →0
30 31
(vii) Lim (1 + 2 x )  x 
(viii) Lim (1 - 2h )
Example 1: Determine whether Lim f ( x) and Lim f ( x) exist, when
x →2 x →4
(ix) Lim  
1 x
1
x →∞ 1 + x
 
2 x2
0≤ x ≤2
x →0 h →0
2 x + 1 if
h
e1/ x - 1 e1/ x - 1 
, x<0 , x>0 f ( x) = 7 - x if 2≤ x ≤4
+1 +1 
(x) Lim 1/ x (xi) Lim 1/ x
x →0 e x →0 e
 x if 4≤ x ≤6
Solution:
1.6 Continuous and Discontinuous Functions
(i) Lim- f ( x) = Lim- (2 x + 1) = 4 + 1 = 5
x →2 x →2
1.6.1 One-Sided Limits Lim+ f ( x) =Lim+ (7 - x) =7 - 2 = 5

x →2 x →2
=
Since Lim =
f ( x) Lim f ( x) 5
-
x →2 +
x →2
In deining Lim f ( x) , we restricted x to an open interval containing c i.e., we studied
x →c ⇒ Lim f ( x) exists and is equal to 5.
x →2
the behavior of f on both sides of c. However, in some cases it is necessary to investigate (ii) Lim- f ( x) =Lim- (7 - x) =7 - 4 = 3
x →4 x →4
Lim+= =
one-sided limits i.e., the left hand limit and the right hand limit.
f ( x) Lim ( x) 4
x →4 +
x →4
(i) The Left Hand Limit Since Lim- f ( x) ≠ Lim+ f ( x)

x →4 x →4
Lim f ( x) = L is read as the limit of f(x) is equal to L as x approaches c from the left i.e., Therefore Lim f ( x) does not exist.
x →4
x →c
for all x suiciently close to c, but less than c, the value of f(x) can be made as close as we We have seen that sometimes Lim f ( x) = f (c) and sometimes it does not and also sometimes
x →c
please to L.
f (c) is not even deined whereas Lim f ( x) exists.
x →c
(ii) The Right Hand Limit

1.6.3 Continuity of a function at a number
Lim f ( x) = M is read as the limit of f(x) is equal to M as x approaches c from the right
x →c
i.e., for all x suiciently close to c, but greater than c, the value of f(x) can be made as close as (a) Continuous Function
we please to M. A function f is said to be continuous at a number “c” if and only if the following three
conditions are satisied:
Note: The rules for calculating the left-hand and the right-hand limits are the same as
(i) f (c) is deined. (ii) Lim f ( x) exists, (iii) Lim f ( x) = f (c)
we studied to calculate limits in the preceding section. x →c x →c
(b) Discontinuous Function

1.6.2 Criterion for Existence of Limit of a Function
If one or more of these three conditions fail to hold at “c”, then the function f is said to
= = =
be discontinuous at “c”.
Lim f ( x) L if and only if Lim f ( x) Lim+ f ( x) L
x →c x →c
-
x →c
32 33
It is noted that there is no break in the graph. (See igure (i))

x2 - 1
x - 1 if x ≠ 3
Example 2: Consider the function f ( x ) = x2 - 9
(b) g( x ) =
x -3
Solution: Here f (1) is not deined
⇒
As g (x) is not deined at x = 3
⇒ g (x) is discontinuous at x = 3
f (x) is discontinuous at 1.
(See igure (ii)).
x2 - 1 It is noted that there is a break in the graph at x = 3
x - 1
Further Lim f ( x ) = lim = lim (x + 1) = 2 (finite)
x →1 x →1 x →1
Therefore f (x) is continuous at any other number x ≠ 1 Example 5: Discuss continuity of f at 3,
For f (x) = 3x2 - 5x + 4, discuss continuity of f at x = 1 x - 1 , x < 3

when f ( x) = 
Example 3: if
2 x + 1 , if 3 ≤ x
Solution: Lim f ( x) =Lim (3 x 2 - 5x + 4)
- =3 =
5+4 2.
x →1 x →1 A sketch of the graph of f is shown in the igure (iii).
and f(1) = 3 - 5 + 4 = 2
Solution:
We see that there is a break in the graph at the point when x = 3
⇒ Now f (3) = 2(3) + 1 = 7
⇒ Condition (i) is satisied.
Lim f ( x) = f (1)
x →1
∴ f (x) is continuous at x = 1
Lim- f ( x) = Lim- f ( x - 1) = 3 - 1 = 2
x →3 x →3
Lim+ f ( x) = Lim+ f (2 x + 1) =6 + 1=7

Example 4: Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) and g (x) at x = 3.
x →3 x →3
Lim f ( x)≠≠ Lim

 x2 - 9

 if x ≠ 3
f ( x)
→
x →3-
-
→
x →3
+ +
f(x) =  x -3 g( x) = if x ≠ 3
2
x -9 i.e. condition (ii) is not satisied
 6 if x = 3
(a) (b)
 ∴
x -3
Lim f ( x) does not exist
x →3
Solution: (a) Given f (3) = 6
∴ the function f is deined at x = 3.
Hence f(x) is not continuous at x = 3
x2 - 9 EXERCISE 1.4
Now Lim f( x ) = Lim
x →3 x →3
( x + 3)( x - 3)
x -3
1. Determine the left hand limit and the right hand limit and then, ind the limit of the
following functions when x " c
= Lim
= Lim ( x + 3) = 6
x →3 x -3
x →3
x2 - 9
f(x) = 2x + x - 5, c = 1 , c = -3
x - 3
2
(i) (ii) f( x ) =
f( x ) = x - 5 ,
As Lim f( x ) = 6 = f( 3 )
x →3
∴ f (x) is continuous at x = 3 (iii) c=5
34 35
2. Discuss the continuity of f(x) at x = c: 1.7 Graphs
2 x + 5 if x ≤ 2

We now learn the method to draw the graphs of the Explicit Functions like y = f(x) ,
f ( x) = 
4 x + 1 if
(i) ,c =2 where f(x) = ax, ex, loga x , and loge x.
 x 2
3 x - 1 if x < 1 1.7.1 Graph of the Exponential Function f(x) = ax

f ( x) = 

(ii) 4 if x = 1, c = 1
 2 x if x > 1 Let us draw the graph of y = 2x, here a = 2.
We prepare the following table for diferent values of x and f(x) near the origin:
-4 -3 -2 -1
 if x ≤ - 2
x 0 1 2 3 4
 2
3x
If f ( x) =  x - 1 if - 2 < x < 2
x
y = f(x) = 2 0.0625 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 16

3.
 if x ≥ 2
Discuss continuity at x = 2 and x = -2
3 Plotting the points (x, y) and joining them with smooth
curve as shown in the igure, we get the graph of y = 2x.
From the graph of 2x the characteristics of the graph
x + 2 , x ≤ -1
of y = ax are observed as follows:

If f ( x) = 
If a > 1, (i) ax is always +ve for all real values of x.

4. , find "c" so that Lim f ( x) exists.
x →-1
c + 2 , x > -1
(ii) ax increases as x increases.
(iii) ax = 1 when x = 0
(iv) ax " 0 as x "-T
5. Find the values m and n, so that given function f is continuous
at x = 3.
1.7.2 Graph of the Exponential Function f(x) = ex

 mx x < 3
 mx if x < 3
if
(i) f ( x) =  n x = 3 (ii) f ( x) =  2
-2 x + 9 if  x if x ≥ 3
if
 x > 3 As the approximate value of ‘e’ is 2.718
The graph of ex has the same
characteristics and properties as that of ax when
 2x + 5 - x + 7
 , x≠ 2
a > 1 (discussed above).
If f ( x ) = 

6. We prepare the table of some values of x and f(x)
, x=2
x -2
 k near the origin as follows:
Find value of k so that f is continuous at x = 2.
36 37
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 1.7.5 Graphs of Implicit Functions

x
y = f(x) = e 0.05 0.135 0.36 1 2.718 7.38 20.07
Plotting the points (x, y) and joining them with smooth curve as shown, we get the (a) Graph of the circle of the form x2 + y2 = a2
graph of y = ex.
Example 1: Graph the circle x2 + y2 = 4 (1)
1.7.3 Graph of Common Logarithmic Function f(x) = lg x.
Solution: The graph of the equation x2 + y2 = 4 is a circle of radius 2, centered at the
If x = 10y, then y = lg x origin and hence there are vertical lines that cut the graph more than once. This can also be
Now for all real values of y, 10y > 0 ⇒ x > 0 seen algebraically by solving (1) for y in terms of x.
This means lg x exists only when x > 0 y = ± 4 - x2
⇒ Domain of the lg x is +ve real numbers. The equation does not deine y as a function of x.
For example, if x = 1, then y = ± 3 .
Hence ( (1, 3) ) and ( (1, - 3) ) are two points on the circle and vertical line passes through
Note: lg x is undeined at x = 0.
these two points.

For graph of f(x) = lg x, we ind the values of lg x from
We can regard the circle as the union of two semi-circles.
y = 4 - x 2 and y = - 4 - x 2
the common logarithmic table for various values of x > 0.
Table of some of the corresponding values of x and f(x) is as under: Each of which deines y as a function of x.
x "0 0.1 1 2 4 6 8 10 "+T
y = f(x) = lg x "-T -1 0 0.30 0.60 0.77 0.90 1 "+T
Plotting the points (x, y) and joining them with a smooth curve we get the graph as
shown in the igure.
1.7.4 Graphs of Natural Logarithmic

We observe that if we replace (x, y) in turn by (-x, y), (x, -y) and (-x, -y), there is no
Function f(x) = In x:
change in the given equation. Hence the graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, x-axis
The graph of f(x) = In x has similar properties as that
and the origin.
y2 = 4 ⇒ y = ±2
of the graph of f(x) = lg x.
x = 0 implies
y2 = 3 ⇒ y = ± 3
By using the table of natural logarithm for various values
x = 1 implies
y2 = 0 ⇒ y = 0
of x, we get the graph of y = In x as shown in the igure.
x = 2 implies
By assigning values of x, we ind the values of y. So we prepare a table for some values
of x and y satisfying equation (1).
38 39
Solution: For the choice of t in [-2, 2], we prepare a table for

x 0 1 2 -1 - -2 some values of x and y satisfying the given equation.
-2 -1
3 3
± 3 ± 3
t 0 1 2
y ±2 ±1 0 ±1 0
x 4 1 0 1 4
-2 -1
Plotting the points (x , y) and connecting them with a smooth curve as shown in the
y 0 1 2
igure, we get the graph of a circle.
We plot the points (x, y) , connecting these
x2 y2 points with a smooth curve shown in igure, we
(b) The graph of ellipse of the form 2 + 2 = 1 obtain the graph of a parabola with equation
a b
y2 = x.
1.7.6 Graphs of Discontinuous Functions

2 2
Example 2: Graph x 2 + y2 = 1 i.e., 9x2 + 4y2 = 36
2 3
x when 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
Graph the function deined by y = 
 x - 1 when 1 < x ≤ 2
Solution: We observe that if we replace (x, y) in turn by (-x, y),
(x,- y) and (-x, -y) , there is no change in the given equation. Hence the
Example 1:
graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, x-axis and the origin.
x2 = 4 ⇒ x = ±2
Solution: The domain of the function is 0 7 x 7 2
y = 0 implies
y2 = 9 ⇒ y = ±3
For 0 7 x 7 1, the graph of the function is that of y = x
x = 0 implies and for 1 < x 7 2 , the graph of the function is that of y = x - 1
Therefore x-intercepts are 2 and -2 and y-intercepts are 3 and -3 We prepare the table for some values of x and y in 0 7 x 7 2 satisfying the equations y
By assigning values of x, we ind the values of y. So we prepare = x and y = x - 1
a table for some values of x and y satisfying equation (1). x 0 0.5 0.8 1 1.5 1.8 2
y 0 0.5 0.8 1 0.5 0.8 1
x 0 1 2 -1 -2
± ±
y ±3 27 0 27 0
4 4
Ploting the points (x, y), connecting these points with a smooth curve as shown in the
igure, we get the graph of an ellipse.
1.7.5 Graph of parametric Equations
(a) Graph the curve that has the parametric equations

x = t2 , y = t -2 7 t 7 2 (3)
40 41
Plot the points (x, y). Connecting these points we get two straight lines, which is the Scale for graphs
graph of a discontinuous function. p
x2 - 9
Along x-axis, length of side o f small square = radian
, x≠3
6
x - 3
Example 2: Graph the function deined by y = Along y-axis, length of side of small square = 0.1 unit
Two points (0, 0) and ( (p/3,1) lie on the line y = x
Solution: The domain of the function consists of all real numbers except 3.
We prepare a table for some values of x and y in the interval -p 7 x 7 p it satisfying the
0
When x = 3, both the numerator and denominator are zero, and is undeined. equation y = cos x.
x 2 - 9 ( x - 3)( x + 3)
0
= x + 3 provided x ≠ 3 . -p -5p/6 -2p/3 -p/2 -p/3 -p/6 0 p/6 p/3 p/2 2p/3 5p/6 p
x - 3 x - 3
Simplifying we get y = = x
y = cos x -1 -.87 -.5 0 -.5 .87 1 .87 .5 0 -.5 -.87 -1
We prepare a table for diferent values of x and y satisfy the equation y = x + 3 and x ≠ 3.
X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 2.9 3 3.1 4
Y 0 1 2 3 4 5 5.9 6 6.1 7
Plot the points (x, y) and joining these points we get

the graph of the function which is a straight line except the
point (3, 6).
The graph is shown in the igure. This is a broken

straight line with a break at the point (3, 6).
1.7.7 Graphical Solution of the Equations
(i) cos x = x (ii) sin x = x (iii) tan x = x

We solve the equation cos x = x and leave the other two equations as an exercise for The graph shows that the equations y = x and y = cos x intersect at only where
p radian = 0.73
the students.
43
x=
180
Solution: To ind the solution of the equation cos x = x,
 43 
Check: cos  p  = cos 43o = 0.73
we draw the graphs of the two functions
y = x and y = cos x : -p 7 x 7 p  180 
42 43
1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
1. Functions and Limits eLearn.Punjab
Note: Since the scales along the two axes are diferent so the line y = x is not equally
inclined to both the axes.
EXERCISE 1.5
1. Draw the graphs of the following equations
2 2
x2 y2
(i) x +y =9 (ii) + =1
16 4
(iii) y = e2x (iv) y = 3x

2. Graph the curves that has the parametric equations given below
(i) x = t , y = t2 , -3 7 t 7 3 where “t” is a parameter
(ii) x = t -1 , y = 2t -1, -1 < t < 5 where “t” is a parameter
(iii) x = sec q , y = tan q where “q” is a parameter
3. Draw the graphs of the functions deined below and ind whether they are continuous.
 x - 1 if x < 3
y=
2x + 1 if x ≥ 3
(i)
x2 - 4
x ≠ 2
x-2
(ii) y=
x + 3 if x ≠ 3
y=
 2
(iii)
if x = 3
x 2 - 16
x ≠ 4
x-4
(iv) y=
4. Find the graphical solution of the following equations:

(i) x = sin 2 x
= cos x
x
(ii)
2
(iii) 2 x = tan x
version: 1.1
44

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version: 1.

1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

Animation 1.1: Function Machine

1.1.3 Notation and Value of a Function

1.1.1 Concept of Function

Given f(x) = x3 - 2x2 + 4x - 1, ind

Solution: f(x) = x3 - 2x2 + 4x - 1

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

Explanation is given in the igure.

Example 2: Let f(x) = x2. Find the domain and range of f.

Solution: f(x) is deined for every real number x.

x Method to draw the graph:

Solution: At x = 2 and x = -2, f(x) = 2

Let f(x) = x2 - 9 . Find the domain and range of f.

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

(i) Polynomial Function

1.2 TYPES OF FUNCTIONS (v) Rational Function

(i) y = sin x, Domain = R, Range -1 7 y 7 1. 1.2.6 Hyperbolic Functions

y = sin -1 x ⇔ x = sin y, where -

1.2.10 Even Function and e x + e- x (2)

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

∴ cosh 2 x + sinh 2 x = cosh 2x

(i) What is the height of the stone when:.

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

f(x) = 3x4 - 2x2 , x≠ 0

1.4.4 Concept of Limit of a Function

1.4.1 Meaning of the Phrase “x approaches zero”

Suppose a variable x assumes in succession a series of values as

1, 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 ,... i.e., 1, 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , ... , 1 ,...

Lim ( x - 5 ) = Lim x - Lim 5 = 3 - 5 = - 2

Lim  f ( x ) g ( x )  =  Lim f ( x )   Lim g ( x )  = LM

Limit of  f ( x )  , where n is an integer

Lim ( x + 5 ) = Lim x + Lim 5 = 1 + 5 = 6

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

Example : If P(x) = anxn + an-1 x n-1

= an Lim x n + an-1 Lim x n-1 + .... + a1 Lim x + Lim a0  -1   x - a 

= an c n + an-1 c n-1 + .... + a1c + a0

xn - an (x - a ) ( ax n-1 + ax n-2 a 2 x n-3 + . . . . + a n-1 )

= Lim (x + ax + a x + .... + an-1) (polynomial function)

i.e. when x " +T and x " -T. ∞-0+0

(a) Limit as x " +T

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

Solution: (i) Here x 2 = x = -x as x < 0 1 1

∴ Dividing up and down by -x, we get

Put a = e in (1), we have 1.5.7 The Sandwitch Theorem

    In terms of q, the areas are expressed as:

 Area of sector OAB = r 2q = (1)(q ) = q

Area of ∆OAB < Area of sector OAB < Area of ∆OAD

  ⇒ sinq < < tanq

  As sin q is positive, so on division by sin q, we get

Example 7: Evaluate: Lim

q q 1 + cos q sec x - cos x 1 - cos p q tanq - sinq

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

1.6.1 One-Sided Limits Lim+ f ( x) =Lim+ (7 - x) =7 - 2 = 5

(i) The Left Hand Limit Since Lim- f ( x) ≠ Lim+ f ( x)

(ii) The Right Hand Limit

(b) Discontinuous Function

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

It is noted that there is no break in the graph. (See igure (i))