Aksum University

InstituteTechnology
Faculity of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Department of Electronic Communication

Microwave Devices & Systems

Chapter-V
Active Microwave Devices and
Networks

Group member Id number

1. AMENU HAILE ……………………………………………0900581
2. TEKEBA ALEMU…………………………………………….0904974
3.H.MARIAM FEKADU……………………………………………………………………………0902766
4.ASFAW TILAHUN…………………………………………..0900718
5.TESFAYE BERIHUN…………………………………………..0905117
6.AYEHU GASHU …………………………………………….0900877

Reference

Yonas Desta (Lecturer)

Microwave Devices and Circuits
 5 IMPEDANCE MATCHING
Impedance matching is very desirable with radio frequency (RF) transmission lines.
Standing waves lead to increased losses and frequently cause the transmitter to malfunction.
A line terminated in its characteristic impedance has a standing-wave ratio
of unity and transmits a given power without reflection. Also, transmission
efficiency is optimum where there is no reflected power. A "flat" line is non resonant; that is,
its input impedance always remains at the same value Zo when the frequency changes.
Matching a transmission line has a special meaning, one differing from that
used in circuit theory to indicate equal impedance seen looking both directions from
a given terminal pair for maximum power transfer. In circuit theory, maximum
power transfer requires the load impedance to be equal to the complex conjugate of
the generator. This condition is sometimes referred to as a conjugate match. In transmission-
line problems matching means simply terminating the line in its characteristic impedance.
A common application of RF transmission lines is the one in which there is a feeder
connection between a transmitter and an antenna. Usually the input impedance to the antenna
itself is not equal to the characteristic impedance of the line.
Furthermore, the output impedance of the transmitter may not be equal to the Zo of
the line. Matching devices are necessary to flatten the line. A complete matched
transmission-line system is shown in Fig. 1

Figer 1 Matched transmission-line system.

For a low-loss or lossless transmission line at radio frequency, the characteristic impedance
Zo of the line is resistive. At every point the impedances looking in opposite directions are
conjugate. If Zo is real, it is its own conjugate. Matching can be tried first on the load side to
flatten the line; then adjustment may be made on the transmitter side to provide maximum
power transfer. At audio frequencies an iron cored transformer is almost universally used as
an impedance-matching device.
Occasionally an iron-cored transformer is also used at radio frequencies. In a practical
transmission-line system, the transmitter is ordinarily matched to the coaxial
cable for maximum power transfer. Because of the variable loads, however, an
impedance-matching technique is often required at the load side.

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Since the matching problems involve parallel connections on the transmission line, it is
necessary to work out the problems with admittances rather than impedances. The Smith
chart itself can be used as a computer to convert the normalized impedance to admittance by
a rotation of 180°

5.1 Single-Stub Matching

Although single-lumped inductors or capacitors can match the transmission line, it is
more common to use the susceptive properties of short-circuited sections of transmission
lines. Short-circuited sections are preferable to open-circuited ones because a good short
circuit is easier to obtain than a good open circuit.
For a lossless line with maximum power transfer requires Y11 = Yo,
where Y11 is the total admittance of the line and stub looking to the right at point 1-1
(see Fig. 1). The stub must be located at that point on the line where the real part of the
admittance, looking toward the load, is Yo. In a normalized unit Y11 must be in the form

Y11 = Yd ± Ys = 1

Figure 1 Single-stub matching

if the stub has the same characteristic impedance as that of the line. Otherwise

The stub length is then adjusted so that its susceptance just

cancels out the susceptance of the line at the junction.

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5.2 Double-Stub Matching
Since single-stub matching is sometimes impractical because the stub cannot be
placed physically in the ideal location, double-stub matching is needed. Double-stub
devices consist of two short-circuited stubs connected in parallel with a fixed length
between them. The length of the fixed section is usually one-eighth, three-eighths,
or five-eighths of a wavelength. The stub that is nearest the load is used to adjust the
susceptance and is located at a fixed wavelength from the constant conductance
unity circle on an appropriate constant-standing-wave-ratio circle. Then the
admittance of the line at the second stub as shown in Fig. 2 is

Y22 = Yd'l ± Ys2 = 1

Y22 = yd'2 ± Ys2 = Yo
In these two equations it is assumed that the stubs and the main line have the same
characteristic admittance. If the positions and lengths of the stubs are chosen properly, there
will be no standing wave on the line to the left of the second stub measured from the load.

ZQ = 100 + jlOO

Figure 2 Double-stub matching

SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS

 Is a convenient technique to represent and analyze the transmission and reflection of waves
in a microwave amplifier. (useful for the analysis of microwave networks in terms of
transmitted and reflected waves. )
 Once the signal flow graph is developed, relations b/n the variables can be obtained using
Masons rule
 The flow graph technique permits expressions, such as power gains and voltage gains of

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complex microwave amplifiers, to be easily derived.
 We have seen how transmitted and reflected waves can be represented by
scattering parameters, and how the interconnection of sources, networks, and
loads can be treated with various matrix representations.
 We first discuss the features and the construction of the flow graph itself, and
then present a technique for the reduction, or solution, of the flow graph

 The primary components of a signal flow graph are nodes and branches:
Nodes:
 Each port i of a microwave network has two nodes, 𝑎𝑖 and 𝑏𝑖.(where i= 1,2,3......)
 Node 𝑎𝑖 is identified with a wave entering port i, while node 𝑏𝑖 is identified with a wave
reflected from port i.
 The voltage at a node is equal to the sum of all signals entering that node.
Branches:
 A branch is a directed path between two nodes representing signal flow from one node to
another. Every branch has an associated scattering parameter or reflection coefficient.
 Certain rules are followed in constructing a signal flow graph
1. Each variable is designated as anode
2. The S parameters and reflection coefficients are represented by branches
3. Branches enter dependent variable nodes and emanate from independent variable nodes.
The independent variable nodes are the incident waves and reflected waves are dependent
variable nodes
4. A node is equal to the sum of the branches entering it.

Fig(3) Definition of incident and reflected waves.

Fig (4) Signal flow graph of two port ntk

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𝑏1 = 𝑆11𝑎1 + 𝑆12𝑎2 (entering to node 𝑏1)
𝑏2 = 𝑆21𝑎1 + 𝑆22𝑎2 (entering to node 𝑏2)
 At this point it is useful to consider the flow graph of an arbitrary two-port network,
as shown in Fiure (3) shows a two-port network with incident and reflected waves at
each port, and Figure (4) shows the corresponding signal flow graph representation.
 The flow graph gives an intuitive graphical illustration of the network behavior.

Application of Signal Flow Graphs

Application to Thru-Reflect-Lin Network Analyzer Calibration
• As a further application of signal flow graphs we consider the calibration of a network
analyzer using the Thru-Reflect-Line (TRL) technique
• It is used intended to measure the scattering parameters of a two-port device

Fig(5):A terminated two-port network

Fig(6) :Signal flow graph for the two-port network with general source and load impedances
of Figure (5)

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 Decompositions of the flow graph of Figure (6) to find 𝛤𝑖𝑛 = 𝑏1/𝑎1 and 𝛤𝑜𝑢𝑡=𝑏2/𝑎2

MICROWAVE ‘O’ TYPE TUBES

INTRODUCTION
• The conventional vacuum tubes such as triodes, tetrodes, and pentodes are used as
signal sources of low output power at low microwave frequencies.
• But because of there limitations , these are less useful as signal sources for frequencies
above 1GHz and are completely replaced by Linear-beam tubes(O type) .
Limitations of conventional vacuum tubes are,
Lead-Inductance and Inter-electrode Capacitance effects
 Transit-angle effects
 Gain-bandwidth product limitation
Lead-Inductance and Inter-electrode capacitance effects
– At frequencies above 1 GHz conventional vacuum tubes are impaired by
parasitic circuit reactances because the circuit capacitances between tube
electrodes and the circuit inductance of the lead wire are too large for a
microwave resonant circuit.
– As the frequency is increased up to microwave range ,the real part of the input
admittance may be large enough to cause a serious overload of the input
circuit and there by reducing the operating efficiency of the tube.

 The grid potential during the negative half cycle thus removes energy that was given to the
electron during the positive half cycle , consequently the electron may oscillate back and
forth in the cathode grid space or return to the cathode.

 The overall result of transit angle effects is to reduce the operating efficiency of the vacuum
tube.
 The degenerate effect becomes more serious when the frequencies are well above 1GHz.
Once the electrons pass the grid , they are quickly accelerated to the anode by the high plate
voltage.

Gain bandwidth product limitation

• In ordinary vacuum tube the maximum gain is generally achieved by resonating the output
circuit.
• For any given tube , a higher gain can be achieved only at the expense of narrower
bandwidth.
• In microwave devices either reentrant cavities or slow wave structures are used to obtain a
possible overall high gain over a broad bandwidth

Linear-Beam Tubes (O type)

• The limitations of conventional vacuum tubes made them to be replaced by present
day microwave tubes called as Linear-beam tubes(O type).
• In a linear-beam tube a magnetic field whose axis coincides with that of the electron beam

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is used to hold the beam together as it travels the length of the tube.
• In these tubes electron receives potential energy from the DC beam voltage before
they arrive in the microwave interaction region, and this energy is converted into their kinetic
energy.
• In the microwave interaction region the electrons are either accelerated or decelerated by the
microwave field and then bunched as they drift down the tube.
The bunched electrons, in turn induce current in the output structure. The electrons then give
up their kinetic energy to the microwave fields and are collected by the collector.
• O-type Travelling tubes are suitable for amplification
Classification of different O-type tubes is ,

Two-Cavity Klystron
• A Two-cavity klystron is a vacuum tube that can be used either as a generator or as
an amplifier of power, at microwave frequencies.
• It operates by the principle of velocity and current modulation.
• The schematic diagram of a two cavity klystron amplifier is,

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The maximum bunching should occur approximately midway between the second
cavity grids during its retarding phase; thus the kinetic energy is transferred from the
electrons to the field of the second cavity.
The electrons then emerge from the second cavity with reduced velocity and finally
terminate at the collector.
The characteristics of a two-cavity klystron amplifier are as follows:
1. Efficiency: about 40%.
2. Power output: average power (CW power) is up to 500 kW and pulsed power is up to 30
MW at 10 GHz.
3. Power gain: about 30 dB.

The other view of two-cavity klystron amplifier is,

Working Principle:
• It operates by the principle of velocity and current modulation.
• It consists of two cavities as shown in the figure,
• The cavity close to the cathode is known as buncher cavity or input cavity, which velocity
modulates the electron beam.

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• The other cavity is known as catcher cavity or output cavity, it catches energy from the
bunched electron beam.

 All electrons injected from cathode arrive at the first cavity with uniform velocity.
Those electrons passing the first cavity gap at zeros of the gap voltage (or signal voltage) pass
through with unchanged velocity.
 Those passing through the positive half cycle of the gap voltage undergo an increase in
velocity. Those passing through the negative half cycle of the gap voltage undergo a decrease
in velocity.
 As a result of these actions, electrons gradually bunch together as they travel down the drift
space. This variation of electron velocity in the drift space is known as velocity modulation.
 The density of electrons in the second cavity varies cyclically with time. The electron beam
contains an AC component and is said to be current modulated.
 The maximum bunching should occur approximately midway between the second cavity
grids during its retarding phase, thus the kinetic energy is transferred from the electrons to the
field of the second cavity.
 The electrons then emerge from the second cavity with the reduced velocity and finally
terminates at the collector.

• The quantitative analysis of a two-cavity klystron can be described in four parts i.e.
reentrant cavities , Velocity modulation process , Bunching process and Output power and
beam loading, with the following assumptions
1.The electron beam is assumed to have a uniform density in the cross section of the beam
2.Space- charge effects are negligible.
3. The magnitude of the microwave signal input is assumed to be much smaller than the dc
accelerating voltage.

Reentrant Cavities
• At a frequency well below the microwave range , the cavity resonator can be represented by
a lumped-constant resonant circuit.
• when the operating frequency is increased to several tens of megahertz , both the inductance
and the capacitance must be reduced to a minimum in order to maintain resonance at the
operating frequency. The inductance is reduced to minimum by short wire.

• There fore the reentrant cavities are designed for use

in klystrons and microwave
triodes.
• A reentrant cavity is one in which the metallic boundaries extend into the interior of the
cavity.
• Several types of reentrant cavities are available. One of the commonly used reentrant cavity
is the coaxial cavity. The various cavities are shown in the following figure,

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Velocity-modulation process

HELIX TRAVELING-WAVE TUBES(HTWT’S)

TRAVELING WAVE TUBE(TWT)
• The traveling wave tube is a form of thermionic valve or tube that is used for high
power microwave amplifier designs.
• The travelling wave tube can be used for wideband RF amplifier designs where even now it
performs well against devices using newer technologies.
• TWTs are used in applications including broadcasting, radar and in satellite transponders.
• The TWT is still widely used despite the fact that semiconductor technology is advancing

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all the time.
• Two types of TWT’s are available
• Low power TWT
• High power TWT

• Low-power TWT for receivers

– occurs as a highly sensitive, low-noise and wideband amplifier in radar equipments

• High-power TWT for transmitters

– These are in use as a pre-amplifier for high-power transmitters

Differences Between TWT and Klystrons:

- The microwave circuit is non-resonant in TWT , while resonant circuits are used in
klystrons.
- The interaction of electron beam and RF field in the TWT is continuous over the entire
length of the circuit , but the interaction in the klystron occurs only at the gaps of a few
resonant cavities.
- The wave in the TWT is a propagating wave , The wave in the klystron is not.
- In the couple cavity TWT there is coupling effect between the cavities, whereas each cavity
in the klystron operates independently.

HELIX TWT CONSTRUCTION

• The Helix Travelling wave tube(TWT) , can be split into a number of separate
major elements:

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  Vacuum tube(1)
 Electron gun(2)
 Magnet and (3)
 focusing structure(4)
 RF input(5)
 Helix(6)
 RF output(7)
 Collector(8)

The detailed diagram of Helix TWT can be viewed as,

The simplified circuit is,

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Working Operation:
 A Helix twt consists of an electron Gun and a Slow wave structure.
 First element-Electron gun comprising primarily of a heated cathode and grids. This
produces and then accelerates a beam of electrons that travels along the length of the tube.
 The electron beam is focused by a constant magnetic field along the electron beam and the
slow wave structure. This is termed as O-type traveling tube.

 The slow wave structure is either the helical type or folded-Back line. A helix is an
essential part of the traveling wave tube. It acts as a delay line, in which the RF signal travels
at near the same speed along the tube as the electron beam.
 The applied signal propagates around the turns of the helix and produces an electric field at
the center of the helix , directed along the helix axis.
 The axial electric field progresses with a velocity that is very close to the light multiplied by
the ratio of helix pitch to helix circumference.
 When the electrons enter the helix tube , an interaction takes place between the moving
axial electric field and the moving electrons.
 On the average , the electrons transfer energy to the wave on the helix. This interaction
cause the signal wave on the helix to become larger.
 Amplification process : The electrons entering the helix at zero field are not affected by the
signal wave , those electrons entering the helix at the accelerating field are accelerated and
those entering the helix at the retarding field are decelerated .
 As the electrons travel further along the helix , they begin forming bunch centered about
those electrons that enter the helix during the zero field and collected at the collector end .The
bunching shifts the phase by π/2,
 Since the dc velocity of electrons is slightly greater than the axial wave velocity, more
electrons are in the retarding field than in the accelerating field. And a great amount of
energy is transferred from the beam to the electromagnetic field . The amplification of the
signal wave is accomplished.
 The bunch becomes more compact and a larger amplification of the signal voltage occurs at
the end of the helix.
 The magnet produces an axial magnetic field to prevent spreading of the electron beam as it

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travels down the tube.
 An attenuator placed near the center of the helix reduces all the waves traveling along the
helix to nearly zero so that the reflected waves from the mismatched loads can be prevented
from reaching the input and causing oscillation.

 The bunched electrons emerging from the attenuator induce a new electric field
with the same frequency. This field in turn induces a new amplified microwave signal on the
helix.
 Amplified helix signal can be viewed as,

CROSSED-FIELD TUBES (M-TYPE TUBES)

Introduction
• In linear beam tubes like Klystron or Travelling wave tube (TWT) , the dc Magnetic
field parallel to the dc Electric field is used to focus the electron beam .
• Crossed-field tubes derive their name from the fact that the dc magnetic field is
perpendicular to the dc electric field . In this tubes, the dc magnetic field plays a direct role in
the RF interaction process.These tubes are also called M-Type tubes.
• In a crossed-field tube, the electrons emitted by the cathode are accelerated by the electric
field and gain velocity , but the greater their velocity , the more their path is bent by the
magnetic field.
Cross-Field Effect:
• In a crossed-field tube, the electrons emitted by the cathode are accelerated by
the electric field and gain velocity , but the greater their velocity , the more their
path is bent by the magnetic field.
• If an RF field is applied to the circuit , those electrons entering the circuit during retarding
field are decelerated and give up some of their kinetic energy to the RF field. Consequently ,
their velocity is decreased and these slower electrons will then travel the dc electric field far
enough to regain essentially the same velocity as before.

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• Because of crossed-field interactions, only those electrons that have given up
sufficient energy to the RF field can travel all the way to the anode. This
phenomenon would make the M-type devices relatively efficient.
• Those electrons entering the circuit during the accelerating field are accelerated by means of
receiving enough energy from the RF field and are returned back towards the cathode. This
back bombardment of the cathode produces heat in the cathode and decreases the operational
efficiency.

There are difefrent classification of crossed-field tubes as shown belew. But we will see
magnetron as an example

The classification of crossed-field tubes is,

Magnetron Oscillators
 Hull invented magnetron, but it was only on interesting laboratory device.
 During the world war II an urgent need for high power microwave generators for
RADARtransmitters led to the rapid development of Magnetron
 Magnetrons provide microwave oscillations of very high frequency
 All magnetrons consists of some form of anode & cathode operated in dc Magnetic field
between cathode & anode.
 Because of cross field between cathode & anode , the electrons emitted from cathode are
influenced by the cross field to move in a curved path.
 If the dc magnetic field is strong enough the electrons will not arrive at in the anode but
return to the cathode, consequently anode current is cutoff.

Magnetrons can be classified in to three types as follows,

1. Negative resistance Magnetrons or Split-Anode Magnetron :

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 Make use of static negative resistance between two anode segments. Low efficiency and are
useful only at low frequencies (< 500 MHz).
2.Cyclotron-frequency Magnetrons :
 Operates under the influence of synchronism between an alternating component of electric
field and periodic oscillation of electrons in a direction parallel to this field.
 Useful only for frequencies greater than 100 MHz
3. Cavity orTraveling-wave Magnetrons :
 Depends upon the interaction of electrons with a traveling electromagnetic field of linear
velocity.
 These are customarily referred as Magnetrons

 Provide oscillations of very high peak power and hence are useful in radar applications

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