School of Electrical Eng.

and Computing

Antenna and Radio Wave Propagation

By

Kehali A. Jember
Antennas and Radio Wave
Propagation

Chapter 1
Introduction to Antenna
Systems
 Course outcomes
 Analyze the antenna design parameters and field evaluation under various
conditions and formulate the electric as well as the magnetic fields Equation
set for Far field and near field conditions.

 Discuss the Array system of different antennas and field analysis under
application of different currents to the individual antenna elements

 Interpret operations of fundamental antennas like patch antennas, Yagi-Huda

antennas, Horn antennas and helical structure and also their operation
methodology in practice.
 Course outcomes---------

 Design a lens structure and also the bench step for antenna parameter

measurement of testing for their effectiveness.

 Characterize about the means of propagation of Electromagnetic wave

 Lecture Outlines

 Introduction
 Radiation Mechanisms
 Types of Antennas
 Current Distribution on thin Wire Antenna
 Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions
 Far-Field Radiations
 Duality Theorem
 Introduction

What is an antenna?
 The American Heritage Dictionary: A metallic apparatus for sending
and receiving electromagnetic waves.
 Webster’s Dictionary: Usually a metallic device (as a rod or wire) for
radiating or receiving radio waves.
 Balanis, Antenna Theory: An antenna is a passive transitional
structure between free-space and a guiding structure that radiate
EMW
 Introduction

 An antenna system can be represented by an equivalent circuit.

For example, the transmission-line Thevenin equivalent circuit
of a radiating (transmit- ting) antenna is shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.1 Antenna as a transition device Figure 1.2 Thevenin equivalent circuit
 Introduction………..

 In the figure, Vg is the voltage-source generator ,Z g is impedance of the

generator, R r is the radiation resistance (related to the radiated power as
P rad = I 2 R r ), R L is the loss resistance (related to conduction and dielectric
losses), X A is the antenna reactance.
 The antenna impedance is Z A = (R L + R r ) + jX A .
 One of the most important issues in the design of high-power transmission
systems is the matching of the antenna to the transmission line and
generator.
 Matching is specified most often in terms of VSWR. Standing waves are to be avoided
because they may cause arching or discharge in the TL. The resistive/dielectric losses
are un- desirable, too. They decrease the efficiency of the antenna.
 Radiation Mechanisms
 Radiation is produced by accelerated or decelerated of charge (time-varying cur-
rent element).
 A current element ( I∆l ), A-m, is defined as a filament of length ∆l and
current I.
 The concept of current element is essential since the time-varying current
element is the elementary source of EM radiation.
 It has the same significance as the concept of a point charge in electrostatics.
 The field ra- diated by a complex antenna in a linear medium can be analyzed
by making use of the superposition principle after decomposing the antenna
into ele- mentary sources, i.e., into current elements.
 Radiation Mechanisms………

 Assume the existence of a piece of a very thin wire where electric current
can be excited.
I=
where l is the linear charge density and v is the charge velocity. The time
derivative of the current becomes

where a is the charge acceleration. Therefore, we have

l=l--------------------------(1.1)
 Equation (1.1) is the basic relation between current and charge, and it
also serves as the fundamental relation of electromagnetic radiation.
 It simply states that to create radiation, there must be a time-varying
current or an acceleration (or deceleration) of charge.
 Radiation Mechanisms………

 It is not immediately obvious from Maxwells equations that the time-

varying current is the source of radiation.
 A simple transformation of the Maxwells equations into a single second-
order equation either for E or for H proves this statement
∇ × E = - μ ………………………..(1.2 a)
∇ × H=ε
 By taking the curl of both sides of the first equation in (1.2) and by
making use of the second equation in (1.2), we obtain we equation (1.3)
 Radiation Mechanisms………

∇ × ∇ × E + μ ε = -μ -------------------------------------(1.3)

 From (1.3), it is obvious that the time derivative of the electric

current is the source for the wave-like vector E.

 To accelerate/decelerate charges, one needs sources of electromotive

force and/or discontinuities of the medium in which the charges
move. Such discontinuities can be bends or open ends of wires,
change in the electrical properties of the region.
 Radiation Mechanisms………

Summary
1.If a charge is not moving, current is not created and there is no
radiation.

2.If charge is moving with a uniform velocity:

(a)There is no radiation if the wire is straight, and infinite in extent.

(b)There is radiation if the wire is curved, bent, discontinuous,
terminated, or truncated, as shown in Figure 1.9.

3.If charge is oscillating in a time-motion, it radiates even if the wire

is straight and infinite in extent.
 Type of an antenna
1. Wire Antenna
 Wire antennas are seen everywhere on automobiles,
buildings, ships, aircraft, spacecraft, and so on.
 There are various shapes of wire antennas such as a
straight wire (dipole), loop, and helix.
 Loop may be circular, rectangular , square, ellipse, or
any other configuration.
 The circular loop is the most common because of its
simplicity in construction.
Type of an antenna……….

Figure : Wire Antenna Configurations

 Type of an antenna………….
2. Aperture Antennas
 It contains some sort of opening through which electromagnetic waves
are transmitted or received.

 It has better utilization of higher frequencies.

 Hence it is most common at microwave frequencies.

 Antennas of this type are very useful for aircraft and spacecraft
applications, because they can be very conveniently fl ush-mounted on
the skin of the aircraft or spacecraft.
 In addition, they can be covered with a dielectric material to protect
them from hazardous conditions of the environment.
Type of an antenna…………

Figure : Aperture Antenna

Configurations
 Type of an antenna………….

3. Microstrip Antennas
 The metallic patch can take many different configurations. However, the
rectangular and circular types are the most popular because of ease of
analysis and fabrication, and their attractive radiation characteristics.

Figure : Microstrip Antennas

4. Array Antennas

 Antenna arrays consist of multiple (usually identical) radiating

elements.
 Many applications require radiation characteristics that may not be
achievable by a single element.
 It may, however, be possible that an aggregate of radiating elements
in an electrical and geometrical arrangement (an array) will result in the
desired radiation characteristics.
 The arrangement of the array may be such that the radiation from the
elements adds up to give a radiation maximum in a particular
direction and minimum in others as desired.
 Log-periodic dipole array
Yagi-Uda Array
 5. Refl ector Antenna

 Reflector antennas operate on the principle of reflecting electromagnetic waves

using a conductive surface.
 Utilize a reflective surface, such as a parabolic(Dish Antenna) or cylindrical
structure, to focus electromagnetic waves towards a focal point.
 This design enables reflector antennas to achieve high gain and directional
radiation patterns, making them ideal for long-range.
 used in satellite communication, radar systems, wireless networks, and
terrestrial communication links
Figure : Reflector Antennas
 6. Lens Antennas
 Used to collimate incident divergent
energy to prevent it from spreading in
undesired directions.
 They can be used in most of the same
applications as are the parabolic
reflectors, especially at higher frequencies.
 Their dimensions and weight become
extremely large at lower frequencies.
 Lens antennas are classified according to
the material from which they are
constructed, or according to their Figure : Lens Antennas

geometrical shape
 Current Distribution on thin Wire Antenna

Lossless two-wire transmission line

 The movement of the charges creates a travelling wave
current along each of the wires
 When the current arrives at the end of each of the
wires, it undergoes a complete reflection.
 The reflected traveling with the incident traveling wave
forms in each wire a pure standing wave pattern of
sinusoidal form.
 The current in each wire undergoes a 180◦ phase
reversal between adjoining half-cycles.
 Radiation from each wire individually occurs because of the time-varying nature of the
current and the termination of the wire.
 If the spacing between the two wires is very small (s≪ λ), the fields radiated by the
current of each wire are essentially cancelled by those of the other.
 The net result is non-radiating transmission line.
 Current Distribution on thin Wire Antenna…
 Flared transmission line (0 ≤ z ≤ l/2 begins to flare)
 There is a net radiation by the transmission-line
system
 Dipole antenna (Standing wave antenna)
 If l < λ, the phase of the current standing wave
pattern in each arm is the same throughout its length.
 Spatially it is oriented in the same direction as that of
the other arm
 The fields radiated by the two arms of the dipole
(vertical parts of a flared transmission line) will
primarily reinforce each other toward most directions of
observation.
 The phase due to the relative position of each small
part of each arm must also be included for a complete
description of the radiation pattern formation.

 If the diameter of each wire is very small (d ≪ λ), the ideal standing wave pattern of the current along
the arms of the dipole is sinusoidal with a null at the end
 Its overall form depends on the length of each arm
 Current Distribution on thin Wire Antenna…

Figure Current distribution on linear dipoles.

 When l> λ, the current goes phase reversal between adjoining half-cycles.
 Hence, current is not having same phase along all parts of transmission line.
 This will result into interference and canceling effects in the total radiation pattern.
 Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions
Introduction
 EMW problems may be synthesis or analysis type.
 EMW synthesis problems :

 First specify the EM radiated fields(E &H) and

 Then we determine the EM source (J & M)of the radiated fields
 EMW analysis problems:
 First specify the EMW sources(J&M)
 Then we determine the EM radiation(E&H) by the sources
 How to solve analysis problems ?
 By using auxiliary functions (vector potentials) such as

 The magnetic and electric vector potential ( A & F respectively) or

 Equivalently the Hertz potential ( πe and πh)

Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions…

 To determine the radiated fields, we use the basic vector identities,

Maxwell’s and EMW equations ( Refer the proof from EMW and Guided Structures)
 Basic Vector Identities

Where A is vector V is scalar

 Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions…

 Maxwell’s Equations
 Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions…

The Vector Potentials A: Is useful in solving for the EM field generated by a given
harmonic electric current J.
The magnetic flux B is always solenoidal (▽.B = 0). The vector identity
Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions…
Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions…
Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions…
The vector potential f for a magnetic current source M
Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions…
 Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions…

 The corresponding electric and magnetic

fields are determined (EA, HA due to A
and EF, HF due to F)
 The total fields are then obtained by the
superposition of the individual fields due
to A and F (J and M)
Radiation Integrals &Auxiliary Potential Functions… Summary
1. Specify the sources J and M
2. Find A due to J by using

and F due to M by using

3.Determine H and E due to the magnetic vector potential A by

and determine H and E due to the electric vector potential F by

Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions…Summary

4. Finally, the total radiated fields are give by

 Far-Field Radiations

 When a high frequency current flows in an antenna, it

generates a high frequency electromagnetic field in the
surrounding space.
 The space surrounding an antenna is usually subdivided into
three regions:
 Reactive near-field
 Radiating near-field (Fresnel)
 Far-field (Fraunhofer) regions
 Far-Field Radiations……………
1. Reactive near-field region:
 The reactive near field is the region immediately surrounding the antenna.
 Electric and magnetic fields are constantly changing and are not yet fully developed .

 In this region, the electromagnetic fields are not free to propagate .

 they are mainly reactive fields that store energy in the electromagnetic near-field.

 The energy stored in the electric field is transferred to the magnetic field,
and vice versa, as the fields oscillate.
 This transfer of energy between the electric and magnetic fields results in
the fields being out of phase with each other in the near-field region.
 Far-Field Radiations……………

2. Radiating near-field (Fresnel) region:

 The field of an antenna between the reactive near-field and the far-field region .
 Electromagnetic fields start to propagate away from the antenna but have not yet
fully transitioned into the far-field mode.
 The fields have a combination of near-field and far-field characteristics.
 The electric and magnetic fields are still correlated, and they propagate as
electromagnetic waves but are not fully developed as in the far-field.
 Far-Field Radiations……………..

3. Far-field (Fraunhofer) region:

 The far-field radiation zone is the region at a considerable distance from the
antenna where the electric and magnetic fields have fully separated and reached a
stable, propagating state.
 The electromagnetic fields are decoupled and form self-sustaining transverse
waves that propagate away from the antenna as radiation.
 The far-field radiation pattern is characterized by the well-defined relationship
between the electric and magnetic fields, and the radiation behavior can be
described using parameters like radiation intensity, radiation pattern, and
directivity.
Far-Field Radiations……………..

Figure Typical changes of antenna amplitude pattern shape from reactive near field
toward the far field.
 Duality Theorem

 Theorem: The variables in the two equations that occupy identical positions
are known as dual quantities and a solution of one can be formed by a
systematic interchange of symbols to the other
 Reciprocity theorem

 The reciprocity theorem states that the radiation characteristics of an

antenna remain the same
 The properties of an antenna are symmetric with respect to transmission
and reception.
 If an antenna transmits a signal effectively in a certain direction, it will
also receive signals effectively from that same direction.
Thank you