Transmission Lines

Transmission Line Analysis
The propagation velocity of a wave is given by The propagation constant is given by Then Higher frequencies imply decreasing wavelengths. The consequence for a RF circuit is that voltages and currents no longer remain spatially uniform when compared to the geometry size of the discrete circuit elements and, consequently, the voltages and current have to be treated as propagating waves. Since Kirchhoffs voltages and current laws do not account for these spatial variations, we must significantly modify the conventional lumped circuit analysis The purpose of this section is to outline the physical reason for transitioning from lumped to distributed to electronic circuit.
Why transmission line theory?

Experiment 1: Measure the voltage between point A and B if the frequency of the generator is set to 1 MHz. Consider that l =1.5 cm. Assume that the dielectric constant between the two wires is =9 o and the permeability =o . The velocity of propagation is
90 , 0 vp
The relationship between the length and the wavelength is
For this case VA-VB0.
90 , 0 vp
Experiment 2: Measure the voltage between point A and B if the frequency of the generator is set to 10 GHz. Consider that l =1.5 cm.
90 , 0 vp
The relationship between the length and the wavelength is For this case the experiments reveal that VA-VB0.
For high frequencies in VG, it is observed that the voltage at intermediates points between A and B varies.
100 , 0 vp
This behavior contradicts Kirchhoffs law. Since the application of this law to a wire of resistance equal to 0 ohms will result that the voltage between the two point should be zero. Consequently, we need find a new theory to work for these cases. This will lead us to the study of transmission lines.
Conceptually, this can be explained if we introduce waves into the functionality of the circuit.
The generator will send a wave towards the load The resistance RL will reflect a wave towards the generator The effects of these two wave will create a standing wave (interference between the two waves) This standing wave is the reason for the different voltages between A and B
Reflected wave
Wave created by the generator
To fully understand the problem we will need to derive some Eqs.
Examples of transmission line
Two-wire line
The main drawback for this configuration is that the magnetic field and the electric field lines emanating from the conductors extend to infinity and thus influence electronic equipment in the vicinity of the line (RF is not contained) Application: Connect a TV set to a private antenna (i.e. house/building)
Coaxial Line
Magnetic Field
Electric Field
Usually the outer conductor is grounded thus minimizing radiation and field interference (RF is contained.) Application: It is used for almost all cases of externally connected RF Systems and test equipment.
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Microstrip Lines
It is common practice to use planar printed circuit boards (PCBs) to implement most electronic systems. In RF circuits, we need to consider the high frequency behavior of the conducting strips etched on the PCBs. The ground plane below the current carrying conductor traces helps prevent excessive field leakage and thus reduces radiation.
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Microstrip Lines
Magnetic Field
Electric Field
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One of the disadvantages of single layered PCBs is that they have rather high radiation loss and are prone to crosstalk (interference) between neighboring conductor traces. The severity of field leakage depends on the relative dielectric constants.
Direct comparison of the field line suggest that to achieve high board density of the component layout, we should use substrates with high dielectric constants.
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Strip Lines
Magnetic Field
Electric Field
This configuration reduces interference because the RF signal is contained by the two ground planes. A drawback of this configuration is that vias are required to go from the top or bottom planes (where the components are located) to the inner conductor. Vias produce disturbances to the wave propagation and have to be carefully design.
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Equivalent Circuit Representation
For high frequencies, voltages and currents are no longer spatially constant. As a consequence, Kirchhoffs voltage and circuit laws cannot be applied over the macroscopic line dimensions. This problem can be circumvented when the transmission line is broken down into smaller (infinitesimally small) segments.
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Between x and x+x, each conductor (1 and 2) is described by a series resistor and inductor (R1x, L1x and R2x, L2 x). In addition, the charge separation created by conductors 1 and 2 gives rise to a capacitive effect denoted by C x. Recognizing that all dielectric suffer losses we need to include a conductance G x
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Generic Electrical Circuit Representation for a Segment of a Transmission Line
The resistances and inductances of the two conductors are usually combined into single elements. It should be noted that R, L, C and G are frequencydependent parameters. R: resistance per unit length, L: inductance per unit length, C: capacitance per unit length, G: conductance per unit length
17
Advantages of the electric circuit representation of a TL: Provides a clear intuitive physical picture Permits the analysis with Kirchhoffs laws Provides building blocks that allow the expansion from microscopic to macroscopic forms.
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Transmission Lines in the Time Domain

Applying Kirchoffs voltage law For x -> 0
Applying Kirchoffs current law
For x -> 0
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Lossless Transmission Lines in the Time Domain

For lossless transmission line:
Then
Wave Equations in the time domain
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The solutions to the wave equations are:
Note: The derivation on how to find i(x,t) is in next page.
v+ vi+ iZo is the characteristic impedance of the transmission line.
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Summary
The velocity of propagation is given by The characteristic impedance is given by Taking into account the above equations, we can write
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For a coaxial transmission line, it can be proven that
Characteristic Impedance
*C: capacitance per unit length; L: inductance per unit length It can be observed that the characteristic impedance is a function of the dimension of the cylinders and also of the dielectric material. Note that
Velocity of Propagation
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For a two wire line, it can be proven that
Characteristic Impedance
*C: capacitance per unit length; L: inductance per unit length It can be observed that the characteristic impedance is a function of the radius a of the wire and the separation D between the wires. Note that
Velocity of Propagation
25
For a microstrip line it can be proven that Z0 can be approximated by
Where
Characteristic Impedance Empirical Formulas
The reason for eff is that there electric field in air and in the dielectric. For this first approximation, it has been assumed that the thickness t of the conductor is negligible compared with the substrate height h.
26
The assumption of zero thickness (t) of the microstrip line may not be valid and a correction to the preceding equations are needed. The effect of nonzero copper strip thickness is approximated as an increased in effective with weff.
27
28
The velocity of propagation can be written as,
The characteristic impedance is given by: Then: To reduce Zo, we need to increase the capacitance. Example
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Sinusoidal steady-state
30
The general solution for a transmission line is given by
The solution in sinusoidal steady-state is give by:
The propagation constant is given by:
31
Using complex number notation, the equation can be written as Defining the phasor A and B are complex numbers
Defining Then
When working with sinusoidal steady-state sources, it is and highly convenient to work with Similarly, it can be proven that phasors. Using the equations above, we can go back to the time domain.
32
Change in reference plane
For transmission problems it is convenient to show the load at distance 0 and the source at the distance l from the load Taking into account that
where
33
Summary
34
Reflection coefficient
For d=0
35
Input Impedance
36
Input Impedance (Cont.)
Impedance Transformer
A transmission line changes a load impedance to another value of impedance at its input
37
Input Impedance (Cont.)
Short Circuit Open Circuit Matching
38
Summary
39
Return Loss
Practical circuit realizations always suffer a certain degree of mismatch between the load impedance and the characteristic impedance of the transmission line. This mismatch is customarily defined as the return loss
Example. Calculate RL. Assume that ZG=61.5 Zin=50 .
in
40
Example. Calculate RL at d=0. Assume that Zl=75 Z0=50 .
As it can be observed a decent return loss (14 dB) can be achieved with a relatively large mismatch between the characteristic impedance and the load.
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Example: Consider a transmission line with Zo=50 with the following load: infinity, 350 , 150 , 83.33 , and 50 .
(a) Calculate (b) Plot
Solution:
(a) Calculate
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(b) Plot
For the example, =0
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VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio)

The addition of two traveling waves traveling in opposite direction produces a standing-wave pattern. This is a sinusoidal function of time whose amplitude is a function of positon
Complex Plane
min
max
46
VSWR (Cont.)
By definition, the VSWR is given by
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VSWR (Cont.)
Example: Calculate VSWR for the following cases
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Example: For a short circuit transmission line, calculate and plot |V(d)|, and v(d,t). Assume that A1 is a real positive number.
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50
Example: For the circuit shown in the figure (a) Find 0, Zin , and VSWR (b) Find V(/8), I(/8), and P(/8) (c) Find V(0), I(0) and P(0) (d) Find l=/8) in cm at f= 1 GHz
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Solution: (a) Find 0, Zin , and VSWR .
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Soltion: (b) Find V(/8), I(/8), P(/8)
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Soltion: (c) Find V(0), I(0), P(0)
A1 is not known
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Soltion: (d) Find l=/8 in cm at f= 1 GHz
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Source and Loaded Transmission Line

Thus far our discussion has only relied on the transmission line and its termination through a load impedance. In completing our investigation we need to attach a source to the lines. This results in the added complication of not only having to deal with an impedance mismatch between transmission line and load but also having to take into consideration a possible line-tosource mismatch as well.
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The input voltage at the input of the transmission line can be written as
Note that only a fraction of VG generates Vin. The input reflection coefficient is given by
Also (as we previously showed) As we can observe only a part of Vin+ comes from Vin. This fact leads to the definition of transmitter coefficient.
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Transmission Coefficient
Definition
Taking into account that
Then
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Reflection Coefficient a the Source

Since the voltage reflected from the load is traveling toward the source, we need to consider a mismatch between the transmission line and the source impedance (ZG). The source reflection coefficient is defined as
Transmission Line Analysis Input Voltage Source Reflec. Coefficient Source Impedance Input Reflection Coefficient Output Reflec. Coefficient Load Reflec. Coefficient Input Transmission Coefficient Input Impedance Output Impedance Load Impedance
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Source and Loaded Transmission Line Analysis
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Source and Loaded Transmission Line Analysis (Cont.)
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Source and Loaded Transmission Line Analysis (Cont.)
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General Transmission Line Equations

Applying Kirchhoffs voltage and current laws to the electrical model of small section of a transmission lines leads to:
64
Then
From (1)
From (2)
From (4) and (5)
=>
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From (4) From (3) Then Summarizing: where
=>
These are the wave equations for voltages and currents.

The solution of these equations are:
The terms V+ e-kx and I+ e-kx represents waves moving in the + direction of x The terms V- e+kx and I- e+kx represents waves moving in the - direction of x
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Characteristic Impedance Definition

Also (from previous page) Then
The characteristic impedance is defined as :

Taking into account that
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Lossless Transmission Line Model

For this case R=0 and G=0. The transmission line model reduces to:
The characteristic impedance is reduced to
Note that the transmission line does not have losses because there are no resistive elements to dissipate power.
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Appendix: Transmission Line in the time domain Consider that at t=0+ the switch is closed.
I(z,t) + V(z,t) At time t=0+, the generator Vo will send a wave towards the load (RL) It will take a time T=l/vp for the wave to arrive to RL At t=0+, we will only have a wave going towards the load (V+) The equations below have to be satisfied at any time t or position z
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At t=0+ and
and The calculation of V+ can be done with the following circuit.
Conclusion: At time t=0, the voltage at z=0 is not affected by the load RL
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At t=T+=(l/vp)+
I=
Since
V=
and
Voltage Reflection Coefficient at the Load
L
I=
V=
Current Reflection Coefficient at the Load
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At t=2T+=2(l/vp)+
I=
V=
From the analysis at t=0,
g
I=
Voltage Reflection Coefficient at the Source Current Reflection Coefficient at the Source
V=
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Summary
Particular Cases:
RL=0 => short circuit => L=-1 => V+ is completely reflected RL => open circuit => L= 1 => V+ is completely reflected RL=Zo => matched => L= 0 => There is no reflection (V-=0 )
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Example: At t=0+ the switch is closed
(a) Calculate the voltage at the voltage at z=0 at t=0/
(b) Calculate the voltage and current reflection coefficients a the load
(c) Calculate the voltage and current reflection coeff. a the generator
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(d) Draw the bounce diagram for voltages
(e) Plot V(z=0, t) vs. t
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(f) Plot V(z=l, t) vs. t
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(g) Plot V(z=l/2, t) vs. t
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(h) Plot I(z=0, t) vs. t
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(h) Plot I(z=l, t) vs. t
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(h) Plot I(z=l/2, t) vs. t
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(g) Plot V(z, t) vs. z at t=2.5s

Transmission Lines

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Transmission Line Analysis

Transmission Line Analysis

Transmission Line Analysis

Why transmission line theory?

Transmission Line Analysis

The relationship between the length and the wavelength is

For this case VA-VB0.

Transmission Line Analysis

Transmission Line Analysis

Transmission Line Analysis

Wave created by the generator

To fully understand the problem we will need to derive some Eqs.

Transmission Line Analysis

Examples of transmission line

Transmission Line Analysis

Transmission Line Analysis

Transmission Line Analysis

Transmission Line Analysis

Transmission Line Analysis

Transmission Line Analysis

Equivalent Circuit Representation

Transmission Line Analysis

Transmission Line Analysis

Generic Electrical Circuit Representation for a Segment of a Transmission Line

Transmission Line Analysis

Transmission Line Analysis