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Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 197 (2015) 19 – 22

7th World Conference on Educational Sciences, (WCES-2015), 05-07 February 2015, Novotel
Athens Convention Center, Athens, Greece

Teaching English to Very Young Learners

Nuriye Degirmenci Uysala , Fatih Yavuzb
a
MA student, Graduate School of Social Sciences, Balikesir University, Balıkesir 10000, Turkey
b
Assistant professor, ELT Department of Necatibey Education Faculty, Balikesir University, Balıkesir 10010 Turkey

Abstract

This study presents a review of the literature concerning teaching English to very young learners as a second/foreign language
(ESL/EFL) as how to teach English to VYL is a prevailing research subject in an ESL/EFL context. As Cameron (2001) states
very young learners are exposed to only spoken language for a few years, it is of great significance to handle it meticulously. The
paper first presents the characteristics of VYL and the role of age in language learning. Next, the paper reviews the studies on
second/foreign language teaching to VYL, concluding that the earlier is the better in language education with the appropriate use
of various methods and materials appeal to learners’ interests. While this paper emphasizes that very limited number of studies
have been done, it reveals there is an urgent need for elaborate researches, especially in EFL context.
© 2015
© 2015TheTheAuthors.
Authors.Published
Publishedby by Elsevier
Elsevier Ltd.Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Peer-review under responsibility of Academic World Education and Research Center.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of Academic World Education and Research Center.
Keywords: VYL, ESL/EFL, language education, EFL context

1. Introduction

Children start preschool at the age of 5-6 before they enter primary school in Turkey, in the United States, and in
many other countries. At these ages, they are naturally curious and enthusiastic to explore the world around them.
Most children are eager to gain new experiences including learning a new language. They like to be active and have
a lot of energy which make preschool perfect time to benefit from physical activities to teach a language.

Fatih Yavuz. Tel.: +90-266-612-1252; fax: +90-266-612-1254
E-mail address: [email protected]

1877-0428 © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of Academic World Education and Research Center.
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.07.042
20 Nuriye Degirmenci Uysal and Fatih Yavuz / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 197 (2015) 19 – 22

2. Characteristics of Very Young Learners

Very young learners create their own learning engaging with their environment and they are active in their
learning process by exploring immediate settings (Piaget, 1970). According to Vygotsky (1962), children construct
knowledge through social interaction. Within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), children acquire
knowledge through interaction with other people. Working within ZPD helps children reach their optimum capacity
to solve problems with assistance. Children learn effectively through scaffolding with the help or guidance of an
adult or more proficient peer (Bruner, 1983). It is not only the repetition of sounds they receive, instead, they
develop rules and prove their assumptions to figure out for themselves (Wells, 1999). They need to involve in
hands-on experiences for effective learning (Donaldson, 1978 & Hughes, 1986). As young learners have a lot of
energy but minimum concentration, it is better to engage them in physical activities within concrete environment. As
Scott and Ytreberg (1990) asserts that immediate world around them always prevails and it is their hands and eyes
and ears that they use to understand this world. Furthermore, if children create their own visuals and realia, they will
probably engage and interested in the activities and take more responsibility for the materials (Moon, 2000).
As Susan Halliwell states “We are obviously not talking about classrooms where children spend all their time
sitting still in rows and talking only to teacher” (1992:18). Therefore, it is the teacher who provides a variety of
experiences and a set of activities without getting them bored. Children are creative and want to be active so it is
better to make use of their imagination and energy in games, songs, drawing pictures or puzzle-like activities.
Children, especially boys, are not tend to sit still and sometimes resort to aggression probably because of the
changes in hormones, following with high energy (Biddulph, 1998). In addition, compared to the boys, little girls are
better in linguistic skills, fine motor skills and concentration while boys are unable to keep up them by up to one
year (Khan, 1998; Biddulph, 1998; McIlvain, 2003).
In classroom activities, using Total Physical Response (TPR) by James Asher (1977) is a great way to teach
English especially for very young learners. That method keeps children active in learning process while it links the
language with physical movement. Young learners are easily distracted and have very short attention spans;
therefore, it is better to keep in mind that 5 and 10 minutes activities are best to engage them in learning. According
to Scott and Ytreberg (1990), there should be various activities having a balance among them. It is suggested that
each task focuses on different skills while using individual, pair work, group work or whole class activities
alternately. It is also wise to let children learn from each other by integrating pupil- pupil interaction into the
activities in addition to teacher- pupil interaction. Lastly, Scott and Ytreberg (1990) point out the balance between
quiet and noisy activities to create both peaceful and dynamic learning environment.
Moreover, using stories in foreign language teaching is of great value as they are naturally acquired and
contextualized (Slatterly & Willis, 2001). Stories use a “holistic approach to language teaching and learning that
places a high premium on children’s involvement with rich, authentic uses of the foreign language” (Cameron,
2001:159). Cameron (2001) indicates a mental processing called ‘mentalese’ which is used in formulating meaning
language independently. Therefore, when children are told a story in foreign language, they are able to get the gist
and summarize it with the help of visuals in their first language. However, it is not probable to narrate the story in
the target language. Speaking is far demanding than listening and grasping the meaning is not enough to retell the
story. While as Pinter (2008) states meaning focused input is crucial, it has also high importance to ensure
production with language focus activities, though.

3. Age of acquisition

The age of acquisition is attached much importance and there has been a lot of controversy among researchers in
second language acquisition probably because young learners have better performance in L2. The younger, the
better constitutes the common ground in the debate. Many researches show the supremacy of young learners over
older learners in language proficiency (e.g. Oyama, 1976, 1978; Patkowski, 1980; Krashen, et al., 1982; Felix, 1985,
1991; Singleton, 1989; Larsen-Freeman& Long, 1991; Johnson & Newport, 1989; Bley-Vroman, 1990; Johnson,
1992; Slavoff, & Johnson, 1995).
Long (1990) provides many evidences in his review on second language acquisition as to the necessity of early
 Nuriye Degirmenci Uysal and Fatih Yavuz / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 197 (2015) 19 – 22 21

acquisition. The study reveals that native-like proficiency in phonology is almost unachievable after 6 years old and
there emerges allied problems in morphology and syntax after age 12. Therefore, it is claimed that there are some
periods sensitive to language acquisition in different skills in order to reach complete proficiency (Haznedar&Uysal,
2010). However, despite the assertion of language acquisition loss after age 6, Long (1990) indicates the gradual
decrease in language learning but not a single critical age for ultimate native-like proficiency. As Steven Pinker
states, “acquisition…. Is guaranteed for children up to the age of six, is steadily compromised from then until shortly
after puberty, and is rare thereafter” (Pinker 1994:293), and similar acquisition process is also valid for second or
foreign languages.

4. Studies on Teaching L2 to Very Young Learners

Studies on early language learning in language immersion schools in the North America bring out many evidence
on teaching a second language to very young learners. Students are native speakers of English placed in French-
speaking nursery and infant schools, and vice versa (Harley&Swain, 1984; Lightbown&Spada, 1994; Harley et al.,
1995). Researches discover the advantages of early introduction of language on some language abilities but not all.
Listening and pronunciation in general has better results for an earlier start while the latter also has longer term
benefits. Despite an early start with young children, they are slow learners of L2 grammar compared to older
learners so overall learning does not directly depend on the learning time (Harley et al., 1995). In addition, the time
spent learning is unlikely to change the balance of benefits; therefore, receptive skills mostly precede productive
skills and grammar in L2 acquisition as grammar needs to be cognitively ready (Cameron, 2001).
However, it is unlikely that the difference in quantity of language learning experience will affect the balance of
benefits; in foreign language learning too, receptive skills are likely to remain ahead of productive skills, and
grammatical knowledge, which is linked not just to language development but to cognitive development, is likely to
develop more slowly for younger children (Cameron, 2001). Moreover, it has been reported that older learners make
quick-start progress in the acquisition of L2 grammar and vocabulary as they are more cognitively mature (e. g.
Harley & Wang, 1997). Related to the studies conducted, Long (1990) points out that the initial superiority of adults
over younger learners has only short-term benefit, though.
According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, pre-schoolers are in the preoperational stage of
intelligence so learning can be boosted by helping them experience with concrete materials such as objects, pictures,
stories, and videos (Morrison, 2003). Implications of preoperational stage on teaching need to be handled
meticulously by professionals to promote learning. Hughes' research (1986) on children and number shows one of
the best example of children’s way of learning:
Hughes: How many is two and one more?
Patrick (4): Four
H: Well, how many is two lollipops and one more?
P: Three
H: How many is two elephants and one more?
P: Three
H: And two giraffes and one more?
P: Three
H: So, how many is two and one more?
P: (Looking Hughes straight in the eye) Six (page 47)

5. Conclusion

This study concluded that children need hands-on activities to engage in their own learning. Concrete materials
helps them understand and process the meaning. Teachers provide a range of activities to get young learners’
attention and arouse constant interest. Physical activities such as walking, running, jumping, dancing and climbing
contribute positively to learning when coordinated with language. It is also possible to make use of fine-motor
activities such as drawing, colouring, painting, cutting, and pasting in classroom activities. In addition, age is the
22 Nuriye Degirmenci Uysal and Fatih Yavuz / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 197 (2015) 19 – 22

important factor in language acquisition both in first language and foreign language. Studies show that early
language acquisition is necessary to reach native like proficiency especially in pronunciation. While there is a
consensus on the presence of critical period, it is pointed out that there is no single age but the ability to acquire a
language decreases over time. Finally, researchers also find out that cognitive development affects the language
acquisition process as well as language development. Therefore, older learners who are cognitively mature have
faster start but it is only short term advantage over young learners. As a final note, further research is necessary on
young learners’ learning process and their learning styles. There is also a limited number of studies on future effects
of early start in acquiring the foreign language rather than the second language. Future research should focus on age
factor in proficiency of each skill and teaching very young learners a foreign language in accord with appropriate
activities.

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