Nominal Bending Strength of Compact Shapes: Egja S X S I C X

53:134 Structural Design II
π EGJA
X1 = AISC Eq. (F1-8)
Sx 2
2
4C ⎛ S ⎞
X2 = w ⎜ x ⎟ AISC Eq. (F1-9)
I y ⎝ GJ ⎠
Sx section modulus about the major axis (in.3)
Iy moment of inertia about the minor y-axis (in.4)
ry radius of gyration about the minor y-axis (in.4)
Nominal Bending Strength of Compact Shapes
( )
If the shape is compact λ ≤ λ p , no need to check FLB (flange local
buckling) and WLB (web local buckling).

• Lateral torsional buckling (LTB)
If Lb ≤ L p , no LTB:
M n = M p ≤ 1.5M y AISC Eq. (F1-1)
If L p < Lb ≤ Lr , inelastic LTB:
⎡ ⎛ Lb − L p ⎞⎤
(
M n = Cb ⎢ M p − M p − M r ⎜ )
⎜ L − L ⎟⎥
⎟⎥ ≤ M
p AISC Eq. (F1-2)
⎢⎣ ⎝ r p ⎠⎦
Note that Mn is a linear function of Lb.
If Lb > Lr (slender member), elastic LTB:
M n = M cr ≤ M p AISC Eq. (F1-12)
J.S Arora/Q. Wang 10 BeamDesign.doc

2
π ⎛ πE ⎞
M cr = Cb EI y GJ + ⎜ ⎟ I y Cw ≤ M p
Lb ⎜L ⎟
⎝ b⎠
AISC Eq. (F1-13)
Cb S x X 1 2 X 12 X 2
= 1+
Lb / ry (
2 Lb / ry )
2
Note that Mcr is a nonlinear function of Lb

Cb is a factor that takes into account the nonuniform bending moment
distribution over an unbraced length Lb
M A absolute value of moment at quarter point of the unbraced

segment
M B absolute value of moment at mid-point of the unbraced segment
M C absolute value of moment at three-quarter point of the unbraced
segment
M max absolute value of maximum moment in the unbraced segment
12.5M max
Cb = AISC Eq. (F1-3)
2.5M max + 3M A + 4M B + 3M C
If the bending moment is uniform, all moment values are the same
giving Cb = 1 . This is also true for a conservative design.

Nominal Bending Strength of Noncompact Shapes
( )
If the shape is noncompact λ p < λ ≤ λ r because of the flange, the web
or both, the nominal moment strength will be the smallest of the

following:
• Lateral torsional buckling (LTB)
If Lb ≤ L p , no LTB:
M n = M p ≤ 1.5M y AISC Eq. (F1-1)
If L p < Lb ≤ Lr , inelastic LTB:
⎡ ⎛ Lb − L p ⎞⎤
(
M n = Cb ⎢ M p − M p − M r ) ⎜
⎜ L − L ⎟⎥
⎟⎥ ≤ M
p AISC Eq. (F1-2)
⎢⎣ ⎝ r p ⎠⎦

Note that Mn is a linear function of Lb

If Lb > Lr , elastic LTB:
M n = M cr ≤ M p AISC Eq. (F1-12)

2
π ⎛ πE ⎞
M cr = Cb EI y GJ + ⎜ ⎟ I y C w ≤ M p AISC Eq. (F1-13)
Lb ⎜L ⎟
⎝ b⎠
Note that Mcr is a nonlinear function of Lb

• Flange local buckling (FLB)
If λ ≤ λ p , no FLB.
If λ p < λ ≤ λr , the flange is noncompact:
⎛ λ − λp ⎞
(
Mn = M p − M p − Mr ⎜ ) ⎟≤Mp
⎜ λr − λ p ⎟ AISC Eq. (A-F1-3)
⎝ ⎠
Note that Mn is a linear function of λ

• Web local buckling (WLB)
If λ ≤ λ p , no WLB.
If λ p < λ ≤ λr , the web is noncompact:
⎛ λ − λp ⎞
(
Mn = M p − M p − Mr ⎜ ) ⎟≤Mp
⎜ λr − λ p ⎟ AISC Eq. (A-F1-3)
⎝ ⎠
Note that Mn is a linear function of λ

Slender sections λ > λr : For laterally stable slender sections
M n = M cr = SFcr ≤ M p
M cr critical (buckling) moment

Fcr critical stress

2. Design for shear (LRFD SPEC F2)
φv resistance factor for shear (0.9)
Vu controlling combination of factored shear
Vn nominal shear strength
Fyw yield stress of the web (ksi)
Aw web area, the overall depth d times the web thickness tw
h
Design equation for ≤ 260 :
tw
Vu ≤ φvVn
The design shear strength of unstiffened web is φvVn , where
⎧ h E
⎪0.60Fyw Aw ≤ 2.45
⎪ tw Fyw
⎪
⎪ ⎛ 2.45 E / Fyw ⎞ E h E
Vn = ⎨0.60Fyw Aw ⎜ ⎟ 2.45 < ≤ 3.07
⎜ h / tw ⎟ Fyw t w Fyw
⎪ ⎝ ⎠
⎪
⎪ ⎡ 4.52E ⎤ E h
⎪ Aw ⎢ 2⎥
3.07 < ≤ 260
⎩ ⎢
⎣ (h / t w ) ⎦⎥ Fyw t w
These are Eqs. (F2-1), (F2-2) and (F2-3) in Chapter F of LRFD
h
Specifications. For > 260 , web stiffeners are required, and the
tw
provision of Appendix F2 must be consulted. Note that shear is rarely

a problem in rolled steel beams; the usually practice is to design a
beam for flexural and check for shear.
3. Design for serviceability

Deflection of beam should be checked with service loads. This is the
serviceability requirement of a structure. (LRFD-Specification L).
Design Procedure
• Compute the factored load moment M u (required moment

strength); it should be less than or equal to the design strength,
φb M n . The weight of the beam is part of the dead load but is
unknown at this point. A value may be assumed, or ignored
temporarily.
• Select a shape that satisfies the flexural strength requirement.
This can be done in one of the following two ways:
Assume a shape, compute the design strength and compare it
with the factored load moment. Revise if necessary.
Use the beam design charts in LRFD Part 5.
• Check the shear strength.
• Check the deflection (serviceability requirement).

CHAPTER 5 - Steel and Metals 5-53
SECTION 506 -DESIGN OF and the nominal flexural strength, M n , shall be determined
MEMBERS FOR FLEXURE according to Sections 506.2 through 506. 12.
This section applies to members subject to simple bending
about one principal axis. For simple bending, the member is 2. The provisions in this Section are based on the
loaded in a plane parallel to a principal axis that passes assumption that points of support for beams and girders
through the shear center or is restrained against twisting at are restrained against rotation about their longitudinal
load points and supports. axis.
The section is organized as follows: The following terms are common to the equations in this
Section except where noted:
506.1 General Provisions Cb = lateral-torsional buckling modification factor
506.2 Doubly Symmetric Compact I-Shaped Members for nonuniform moment diagrams when both
and Channels Bent about Their Major Axis ends of the unsupported segment are braced
506.3 Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with
Compact Webs and Non-compact or Slender 12.5Mmax
Cb RM 3.0 (506.1-1)
Flanges Bent about Their Major Axis 2.5Mmax 3MA 4MB 3MC
506.4 Other I-Shaped Members with Compact or
Noncompact Webs Bent about Their Major Axis where
506.5 Doubly Symmetric and Singly Symmetric I-
Mmax = absolute value of maximum moment in the
Shaped Members with Slender Webs Bent
unbraced segment, N-mm.
about Their Major Axis
MA = absolute value of moment at quarter point of the
506.6 I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent about
Their Minor Axis
MB = absolute value of moment at centerline of the
506.7 Square and Rectangular HSS and Box-Shaped
Members
MC = absolute value of moment at three-quarter
506.8 Round HSS
point of the unbraced segment, N-mm.
506.9 Tees and Double Angles Loaded in the Plane of
Rm = cross-section monosymmetry parameter
Symmetry
= 1.0, doubly symmetric members
506.10 Single Angles
= 1.0, singly symmetric members subjected to
506.11 Rectangular Bars and Rounds
single curvature bending
506.12 Unsymmetrical Shapes 2
506.13 Proportions of Beams and Girders I yc
= 0.5 2 , singly symmetric members
Iy
User Note: For members not included in this section the
following sections apply: subjected to reverse curvature bending
508.1–508.3 Members subject to biaxial flexure or to Iy = moment of inertia about the principal y-axis,
combined flexure and axial force. mm4.
I
508.4 Members subject to flexure and torsion. yc = moment of inertia about y-axis referred to the
Appendix A-3 Members subject to fatigue. compression flange, or if reverse curvature
Section 507 Design provisions for shear. bending, referred to the smaller flange, mm4.
For guidance in determining the appropriate sections of this In singly symmetric members subjected to reverse
section to apply, Table User Note 506.1.1 may be used. curvature bending, the lateral-torsional buckling strength
shall be checked for both flanges.
506.1 General Provisions
The available flexural strength shall be greater than or
The design flexural strength, b M n , and the allowable equal to the maximum required moment causing
flexural strength, Mn b , shall be determined as compression within the flange under consideration Cb is
permitted to be conservatively taken as 1.0 for all cases.
follows:
For cantilevers or overhangs where the free end is
1. For all provisions in this Section unbraced, Cb = 1.0.
b 0.90 LRFD b 1.67 ASD
National Structural Code of the Philippines 6th Edition Volume 1

5-54 CHAPTER 5 - Steel and Metals
Table User Note 506.1.1

Selection Table for the Application of Section 506 Sections
Section
Flange Web Limit
In Cross Section
Slenderness Slenderness States
Section 506
506.2 C C Y, LTB
506.3 NC, S C LTB, FLB
506.4 C, NC, S C, NC Y, LTB, FLB, TFY
506.5 C, NC, S S Y, LTB, FLB, TFY
506.6 C, NC, S N/A Y, FLB
506.7 C, NC, S C, NC Y, FLB, WLB
506.8 N/A N/A Y, LB
506.9 C, NC, S N/A Y, LTB, FLB
506.10 N/A N/A Y, LTB, LLB
506.11 N/A N/A Y, LTB
506.12 Unsymmetrical shapes N/A N/A All limit states
Y = yielding, LTB = lateral-torsional buckling, FLB = flange local buckling, WLB = web local buckling, TFY = tension flange
yielding, LLB = leg local buckling, LB = local buckling, C = compact,
NC = noncompact, S = slender
Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines

CHAPTER 5 Steel and Metal 5-55
2 2
Cb E Jc Lb
Fcr 2
1 0.078
User Note: For doubly symmetric members with no Lb S x ho rts
transverse loading between brace points, Equation 506.1-1
reduces to 2.27 for the case of equal end moments of rts
opposite sign and to 1.67 when one end moment equals (506.2-4)
zero. where
506.2 Doubly Symmetric Compact I-Shaped Members E = modulus of elasticity of steel = 200 000 MPa.
and Channels Bent about their Major Axis J = torsional constant, mm4.
This section applies to doubly symmetric I-shaped members Sx = elastic section modulus taken about the x-axis,
and channels bent about their major axis, having compact mm3.
webs and compact flanges as defined in Section 502.4.
User Note: The square root term in Equation 506.2-4 may
User Note: All current ASTM A6 W, S, M, C and MC be conservatively taken equal to 1.0.
shapes except W21×48, W14×99, W14×90, W12×65,
W10×12, W8×31, W8×10, W6×15, W6×9, W6×8.5, and The limiting lengths L p and Lr are determined as follows:
M4×6 have compact flanges for Fy 345 MPa; all current
E
ASTM A6 W, S, M, HP, C and MC shapes have compact L p 1.76ry (506.2-5)
webs at F y 450 MPa. Fy
The nominal flexural strength, M n , shall be the lower E Jc 0.7Fy Sxho

2
value obtained according to the limit states of yielding Lr 1.95rts 1 1 6.76

(plastic moment) and lateral-torsional buckling. 0.7Fy Sxh0 E Jc
506.2.1. Yielding (506.2-6)
M n= M p= F yZ x (506.2-1) where
where I yCw
r 2 ts (506.2-7)
F y = specified minimum yield stress of the type Sx
of steel being used, MPa.
Zx = plastic section modulus about the x-axis, mm3. and
For a doubly symmetric I-shape: c = 1 (506.2-8a)
506.2.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling
1. When Lb Lp, the limit state of lateral-torsional ho Iy
buckling does not apply. For a channel: c (506.2-8b)
2 Cw
2. When L p < Lb Lr where
Lb Lp ho = distance between the flange centroids, mm.
Mn Cb M p M p 0.7Fy Sx Mp
Lr Lp
(506.2-2) User Note: If the square root term in Equation 506.2-4 is
3. When L b > L r conservatively taken equal to 1, Equation 506.2-6 becomes
Mn Fcr S x Mp (506.2-3)
E
Lr rts
where 0.7 F y
Lb = length between points that are either braced
against lateral displacement of compression Note that this approximation can be extremely
flange or braced against twist of the cross conservative.
section, mm.
For doubly symmetric I-shapes with rectangular flanges,
I y ho 2
Cw
4 and thus Equation 506.2-7 becomes

pf p is the limiting slenderness for a compact flange,

I y ho Table 502.4.1
r 2 ts
2S x
rts may be approximated accurately and conservatively as rf r is the limiting slenderness for a non compact
flange,Table 502.4.1
the radius of gyration of the compression flanges plus one-
sixth of the web:
4
Kc and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor
bf h tw
rts
greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes.
1 ht w
12 1
6 bf t f 506.4 Other I-Shaped Members with Compact or
Noncompact Webs Bent about their Major Axis
506.3 Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with This section applies to: (a) doubly symmetric I- shaped
Compact Webs and Noncompact or Slender Flanges members bent about their major axis with non compact webs;
Bent about their Major Axis and (b) singly symmetric I-shaped members with webs
attached to the mid-width of the flanges, bent about their
This section applies to doubly symmetric I- shaped members
major axis, with compact or non compact webs, as defined
bent about their major axis having compact webs and non
in Section 502.4.
compact or slender flanges as defined in Section 502.4.
User Note: I-shaped members for which this section is
User Note: The following shapes have non compact
applicable may be designed conservatively using Section
flanges for Fy 345 MPa: W21×48, W14×99, W14×90,
506.5.
W12×65, W10×12, W8×31, W8× 10, W6× 15, W6×9,
W6 × 8.5, and M4×6. All other ASTM A6 W, S, M, and
HP shapes have compact flanges for Fy 345 MPa. The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lowest value
obtained according to the limit states of compression flange
yielding, lateral-torsional buckling, compression flange local
The nominal flexural strength, M n , shall be the lower buckling and tension flange yielding.
value obtained according to the limit states of lateral-
torsional buckling and compression flange local buckling. 506.4.1 Compression Flange Yielding
506.3.1 Lateral-Torsional Buckling Mn R pc M yc R pc F y S xc (506.4-1)

For lateral-torsional buckling, the provisions of Section
506.2.2 shall apply. 506.4.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling
1. When Lb Lp, the limit state of lateral-torsional
506.3.2 Compression Flange Local Buckling buckling does not apply.
For sections with non compact flanges
2. When L p <L b Lr
Mn Mp M p 0.7Fy S x
pf Lb Lp
Mn Cb RpcMyc RpcMyc FLSxc RpcMyc
rf pf Lr Lp
(506.3-1) (506.4-2)
For sections with slender flanges 3. When Lb L
0.9Ek c S x Mn Fcr S xc R pc M yc (506.4-3)

Mn 2
(506.3-2)
where
bf
2t f

where Mp = Z x F y 1.6S xc F y
Sxc.Sxt = elastic section modulus referred to tension and
M yc Fy S xc (506.4-4) compression flanges, respectively, mm3
= hc / tw
2
Cb 2
E J Lb pw = p, the limiting slenderness for a compact web,
Fcr 2
1 0.078 (506.4-5) Table 502.4. 1
Lb S x h0 rt
rw = r, the limiting slenderness for a noncompact
rt web, Table 502.4. 1
I yc The effective radius of gyration for lateral-torsional

For 0.23 . J shall be taken as zero
Iy buckling, rt , is determined as follows:
The stress, FL, is determined as follows: 1. For I-shapes with a rectangular compression flange:
S xt b fc
For 0.7 rt (506.4-10)
S xc ho 1 h2
12 aw
FL 0 .7 F y (506.4-6a) d 6 ho d
S xt where
For 0.7
S xc
hc t w
S aw (506.4-11)
FL Fy xt 0.5Fy (506.4-6b) b fct fc
Sxc
bfc = compression flange width, mm
The limiting laterally unbraced length for the limit state of
tfc = compression flange thickness, mm
yielding, L p, is
2. For I-shapes with channel caps or cover plates attached
E to the compression flange:
Lp 1.1r1 (506.4-7)
Fy rt = radius of gyration of the flange components in
flexural compression plus one-third of the web
The limiting unbraced length for the limit state of inelastic area in compression due to application of major
lateral-torsional buckling, Lr, is axis bending moment alone, mm.
E J FL Sxch0
2 aw = the ratio of two times the web area in
Lt 1.95rt 1 1 6.76 compression due to application of major axis
FL Sxch0 E J
bending moment alone to the area of the
(506.4-8) compression flange components
The web plastification factor, R pc , is determined as
User Note: For I-shapes with a rectangular compression
follows: r,
flange, t may be approximated accurately and
hc conservatively as the radius of gyration of the
a. For pw compression flange plus one-third of the compression
tw
portion of the web; in other words,
Mp
R pc (506.4-9a) b fc
M yc rt
1
hc 12 1 aw
6
b. For pw
tw
506.4.3 Compression Flange Local Buckling
Mp Mp pw Mp
Rpc 1 1. For sections with compact flanges, the limit state of
Myc Myc rw pw Myc local buckling does not apply.
(506.4-9b) 2. For sections with non compact flanges
where

= hc/tw
pf
Mn RpcM yc RpcM yc FLSxc pw = p,the limiting slenderness for a compact web,
rf pf defined in Table 502.4. 1
(506.4-12) rw = r,the limiting slenderness for a non compact
web, defined in Table 502.4.1
3. For sections with slender flanges
0.9Ekc Sxc
Mn (506.4-13) Shaped Members with Slender Webs Bent about their
2
Major Axis
where This section applies to doubly symmetric and singly
FL = defined in Equations 506.4-6a and 506.4-6b symmetric I- shaped members with slender webs attached to
R pc = the web plastification factor, determined by the mid-width of the flanges, bent about their major axis, as
Equations 506.4-9 defined in Section 502.4
4 The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lowest value

kc and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor obtained according to the limit states of compression flange
h tw
greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes buckling and tension flange yielding.
= (bfc / 2tfc) 506.5.1 Compression Flange Yielding

pf = p ,the limiting slenderness for a compact
flange, Table 502.4.1 Mn Rpg Fy S xc (506.5-1)
rf = r,the limiting slenderness for a noncompact
flange, Table 502.4. 1
506.4.4 Tension Flange Yielding
Mn Rpg Fcr Sxc (506.5-2)
1. When S xt S xc the limit state of tension flange
yielding does not apply. 1. When Lb L p, the limit state of lateral-torsional
buckling does not apply.
2. When S xt S xc
2. When L <Lb Lr
Mn Rpt M yt (506.4-14)
p
Lb Lp
where Fcr Cb Fy 0 .3 F y Fy
Lr Lp
Myt=FySxt
(506.5-3)
The web plastification factor corresponding to the tension 3. When L b > L r
flange yielding limit state, R pt is determined as follows:
2
Cb E
h Fcr 2
Fy (506.5-4)
a. For c pw Lb
tw
rt
Mp where
R pt (506.4-15a)
M yt L p is defined by Equation 506.4-7
hc
b. For pw
tw E
Lr rt (506.5-5)
0.7 Fy
Mp Mp pw Mp
R pt 1
M yt M yt rw pw M yt R pg is the bending strength reduction factor:
(506.4-15b) aw hc E
R pg 1 5.7 1.0
where 1200 300aw t w Fy

(506.5-6) 506.6.1 Yielding

where Mn M p FyZy 1.6FySy (506.6-1)
aw = defined by Equation 506.4-11 but shall not
exceed 10 and 506.6.2 Flange Local Buckling
rt = the effective radius of gyration for lateral 1. For Sections with compact flanges the limit state of
buckling as defined in Section 506.4. yielding shall apply.
506.5.3 Compression Flange Local Buckling User Note: All current ASTM A6 W,S,M,C and MC shapes
except W21x48, W14x99, W14x90, W12x65, W10x12,
Mn R pg Fcr S xc (506.5-7) W8x31, W8x10, W6x15, W6x9, W6x8.5, and M4x6 have
compact flanges at Fy = 345 Mpa.
1. For sections with compact flanges, the limit state of
compression flange local buckling does not apply. 2. For sections with noncompact flanges
2. For sections with noncompact flanges pf

Mn Mp (Mp 0.7FyS) Mp
rf pf
pf
Fct Fy 0.3Fy (506.5-8)
rf pf
(506.6-2)
3. For sections with slender flange sections

Mn Fcr S y (506.6-3)
0.9 Ekc where

Fcr 2
(506.5-9)
bf 0.69E
Fcr 2 (506.6-4)
2t f
bf
where 2t f
4
kc and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor = b/t
h tw pf = p,the limiting slenderness for a compact flange,
greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes Table 502.4. 1
= bfc/2tfc rf = r,the limiting slenderness for a noncompact
pf = p,the limiting slenderness for a compact flange, flange,Table 502.4.1
Table 502.4.1 Sy = for a channel shall be taken as the minimum
rf = r,the limiting slenderness for a noncompact section modulus
506.7 Square and Rectangular HSS and Box-shaped
506.5.4 Tension Flange Yielding Members
1. When Sxt Sxc the limit state of tension flange This section applies to square and rectangular HSS, and
yielding does not apply. doubly symmetric box-shaped members bent about either
axis, having compact or non compact webs and compact,
2 . W h e n Sxt Sxc non compact or slender flanges as defined in Section 502.4.
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lowest value
Mn Fy S xt (506.5-10) obtained according to the limit states of yielding (plastic
moment), flange local buckling and web local buckling
under pure flexure.
506.6 I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent about their
Minor Axis 506.7.1 Yielding
This section applies to I-shaped members and channels bent
about their minor axis. Mn Mp FyZ (506.7-1)
where
The nominal flexural strength, Mn , shall be the lower value
obtained according to the limit states of yielding (plastic Z = plastic section modulus about the axis of
moment) and flange local buckling. bending, mm3

506.7.2 Flange Local Buckling

1. For compact sections, the limit state of flange local 0.021E
buckling does not apply. Mn Fy S (506.8-2)
D
2. For sections with non compact flanges t
3. For sections with slender walls
b Fy
Mn Mp (Mp FyS) 3.57 4.0 Mp
t E Mn Fcr S (506.8-3)
(506.7-2) where
3. For sections with slender flanges 0.33E
Fcr (506.8-4)
Mn Fy Seff (506.7-3) D
S = elastic section modulus, mm3
where
S eff is the effective section modulus determined with the 506.9 Tees and Double Angles Loaded in the Plane of
Symmetry
effective width of the compression flange taken as:
This section applies to tees and double angles loaded in the
E 0.38 E plane of symmetry.
bc 1.92t 1 b (506.7-4)
Fy bt Fy
obtained according to the limit states of yielding (plastic
506.7.3 Web Local Buckling moment), lateral-torsional buckling and flange local
buckling.
1. For compact sections, the limit state of web local
506.9.1 Yielding
2. For sections with non compact webs
Mn Mp (506.9-1)
h Fy
Mn Mp Mp Fy Sx 0.305 0.378 Mp where
tw E
Mp Fy Z x 1.6 M y for stems in tension (506.9-2)
(506.7-5) M y for stems in compression (506.9-3)
506.8 Round HSS
This section applies to round HSS having D/t ratios of less
0.45 E EI y GJ
than Mn M cr B 1 B2
Fy Lb
The nominal flexural strength, Mn , shall be the lower value (506.9-4)
obtained according to the limit states of yielding (plastic where
moment) and local buckling. d Iy
B 2.3 (506.9-5)
Lb J
506.8.1 Yielding
Mn MP FyZ (506.8-1) The plus sign for B applies when the stem is in tension and the
minus sign applies when the stem is in compression. If the tip
of the stem is in compression anywhere along the unbraced
506.8.2 Local Buckling length, the negative value of B shall be used.
1. For compact sections, the limit state of flange local
buckling does not apply. 506.9.3 Flange Local Buckling of Tees
2. For non compact sections MnFcrSxc (506.9-6)
S xc the elastic section modulus referred to the compression

flange. Fcr determined as follows:


My
buckling does not apply. Mn 1.92 1.17 My 1.5M y
Me
2. For non compact sections
(506.10-3)
bf Fy
Fct Fy 1.19 0.50 (506.9-7) where
2t f E
Me the elastic lateral-torsional buckling moment, is
3. For slender sections determined as follows:
0.69E 1. For bending about one of the geometric axes of an equal-

Fcr 2 leg angle with no lateral- torsional buckling moment
bf a. With maximum compression at the toe
2t f
(506.9-8) 2
0.66Eb4tCb Lt
Me 1 0.78 1
506.10 Single Angles L2 b2
This section applies to single angles with and without (506.10-4a)
continuous lateral restraint along their length.
b. With maximum tension at the toe
Single angles with continuous lateral-torsional restraint
along the length shall be permitted to be designed on the 0.66Eb4tCb Lt
Me 1 0.78 1
basis of geometric axis (x,y) bending. Single angles without L 2
b2
continuous lateral-torsional restraint along the length shall be
designed using the provisions for principal axis bending (506.10-4b)
except where the provision for bending about a geometric
axis is permitted. M y shall be taken as 0.80 times the yield moment calculated
using the geometric section modulus.
User Note: For geometric axis design, use section
properties computed about the x- and y-axis of the angle, User Note: M n may be taken as My for single angles with
parallel and perpendicular to the legs. For principal axis their vertical leg toe in compression, and having a span-to-
design use section properties computed about the major and depth ratio less than or equal to
minor principal axes of the angle.
2
1.64E t Fy
1.4
The nominal flexural strength, Mn shall be the lowest value Fy b E
moment), lateral-torsional buckling and leg local buckling. 1. For bending about one of the geometric axes of an
equal-leg angle withlateral-torsional restraint at the
506.10.1 Yielding point of maximum moment only
M n = 1.5My (506.10-1)
Me shall be taken as 1.25 times Me computed using
where Equation 506.10-4a or 506.10-4b
My = yield moment about the axis of bending, N- M y shall be taken as the yield moment calculated using the
mm. geometric section modulus.
506.10.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling 2. For bending about the major principal axis of equal-leg
angles:
For single angles without continuous lateral-torsional
restraint along the length (a) When M e M y 0.46Eb2t 2Cb
Me (506.10-5)
L
0.17Me
Mn 0.92 Me (506.10-2) 3. For bending about the major principal axis of unequal-leg
My angles:
when M e My

2 506.11 Rectangular Bars and Rounds

4.9 ElzCb 2 Lt
Me w 0.052 w This section applies to rectangular bars bent about either
L2 rz geometric axis and rounds.
(506.10-6)
The nominal flexural strength, M n , shall be the lower
where value obtained according to the limit states of yielding
(plastic moment) and lateral-torsional buckling, as required.
Cb = computed using Equation 506.1-1 with a
maximum value of 1.5. 506.11.1 Yielding
L = laterally unbraced length of a member, mm. Lb d 0.08E
Iz = minor principal axis moment of inertia, mm4. For rectangular bar with bent about their major
rz = radius of gyration for the minor principal axis, t2 Fy
mm. axis, rectangular bars bent about their minor axis, and rounds:
t = angle leg thickness, mm.
w = a section property for unequal leg angles, positive Mn M p Fy Z 1.6M y (506.11-1)
for short legs in compression and negative for
long legs in compression. If the long leg is in 506.11.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling
compression anywhere along the unbraced length
0.08E Lb d 1.9 E
of the member, the negative value of w shall be 1. For rectangular bars with 2
bent
used. Fy t Fy
about their major axis:
User Note: The equation for 3w and values for common
angle sizes are listed in the Commentary. Lb d Fy
Mn Cb 1.52 0.274 My Mp
506.10.3 Leg Local Buckling t2 E
The limit state of leg local buckling applies when the toe of (506.11-2)
the leg is in compression. Lb d 1.9E
2. For rectangular bars with bent about their
1. For compact sections, the limit state of leg local t2 Fy
buckling does not apply. major axis:
2. For sections with non compact legs Mn Fcr S x Mp (506.11-3)

b Fy
Mn Fy Sc 2.43 1.72 (506.10-7)
t E
3. For sections with slender legs

Mn Fcr Sc (506.10-8)
where
0.71E
Fcr 2
(506.10-9)
b
t
b = outside width of leg in compression, mm.

Sc = elastic section modulus to the toe in compression
relative to the axis of bending, mm3 . For
bending about one of the geometric axes of
an equal-leg angle with no lateral-torsional
restraint, Sc shall be 0.80 of the geometric axis
section modulus.

where 1. For Fu A fn Yt F y A fg , the limit state of tensile rupture

1.9ECb does not apply
Fcr (506.11-4)
Lb d
2. For Fu A fn Yt F y A fg , the nominal flexural strength, at
t2
the location of the holes in the tension flange shall not
t = width of rectangular bar parallel to axis of be taken greater than:
bending, mm.
d = depth of rectangular bar, in. mm.
Fu Afn
Mn Sx (506.13-1)
Lb = length between points that are either braced against Afg
lateral displacement of the compression region or
braced against twist of the cross section, in. mm. where
3. For rounds and rectangular bars bent about their minor Afg = gross tension flange area, calculated in
axis, the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling need accordance with the provisions of Section
not be considered. 504.3.1, mm2.
Afn = net tension flange area, calculated in accordance
506.12 Unsymmetrical Shapes with the provisions of Section 504.3.2, mm2.
This section applies to all unsymmetrical shapes, except Yt = 1.0 for Fy/Fu 0.80
single angles. = 1.1 otherwise
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lowest value 506.13.2 Proportioning Limits for I -Shaped Members
obtained according to the limit states of yielding (yield Singly symmetric I- shaped members shall satisfy the
moment), lateral-torsional buckling and local buckling where following limit:
M n Fn S (506.12-1) I yc
0.1 0.9 (506.13-2)
where Iy
S = lowest elastic modulus relative to the axis of I- shaped members with slender webs shall also satisfy the
bending, mm3. following limits:
506.12.1 Yielding a
1. For 1.5
h
Fn Fy (506.12-2)
h E
11.7 (506.13-3)
506.12.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling tw max
Fy
Fn Fcr Fy (506.12-3) 2. For

a
1.5
h
where
Fcr = buckling stress for the section as determined by
h 0.42 E
(506.13-4)
analysis, MPa. tw max
Fy
506.13 Proportions of Beams and Girders where

a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners, mm
506.13.1 Hole Reductions
This section applies to rolled or built-up shapes, and cover- In unstiffened girders h/tw shall not exceed 260. The ratio of the
plated beams with holes, proportioned on the basis of web area to the compression flange area shall not exceed 10.
flexural strength of the gross section.
506.13.3 Cover Plates
In addition to the limit states specified in other sections of
Flanges of welded beams or girders may be varied in
this section, the nominal flexural strength, Mn shall be thickness or width by splicing a series of plates or by the
limited according to the limit state of tensile rupture of the use of cover plates.
tension flange.
The total cross-sectional area of cover plates of bolted
girders shall not exceed 70 percent of the total flange area.

High-strength bolts or welds connecting flange to web, or

cover plate to flange, shall be proportioned to resist the total 1. When there is a continuous weld equal to or larger than
horizontal shear resulting from the bending forces on the three-fourths of the plate thickness across the end of the
girder. The longitudinal distribution of these bolts or plate
intermittent welds shall be in proportion to the intensity of
the shear. However, the longitudinal spacing shall not exceed a' = w (506.13-5)
the maximum permitted for compression or tension members
where
in Section 505.6 or 504.4, respectively. Bolts or welds
connecting flange to web shall also be proportioned to w = width of cover plate, mm
transmit to the web any loads applied directly to the flange,
2. When there is a continuous weld smaller than three-
unless provision is made to transmit such loads by direct
fourths of the plate thickness across the end of the plate
bearing.
a' = 1.5w (506.13-6)
Partial-length cover plates shall be extended beyond the
theoretical cutoff point and the extended portion shall be 3. When there is no weld across the end of the plate
attached to the beam or girder by high-strength bolts in a
slip-critical connection orfillet welds. The attachment shall be a' = 2w (506.13-7)
adequate, at the applicable strength given in Sections 510.2.2,
510.3.8, or 502.3.9 to develop the cover plate’s portion of the 506.13.4. Built-Up Beams
flexural strength in the beam or girder at the theoretical cutoff Where two or more beams or channels are used side-by-side
point. to form a flexural member, they shall be connected together
in compliance with Section 505.6.2. When concentrated
For welded cover plates, the welds connecting the cover plate loads are carried from one beam to another, or distributed
termination to the beam or girder shall have continuous between the beams, diaphragms having sufficient stiffness to
welds along both edges of the cover plate in the length a', distribute the load shall be welded or bolted between the
defined below, and shall be adequate to develop the cover beams.
plate’s portion of the strength of the beam or girder at the
distance a' from the end of the cover plate.

CE 405: Design of Steel Structures – Prof. Dr. A. Varma
CHAPTER 3. COMPRESSION MEMBER DESIGN
3.1 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
• Compression Members: Structural elements that are subjected to axial compressive forces
only are called columns. Columns are subjected to axial loads thru the centroid.
• Stress: The stress in the column cross-section can be calculated as
P
f = (2.1)
A
where, f is assumed to be uniform over the entire cross-section.
• This ideal state is never reached. The stress-state will be non-uniform due to:
- Accidental eccentricity of loading with respect to the centroid
- Member out-of –straightness (crookedness), or
- Residual stresses in the member cross-section due to fabrication processes.
• Accidental eccentricity and member out-of-straightness can cause bending moments in the
member. However, these are secondary and are usually ignored.
• Bending moments cannot be neglected if they are acting on the member. Members with axial
compression and bending moment are called beam-columns.
3.2 COLUMN BUCKLING
• Consider a long slender compression member. If an axial load P is applied and increased
slowly, it will ultimately reach a value Pcr that will cause buckling of the column. Pcr is called
the critical buckling load of the column.
1
P
(a) Pcr (b)
What is buckling?
Buckling occurs when a straight column
subjected to axial compression suddenly
undergoes bending as shown in the Figure 1(b).
Buckling is identified as a failure limit-state for
columns.
P
Pcr
Figure 1. Buckling of axially loaded compression members
• The critical buckling load Pcr for columns is theoretically given by Equation (3.1)
π2 E I
Pcr = (3.1)
( K L )2
where, I = moment of inertia about axis of buckling
K = effective length factor based on end boundary conditions
• Effective length factors are given on page 16.1-189 of the AISC manual.
2
• In examples, homeworks, and exams please state clearly whether you are using the
theoretical value of K or the recommended design values.
3
EXAMPLE 3.1 Determine the buckling strength of a W 12 x 50 column. Its length is 20 ft. For
major axis buckling, it is pinned at both ends. For minor buckling, is it pinned at one end and
fixed at the other end.
Solution
Step I. Visualize the problem
Figure 2. (a) Cross-section; (b) major-axis buckling; (c) minor-axis buckling
• For the W12 x 50 (or any wide flange section), x is the major axis and y is the minor axis.
Major axis means axis about which it has greater moment of inertia (Ix > Iy)
Figure 3. (a) Major axis buckling; (b) minor axis buckling
4
Step II. Determine the effective lengths
• According to Table C-C2.1 of the AISC Manual (see page 16.1 - 189):
- For pin-pin end conditions about the minor axis
Ky = 1.0 (theoretical value); and Ky = 1.0 (recommended design value)
- For pin-fix end conditions about the major axis
Kx = 0.7 (theoretical value); and Kx = 0.8 (recommended design value)
• According to the problem statement, the unsupported length for buckling about the major (x)
axis = Lx = 20 ft.
• The unsupported length for buckling about the minor (y) axis = Ly = 20 ft.
• Effective length for major (x) axis buckling = Kx Lx = 0.8 x 20 = 16 ft. = 192 in.
• Effective length for minor (y) axis buckling = Ky Ly = 1.0 x 20 = 20 ft. = 240 in.
Step III. Determine the relevant section properties
• For W12 x 50: elastic modulus = E = 29000 ksi (constant for all steels)
• For W12 x 50: Ix = 391 in4. Iy = 56.3 in4 (see page 1-21 of the AISC manual)
Step IV. Calculate the buckling strength
π2 E I x π 2 × 29000× 391
• Critical load for buckling about x - axis = Pcr-x = =
(K x L x )2 (192)2
Pcr-x = 3035.8 kips
π2 E I y π 2 × 29000× 56.3
• Critical load for buckling about y-axis = Pcr-y = =
(K y L y )2 (240)2
Pcr-y = 279.8 kips
• Buckling strength of the column = smaller (Pcr-x, Pcr-y) = Pcr = 279.8 kips
Minor (y) axis buckling governs.
5
• Notes:
- Minor axis buckling usually governs for all doubly symmetric cross-sections. However, for
some cases, major (x) axis buckling can govern.
- Note that the steel yield stress was irrelevant for calculating this buckling strength.
3.3 INELASTIC COLUMN BUCKLING
• Let us consider the previous example. According to our calculations Pcr = 279.8 kips. This Pcr
will cause a uniform stress f = Pcr/A in the cross-section
• For W12 x 50, A = 14.6 in2. Therefore, for Pcr = 279.8 kips; f = 19.16 ksi
The calculated value of f is within the elastic range for a 50 ksi yield stress material.
π2 E I y
• However, if the unsupported length was only 10 ft., Pcr = would be calculated as
(K y L y )2
1119 kips, and f = 76.6 kips.
• This value of f is ridiculous because the material will yield at 50 ksi and never develop f =
76.6 kips. The member would yield before buckling.
• Equation (3.1) is valid only when the material everywhere in the cross-section is in the
elastic region. If the material goes inelastic then Equation (3.1) becomes useless and
cannot be used.
• What happens in the inelastic range?
Several other problems appear in the inelastic range.
- The member out-of-straightness has a significant influence on the buckling strength in
the inelastic region. It must be accounted for.
6
- The residual stresses in the member due to the fabrication process causes yielding in the
cross-section much before the uniform stress f reaches the yield stress Fy.
- The shape of the cross-section (W, C, etc.) also influences the buckling strength.
- In the inelastic range, the steel material can undergo strain hardening.
All of these are very advanced concepts and beyond the scope of CE405. You are welcome
to CE805 to develop a better understanding of these issues.
• So, what should we do? We will directly look at the AISC Specifications for the strength of
compression members, i.e., Chapter E (page 16.1-27 of the AISC manual).
3.4 AISC SPECIFICATIONS FOR COLUMN STRENGTH
• The AISC specifications for column design are based on several years of research.
• These specifications account for the elastic and inelastic buckling of columns including all
issues (member crookedness, residual stresses, accidental eccentricity etc.) mentioned above.
• The specification presented here (AISC Spec E2) will work for all doubly symmetric cross-
sections and channel sections.
• The design strength of columns for the flexural buckling limit state is equal to φcPn
Where, φc = 0.85 (Resistance factor for compression members)
Pn = Ag Fcr (3.2)
- For λc ≤ 1.5 (
Fcr = 0.658 λ c Fy
2
) (3.3)
 0.877 
- For λc > 1.5 Fcr =  2  Fy (3.4)
 λ c 
K L Fy
Where, λc = (3.5)
rπ E
7
Ag = gross member area; K = effective length factor

L = unbraced length of the member; r = governing radius of gyration
1.0
(
Fcr = 0.658 λ c
2
)Fy
Fcr/Fy
 0.877 
0.39 Fcr =  2  Fy
 λ c 
K L Fy 1.5
λc =
rπ E
π2E I
• Note that the original Euler buckling equation is Pcr =
(K L )2
Pcr π2E I π2E 2 π2E
∴ Fcr = = × = × r =
A g (K L )2 A g (K L )2 K L
2
 
 r 
F π2E 1 1
∴ cr = 2
= 2
= 2
Fy  K L   F  λc
  × Fy  K L × y 
 r   rπ E 

1
∴ Fcr = Fy × 2
λc
0.877
• Note that the AISC equation for λc < 1.5 is Fcr = Fy ×
λ2c
- The 0.877 factor tries to account for initial crookedness.
• For a given column section:
- Calculate I, Ag, r
- Determine effective length K L based on end boundary conditions.
- Calculate λc
- If λc is greater than 1.5, elastic buckling occurs and use Equation (3.4)
8
- If λc is less than or equal to 1.5, inelastic buckling occurs and use Equation (3.3)
• Note that the column can develop its yield strength Fy as λc approaches zero.
3.5 COLUMN STRENGTH
• In order to simplify calculations, the AISC specification includes Tables.
- Table 3-36 on page 16.1-143 shows KL/r vs. φcFcr for steels with Fy = 36 ksi.
- You can calculate KL/r for the column, then read the value of φcFcr from this table
- The column strength will be equal to φcFcr x Ag
- Table 3-50 on page 16.1-145 shows KL/r vs. φcFcr for steels with Fy = 50 ksi.
• In order to simplify calculations, the AISC specification includes more Tables.
- Table 4 on page 16.1-147 shows λc vs. φcFcr/Fy for all steels with any Fy.
- You can calculate λc for the column, the read the value of φcFcr/Fy
- The column strength will be equal to φcFcr/Fy x (Ag x Fy)
EXAMPLE 3.2 Calculate the design strength of W14 x 74 with length of 20 ft. and pinned ends.
A36 steel is used.
Solution
• Step I. Calculate the effective length and slenderness ratio for the problem
Kx = Ky = 1.0
Lx = Ly = 240 in.
Major axis slenderness ratio = KxLx/rx = 240/6.04 = 39.735
Minor axis slenderness ratio = KyLy/ry = 240/2.48 = 96.77
• Step II. Calculate the buckling strength for governing slenderness ratio
9
The governing slenderness ratio is the larger of (KxLx/rx, KyLy/ry)
K y Ly Fy
KyLy/ry is larger and the governing slenderness ratio; λc = = 1.085
ry π E
λc < 1.5; (
Therefore, Fcr = 0.658 λ c Fy
2
)
Therefore, Fcr = 21.99 ksi
Design column strength = φcPn = 0.85 (Ag Fcr) = 0.85 (21.8 in2 x 21.99 ksi) = 408 kips
Design strength of column = 408 kips
• Check calculated values with Table 3-36. For KL/r = 97, φcFcr = 18.7 ksi
• Check calculated values with Table 4. For λc = 1.08, φcFcr = 0.521
10
3.6 LOCAL BUCKLING LIMIT STATE
• The AISC specifications for column strength assume that column buckling is the governing
limit state. However, if the column section is made of thin (slender) plate elements, then
failure can occur due to local buckling of the flanges or the webs.
Figure 4. Local buckling of columns
• If local buckling of the individual plate elements occurs, then the column may not be able to
develop its buckling strength.
• Therefore, the local buckling limit state must be prevented from controlling the column
strength.
• Local buckling depends on the slenderness (width-to-thickness b/t ratio) of the plate element
and the yield stress (Fy) of the material.
• Each plate element must be stocky enough, i.e., have a b/t ratio that prevents local buckling
from governing the column strength.
11
• The AISC specification B5 provides the slenderness (b/t) limits that the individual plate
elements must satisfy so that local buckling does not control.
• The AISC specification provides two slenderness limits (λp and λr) for the local buckling of
plate elements.
Compact
Fy
Non-Compact
Axial Force, F
Slender
F b
Axial shortening, ∆
Figure 5. Local buckling behavior and classification of plate elements
- If the slenderness ratio (b/t) of the plate element is greater than λr then it is slender. It will
locally buckle in the elastic range before reaching Fy
- If the slenderness ratio (b/t) of the plate element is less than λr but greater than λp, then it
is non-compact. It will locally buckle immediately after reaching Fy
- If the slenderness ratio (b/t) of the plate element is less than λp, then the element is
compact. It will locally buckle much after reaching Fy
• If all the plate elements of a cross-section are compact, then the section is compact.
- If any one plate element is non-compact, then the cross-section is non-compact
- If any one plate element is slender, then the cross-section is slender.
• The slenderness limits λp and λr for various plate elements with different boundary
conditions are given in Table B5.1 on pages 16.1-14 and 16.1-15 of the AISC Spec.
12
• Note that the slenderness limits (λp and λr) and the definition of plate slenderness (b/t) ratio
depend upon the boundary conditions for the plate.
- If the plate is supported along two edges parallel to the direction of compression force,
then it is a stiffened element. For example, the webs of W shapes
- If the plate is supported along only one edge parallel to the direction of the compression
force, then it is an unstiffened element. Ex., the flanges of W shapes.
• The local buckling limit state can be prevented from controlling the column strength by using
sections that are non-compact
- If all the elements of the cross-section have calculated slenderness (b/t) ratio less than λr,
then the local buckling limit state will not control.
- For the definitions of b/t, λp, λr for various situations see Table B5.1 and Spec B5.
EXAMPLE 3.3 Determine the local buckling slenderness limits and evaluate the W14 x 74
section used in Example 3.2. Does local buckling limit the column strength?
Solution
• Step I. Calculate the slenderness limits
See Table B5.1 on page 16.1 – 14.
- For the flanges of I-shape sections in pure compression
E 29000
λr = 0.56 x = 0.56 x = 15.9
Fy 36
- For the webs of I-shapes section in pure compression
E 29000
λr = 0.56 x = 0.56 x = 15.9
Fy 36
13
E 29000
λr = 1.49 x = 1.49 x = 42.3
Fy 36
• Step II. Calculate the slenderness ratios for the flanges and webs of W14 x 74
- For the flanges of I-shape member, b = bf/2 = flange width / 2
Therefore, b/t = bf/2tf. (See pg. 16.1-12 of AISC)
For W 14 x 74, bf/2tf = 6.41 (See Page 1-19 in AISC)
- For the webs of I shaped member, b = h
h is the clear distance between flanges less the fillet / corner radius of each flange
For W14 x 74, h/tw = 25.4 (See Page 1-19 in AISC)
• Step III. Make the comparisons and comment
For the flanges, b/t < λr. Therefore, the flange is non-compact
For the webs, h/tw < λr. Therefore the web is non-compact
Therefore, the section is compact
Therefore, local buckling will not limit the column strength.
3.7 COLUMN DESIGN
• The AISC manual has tables for column strength. See page 4-21 onwards.
• For wide flange sections, the column buckling strength (φcPn) is tabulated with respect to the
effective length about the minor axis KyLy in Table 4-2.
- The table takes the KyLy value for a section, and internally calculates the KyLy/ry, then λc
K y Ly Fy
= ; and then the tabulated column strength using either Equation E2-2 or
ry π E
E2-3 of the specification.
14
• If you want to use the Table 4-2 for calculating the column strength for buckling about the
major axis, then do the following:
K xLx
- Take the major axis KxLx value. Calculate an equivalent (KL)eq =
rx / ry
- Use the calculated (KL)eq value to find (φcPn) the column strength for buckling about the
major axis from Table (4-2)
• For example, consider a W14 x 74 column with KyLy = 20 ft. and KxLx = 25 ft.
- Material has yield stress = 50 ksi (always in Table 4-2).
- See Table 4-2, for KyLy = 20 ft., φcPn = 467 kips (minor axis buckling strength)
- rx/ry for W14x74 = 2.44 from Table 4-2 (see page 4-23 of AISC).
- For KxLx = 25 ft., (KL)eq = 25/2.44 = 10.25 ft.
- For (KL)eq = 10.25 ft., φcPn = 774 kips (major axis buckling strength)
- If calculated value of (KL)eq < KyLy then minor axis buckling will govern.
EXAMPLE 3.4 Determine the design strength of an ASTM A992 W14 x 132 that is part of a
braced frame. Assume that the physical length L = 30 ft., the ends are pinned and the column is
braced at the ends only for the X-X axis and braced at the ends and mid-height for the Y-Y axis.
Solution
• Step I. Calculate the effective lengths.
For W14 x 132: rx = 6.28 in; ry = 3.76 in; Ag =38.8 in2
Kx = 1.0 and Ky = 1.0
Lx = 30 ft. and Ly = 15 ft.
KxLx = 30 ft. and KyLy = 15 ft.
• Step II. Determine the governing slenderness ratio
15
KxLx/rx = 30 x 12 in./6.28 in.= 57.32
KyLy/ry = 15 x 12 in./3.76 in. = 47.87
The larger slenderness ratio, therefore, buckling about the major axis will govern the column
strength.
• Step III. Calculate the column strength
K xLx 30
KxLx = 30 ft. Therefore, (KL)eq = = = 17.96 ft.
rx / ry 6.28 / 3.76
From Table 4-2, for (KL)eq = 18.0 ft. φcPn = 1300 kips (design column strength)
• Step IV. Check the local buckling limits
E
For the flanges, bf/2tf = 7.15 < λr = 0.56 x = 13.5
Fy
E
For the web, h/tw = 17.7 < λr = 1.49 x = 35.9
Fy
Therefore, the section is non-compact. OK.
EXAMPLE 3.5 A compression member is subjected to service loads of 165 kips dead load and
535 kips of live load. The member is 26 ft. long and pinned at each end. Use A992 (50 ksi) steel
and select a W shape
Solution
• Calculate the factored design load Pu
Pu = 1.2 PD + 1.6 PL = 1.2 x 165 + 1.6 x 535 = 1054 kips
• Select a W shape from the AISC manual Tables
For KyLy = 26 ft. and required strength = 1054 kips
- Select W14 x 145 from page 4-22. It has φcPn = 1160 kips
16
- Select W12 x 170 from page 4-24. It has φcPn = 1070 kips
- No no W10 will work. See Page 4-26
- W14 x 145 is the lightest.
• Note that column sections are usually W12 or W14. Usually sections bigger than W14 are
usually not used as columns.
3.8 EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF COLUMNS IN FRAMES
• So far, we have looked at the buckling strength of individual columns. These columns had
various boundary conditions at the ends, but they were not connected to other members with
moment (fix) connections.
• The effective length factor K for the buckling of an individual column can be obtained for the
appropriate end conditions from Table C-C2.1 of the AISC Manual .
• However, when these individual columns are part of a frame, their ends are connected to
other members (beams etc.).
- Their effective length factor K will depend on the restraint offered by the other members
connected at the ends.
- Therefore, the effective length factor K will depend on the relative rigidity (stiffness) of
the members connected at the ends.
The effective length factor for columns in frames must be calculated as follows:
• First, you have to determine whether the column is part of a braced frame or an unbraced
(moment resisting) frame.
- If the column is part of a braced frame then its effective length factor 0 < K ≤ 1
- If the column is part of an unbraced frame then 1 < K ≤ ∞
17
• Then, you have to determine the relative rigidity factor G for both ends of the column
- G is defined as the ratio of the summation of the rigidity (EI/L) of all columns coming
together at an end to the summation of the rigidity (EI/L) of all beams coming together at
the same end.
E Ic
Lc
∑
- G= - It must be calculated for both ends of the column.
EI
∑ Lb
b
• Then, you can determine the effective length factor K for the column using the calculated
value of G at both ends, i.e., GA and GB and the appropriate alignment chart
• There are two alignment charts provided by the AISC manual,
- One is for columns in braced (sidesway inhibited) frames. See Figure C-C2.2a on page
16.1-191 of the AISC manual. 0 < K ≤ 1
- The second is for columns in unbraced (sidesway uninhibited) frames. See Figure C-
C2.2b on page 16.1-192 of the AISC manual. 1 < K ≤ ∞
- The procedure for calculating G is the same for both cases.
18
EXAMPLE 3.6 Calculate the effective length factor for the W12 x 53 column AB of the frame
shown below. Assume that the column is oriented in such a way that major axis bending occurs
in the plane of the frame. Assume that the columns are braced at each story level for out-of-plane
buckling. Assume that the same column section is used for the stories above and below.
10 ft.
W14 x 68
10 ft.
W14 x 68 A
12 ft.
W14 x 68
B
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
15 ft.
18 ft. 18 ft. 20 ft.
Step I. Identify the frame type and calculate Lx, Ly, Kx, and Ky if possible.
• It is an unbraced (sidesway uninhibited) frame.
• Lx = Ly = 12 ft.
• Ky = 1.0
• Kx depends on boundary conditions, which involve restraints due to beams and columns
connected to the ends of column AB.
• Need to calculate Kx using alignment charts.
Step II - Calculate Kx
• Ixx of W 12 x 53 = 425 in4 Ixx of W14x68 = 753
19
Ic 425 425
∑ +
L c 10 × 12 12 × 12 6.493
• GA = = = = 1.021
Ib 723 723 6.360
∑ +
L b 18 × 12 20 × 12
Ic 425 425
∑ +
L c 12 × 12 15 × 12 5.3125
• GB = = = = 0.835
Ib 723 723 6.360
∑ +
L b 18 × 12 20 × 12
• Using GA and GB: Kx = 1.3 - from Alignment Chart on Page 3-6
Step III – Design strength of the column
• KyLy = 1.0 x 12 = 12 ft.
• Kx Lx = 1.3 x 12 = 15.6 ft.
- rx / ry for W12x53 = 2.11
- (KL)eq = 15.6 / 2.11 = 7.4 ft.
• KyLy > (KL)eq
• Therefore, y-axis buckling governs. Therefore φcPn = 518 kips
3.8.1 Inelastic Stiffness Reduction Factor – Modification
• This concept for calculating the effective length of columns in frames was widely accepted
for many years.
• Over the past few years, a lot of modifications have been proposed to this method due to its
several assumptions and limitation. Most of these modifications have not yet been accepted
in to the AISC provisions.
• One of the accepted modifications is the inelastic stiffness reduction factor. As presented
earlier, G is a measure of the relative flexural rigidity of the columns (EIc/Lc) with respect to
the beams (EIb/Lb)
20
- However, if column buckling were to occur in the inelastic range (λc < 1.5), then the
flexural rigidity of the column will be reduced because Ic will be the moment of inertia of
only the elastic core of the entire cross-section. See figure below
σrc = 10 ksi
σrt = 5 ksi
Yielded zone
σrt = 5 ksi
Elastic core, Ic
σrc = 10 ksi
σrt = 5 ksi
(a) Initial state – residual stress (b) Partially y ielded state at buckling
- The beams will have greater flexural rigidity when compared with the reduced rigidity
(EIc) of the inelastic columns. As a result, the beams will be able to restrain the columns
better, which is good for column design.
- This effect is incorporated in to the AISC column design method through the use of Table
4-1 given on page 4-20 of the AISC manual.
- Table 4-1 gives the stiffness reduction factor (τ) as a function of the yield stress Fy and
the stress Pu/Ag in the column, where Pu is factored design load (analysis)
21
EXAMPLE 3.7 Calculate the effective length factor for a W10 x 60 column AB made from 50
ksi steel in the unbraced frame shown below. Column AB has a design factor load Pu = 450 kips.
The columns are oriented such that major axis bending occurs in the plane of the frame. The
columns are braced continuously along the length for out-of-plane buckling. Assume that the
same column section is used for the story above
W14 x 74
12 ft.
W14 x 74
A
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
15 ft.
18 ft. 18 ft. 20 ft.
Solution
Step I. Identify the frame type and calculate Lx, Ly, Kx, and Ky if possible.
• Ly = 0 ft.
• Ky has no meaning because out-of-plane buckling is not possible.
Step II (a) - Calculate Kx
• Ixx of W 14 x 74 = 796 in4 Ixx of W 10 x 60 = 341 in4
22
Ic 341 341
∑ +
L c 12 × 12 15 × 12 4.2625
• GA = = = = 0.609
Ib 796 796 7.002
∑ +
L b 18 × 12 20 × 12
• G B = 10 - for pin support, see note on Page 16.1-191
• Using GA and GB: Kx = 1.8 - from Alignment Chart on Page 16.1-192
• Note, Kx is greater than 1.0 because it is an unbraced frame.
Step II (b) - Calculate Kx– inelastic using stiffness reduction factor method
• Reduction in the flexural rigidity of the column due to residual stress effects
- First calculate, Pu / Ag = 450 / 17.6 = 25.57 ksi
- Then go to Table 4-1 on page 4-20 of the manual, and read the value of stiffness
reduction factor for Fy = 50 ksi and Pu/Ag = 25.57 ksi.
- Stiffness reduction factor = τ = 0.833
• GA-inelastic = τ x GA = 0.833 x 0.609 = 0.507
• GB = 10 - for pin support, see note on Page 16.1-191
• Using GA-inelastic and GB, Kx-inelastic = 1.75 - alignment chart on Page 16.1-192
• Note: You can combine Steps II (a) and (b) to calculate the Kx-inelastic directly. You don’t need
to calculate elastic Kx first. It was done here for demonstration purposes.
• Note that Kx-inelastic< Kx. This is in agreement with the fact that the beams offer better
resistance to the inelastic column AB because it has reduced flexural rigidity.
Step III – Design strength of the column
• KxLx = 1.75 x 15 = 26.25 ft.
- rx / ry for W10x60 = 1.71 - from Table 4-2, see page 4-26
- (KL)eq = 26.25/1.71 = 15.35 ft.
23
• φcPn for X-axis buckling = 513.9 kips - from Table 4-2, see page 4-26
• Section slightly over-designed for Pu = 450 kips.
Column design strength = φcPn = 513.9 kips
EXAMPLE 3.8:
• Design Column AB of the frame shown below for a design load of 500 kips.
• Assume that the column is oriented in such a way that major axis bending occurs in the plane
of the frame.
• Assume that the columns are braced at each story level for out-of-plane buckling.
• Assume that the same column section is used for the stories above and below.
10 ft.
W14 x 68
10 ft.
W14 x 68 A
12 ft.
W14 x 68
B
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
15 ft.
18 ft. 18 ft. 20 ft.
Step I - Determine the design load and assume the steel material.
• Design Load = Pu = 500 kips
• Steel yield stress = 50 ksi (A992 material)
Step II. Identify the frame type and calculate Lx, Ly, Kx, and Ky if possible.
24
• Lx = Ly = 12 ft.
• Ky = 1.0
• Need to select a section to calculate Kx
Step III - Select a column section

• Assume minor axis buckling governs.
• Ky Ly = 12 ft.
• See Column Tables in AISC-LRFD manual
Select section W12x53
• φcPn for y-axis buckling = 518 kips
Step IV - Calculate Kx-inelastic

• Ixx of W 12 x 53 =425 in4 Ixx of W14x68 = 753 in4
• Account for the reduced flexural rigidity of the column due to residual stress effects
- Pu/Ag = 500 / 15.6 = 32.05 ksi
Ic  425 425 
τ×∑ 0.58 ×  + 
• GA =
Lc
=  10 × 12 12 × 12  = 3.766 = 0.592
I 723 723 6.360
∑ Lb +
18 × 12 20 × 12
b
Ic  425 425 
τ× ∑ 0.58 ×  + 
Lc  12 × 12 15 × 12  3.0812
• GB = = = = 0.484
I 723 723 6.360
∑ Lb +
18 × 12 20 × 12
b
• Using GA and GB: Kx-inelastic = 1.2 - from Alignment Chart
Step V - Check the selected section for X-axis buckling

• Kx Lx = 1.2 x 12 = 14.4 ft.
• rx / ry for W12x53 = 2.11
25
• Calculate (KL)eq to determine strength (φcPn) for X-axis buckling

(KL)eq = 14.4 / 2.11 = 6.825 ft.
• From the column design tables, φcPn for X-axis buckling = 612.3 kips
Step VI. Check the local buckling limits

E
Fy
E
Fy
Therefore, the section is non-compact. OK, local buckling is not a problem
Step VII - Summarize the solution
Lx = Ly = 12 ft. Ky = 1.0
Kx = 1.2 (inelastic buckling - sway frame-alignment chart method)
φcPn for Y-axis buckling = 518 kips
φcPn for X-axis buckling = 612.3 kips
Y-axis buckling governs the design.
Selected Section is W12 x 53 made from 50 ksi steel.
26
EXAMPLE 3.9
• Design Column AB of the frame shown below for a design load of 450 kips.
• Assume that the column is oriented in such a way that major axis bending occurs in the plane
of the frame.
• Assume that the columns are braced continuously along the length for out-of-plane buckling.
• Assume that the same column section is used for the story above.
W14 x 74
12 ft.
W14 x 74
A
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
15 ft.
18 ft. 18 ft. 20 ft.
Step I - Determine the design load and assume the steel material.
• Design Load = Pu = 450 kips
• Steel yield stress = 50 ksi
Step II. Identify the frame type and calculate Lx, Ly, Kx, and Ky if possible.
• Ly = 0 ft.
• Ky has no meaning because out-of-plane buckling is not possible.
• Need to select a section to calculate Kx
27
Step III. Select a section

• There is no help from the minor axis to select a section
• Need to assume Kx to select a section.
See Figure below:
W14 x 74
12 ft.
W14 x 74
A
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
15 ft.
Kx = 2.0
18 ft. 18 ft. 20 ft.
Best Case Scenario
• The best case scenario for Kx is when the beams connected at joint A have infinite flexural
stiffness (rigid). In that case Kx = 2.0 from Table C-C2.1
• Actually, the beams don't have infinite flexural stiffness. Therefore, calculated Kx should be
greater than 2.0.
• To select a section, assume Kx = 2.0
- KxLx = 2.0 x 15.0 ft. = 30.0 ft.
• Need to be able to calculate (KL)eq to be able to use the column design tables to select a
section. Therefore, need to assume a value of rx/ry to select a section.
- See the W10 column tables on page 4-26.
- Assume rx/ry = 1.71, which is valid for W10 x 49 to W10 x 68.
• (KL)eq = 30.0/1.71 = 17.54 ft.
- Obviously from the Tables, for (KL)eq = 17.5 ft., W10 x 60 is the first section that will
have φcPn > 450 kips
• Select W10x60 with φcPn = 457.7 kips for (KL)eq = 17.5 ft.
28
Step IV - Calculate Kx-inelastic using selected section

• Ixx of W 14 x 74 = 796 in4 Ixx of W 10 x 60 = 341 in4
• Account for the reduced flexural rigidity of the column due to residual stress effects
- Pu/Ag = 450 / 17.6 = 25.57 ksi
Ic  341 341 
τ×∑ 0.833 ×  + 
Lc  12 × 12 15 × 12  3.550
• GA = = = = 0.507
I 796 796 7.002
∑ Lb +
18 × 12 20 × 12
b
• G B = 10 - for pin support

• Using GA and GB: Kx-inelastic = 1.75 - from Alignment Chart on Page 3-6
• Calculate value of Kx-inelastic is less than 2.0 (the assumed value) because GB was assumed to
be equal to 10 instead of ∞
Step V - Check the selected section for X-axis buckling

• Kx Lx = 1.75 x 15 = 26.25 ft.
- rx / ry for W10x60 = 1.71
- (KL)eq = 26.25/1.71 = 15.35 ft.
- (φcPn) for X-axis buckling = 513.9 kips
• Section slightly over-designed for Pu = 450 kips.
• W10 x 54 will probably be adequate, Student should check by calculating Kx inelastic and
φcPn for that section.
Step VI. Check the local buckling limits

E
Fy
E
Fy
Therefore, the section is non-compact. OK, local buckling is not a problem
29
• Step VII - Summarize the solution
Ly = 0 ft. Ky = no buckling
Kx = 1.75 (inelastic buckling - sway frame - alignment chart method)
φcPn for X-axis buckling = 513.9 kips
X-axis buckling governs the design.
Selected section is W10 x 60
(W10 x 54 will probably be adequate).
30
3.9 DESIGN OF SINGLY SYMMETRIC CROSS-SECTIONS
• So far, we have been talking about doubly symmetric wide-flange (I-shaped) sections and
channel sections. These rolled shapes always fail by flexural buckling.
• Singly symmetric (Tees and double angle) sections fail either by flexural buckling about the
axis of non-symmetry or by flexural-torsional buckling about the axis of symmetry and the
longitudinal axis.
Figure 6(a). Flexural buckling Figure 6(b). Flexural-torsional buckling
Flexural buckling will occur about the x-axis

y
Flexural-torsional buckling will occur about the y and z-axis

x
z Smaller of the two will govern the design strength
Figure 6(c). Singly symmetric cross-section
• The AISC specification for flexural-torsional buckling is given by Spec. E3.
Design strength = φcPn = 0.85 Ag Fcrft (1)
 Fcry + Fcrz  4 Fcry Fcrz H 

Where, Fcrft =   1 − 1 −
  (2)
 2H  (Fcry + Fcrz ) 2 
Fcry = critical stress for buckling about the y-axis, see Spec. E2. (3)
31
GJ
Fcrz = (4)
A ro 2
Ix + Iy
ro2 = polar radius of gyration about shear center (in.) = y o2 + (5)
A
y o2
H=1- (6)
ro2
yo = distance between shear center and centroid (in.) (7)
• The section properties for calculating the flexural-torsional buckling strength Fcrft are given
as follows:
E
- G=
2 (1 + υ)
- J, ro2 , H are given for WT shapes in Table 1-32 on page 1-101 to page 1-105
- ro2 , H are given for double-angle shapes in Table 1-35 on page 1-108 to 1-110
- J for single-angle shape in Table 1-31 on page 1-98 to 1-100. (J2L = 2 x JL)
• The design tables for WT shapes given in Table 4-5 on page 4-35 to 4-47. These design
tables include the axial compressive strength for flexural buckling about the x axis and
flexural-torsional buckling about the y and z axis.
32
EXAMPLE 3.10 Calculate the design compressive strength of a WT10.5 x 66. The effective
length with respect to x-axis is 25ft. 6in. The effective length with respect to the y-axis is 20 ft.
and the effective length with respect to z-axis is 20ft. A992 steel is used.
Solution
• Step I. Buckling strength about x-axis
K x Lx Fy 306 50
λc-x = = = 1.321
rx π E 3.06 × 3.1416 29000
φcPn = 0.85 x (0.658)1.321 x 50 x 19.4 = 397.2 kips

2
Values for Ag and rx from page 4-41 of the manual. Compare with tabulated design strength
for buckling about x-axis in Table 4-5
• Step II. Flexural-torsional buckling about the y and z axes
- Calculate Fcry and Fcrz then calculate Fcrft and φcPn
K y Ly Fy 240 50
- λc-y = = = 1.083
ry π E 2.93 × 3.1416 29000
Fcry = (0.658)1.083 x 50 = 30.6 ksi

2
-
- Fcrz = GJ/A ro2 = 11,153 x 5.62/(4.602 x 19.4) = 152.69
   4 × 30.6 ×152.7 × 0.844 

Fcrft =  Fcry + Fcrz  1 − 1 − 4 Fcry Fcrz H  =  30.6 + 152.7 1 − 1 −

- 
 2 H  (Fcry + Fcrz ) 2   2 × 0.844  (30.6 + 152.7) 2 
   
Fcrft =108.58 x 0.272 = 29.534 ksi
- φcPn = 0.85 x Fcrft x Ag = 0.85 x 29.534 x 19.4 = 487 kips
33
Values for J, ro2 , and H were obtained from flexural-torsional properties given in Table 1-32
on page 1-102. Compare the φcPn value with the value reported in Table 4-5 (page 4-41) of
the AISC manual.
• Step III. Design strength and check local buckling
E
Flanges: bf/2tf = 12.4/(2 x 1.03) = 6.02 , which is < λr = 0.56 x = 13.5
Fy
E
Stem of Tee: d/tw = 10.9/0.65 = 16.77, which is < λr = 0.75 x = 18.08
Fy
Local buckling is not a problem. Design strength = 397.2 kips. X-axis flexural buckling
governs.
3.10 DESIGN OF DOUBLE ANGLE SECTIONS
• Double-angle sections are very popular as compression members in trusses and bracing
members in frames.
- These sections consist of two angles placed back-to-back and connected together using
bolts or welds.
- You have to make sure that the two single angle sections are connected such that they do
not buckle (individually) between the connections along the length.
- The AISC specification E4.2 requires that Ka/rz of the individual single angles < ¾ of the
governing KL/r of the double angle.
- where, a is the distance between connections and rz is the smallest radius of gyration
of the single angle (see dimensions in Table 1-7)
• Double-angle sections can fail by flexural buckling about the x-axis or flexural torsional
buckling about the y and z axes.
34
- For flexural buckling about the x-axis, the moment of inertia Ix-2L of the double angle will
be equal to two times the moment of inertia Ix-L of each single angle.
- For flexural torsional buckling, there is a slight problem. The double angle section will
have some additional flexibility due to the intermittent connectors. This added flexibility
will depend on the connection parameters.
• According to AISC Specification E4.1, a modified (KL/r)m must be calculated for the double
angle section for buckling about the y-axis to account for this added flexibility
2 2
 KL   KL   a 
- 
Intermediate connectors that are snug-tight bolted  r  =   +  
m  r  o  rz 
- Intermediate connectors that are welded or fully tensioned bolted:

2
 KL   KL 
2
α2 a 
  =   + 0.82  
 r m  r o 1+ α2  ry 
 
where, α = separation ratio = h/2ry
h = distance between component centroids in the y direction
35
3/8
EXAMPLE 3.11 Calculate the design strength of the compression
member shown in the figure. Two angles, 5 x 3 x ½ are oriented with the
5 x 3 x½
long legs back-to-back and separated by 3/8 in. The effective length KL is
0.746 0.746
16 ft. A36 steel is used. Assume three welded intermediate connectors
Solution
Step I. Determine the relevant properties from the AISC manual
Property Single angle Double angle
Ag 3.75 in2 7.5 in2
rx 1.58 in. 1.58 in.
ry 0.824 in. 1.24 in.
rz 0.642 in. -----
J 0.322 in4 0.644 in4
ro2 2.51 in.
H 0.646
AISC Page no. 1-36, 1-37, 1-99 1-75, 1-109
Step II. Calculate the x-axis buckling strength

• KL/rx = 16 x 12 /1.58 = 120.8
K x Lx Fy 120.8 36
• λc-x = = = 1.355
rx π E 3.1416 29000
φcPn = 0.85 x (0.658)1.355 x 36 x (2 x 3.75) = 106 kips

2
•
Step III. Calculate (KL/r)m for y-axis buckling
• (KL/r) = 16 x 12/1.24 = 154.8
36
• a/rz = 48/0.648 = 74.07
a/rz = 74.07 < 0.75 x KL/r = 0.75 x 154.8 = 115.2 (OK!)
• α = h/2ry = (2 x 0.75 + 0.375)/(2 x 0.829) = l.131

2
 KL   KL  α2
2
a 
  =   + 0.82  
•  r m  r o 1+ α2  ry 
 
2
1.1312  48 
= (154.8)o2 + 0.82  
1 + 1.1312  0.829  =158.5
Step IV. Calculate flexural torsional buckling strength.
 KL  1 Fy
• λc-y =   × × =1.778
 r m π E
0.877 0.877
• Fcry = 2
× Fy = × 36 = 9.987 ksi
λ c− y 1.778 2
GJ 11,200 × 0.644
• Fcrz= = = 151.4 ksi
Aro2 7.5 × 2.512
    
• Fcrft =  Fcry + Fcrz  1 − 1 − 4 Fcry Fcrz H  =  9.987 + 151.4 1 − 1 − 4 × 9.987× 151.4 × 02.646 
 2H  2
(Fcry + Fcrz )   2 × 0.646  (9.987 + 151.4) 
  
Fcrft = 9.748 ksi
• φcPn = 0.85 x Fcrft x Ag = 0.85 x 9.748 x 7.50 = 62.1 kips
Flexural torsional buckling strength controls. The design strength of the double angle member is
62.1 kips.
Step V. Compare with design strengths in Table 4-10 (page 4-84) of the AISC manual
• φcPn for x-axis buckling with unsupported length = 16 ft. = 106 kips
• φcPn for y-z axis buckling with unsupported length = 16 ft. = 61.3 kips
37
These results make indicate excellent correlation between the calculations in steps II to IV and
the tabulated values.
Design tables for double angle compression members are given in the AISC manual. See
Tables 4-9, 4-10, and 4-11 on pages 4-78 to 4-93
- In these Tables Fy = 36 ksi
- Back to back distance = 3/8 in.
- Design strength for buckling about x axis
- Design strength for flexural torsional buckling accounting for the modified slenderness ratio
depending on the number of intermediate connectors.
- These design Tables can be used to design compression members as double angle sections.
38
Steel Design - LRFD
AISC Steel Manual 14th edition
Tension Limit States
Professor Louie L. Yaw

c Draft date October 1, 2015
In steel design it is often necessary to design tension members. In order to design the
tension member according to LRFD, φTn must be determined for the trial tension member.
Once φTn is determined it can then be compared to the factored tension Tu to evaluate the
adequacy of the selected member. This is often an iterative process. In order to determine
the adequacy of the selected tension member four tension limit states must be considered:
A. Yielding of the gross cross-section.
B. Fracture of the effective net cross-section.
C. Block shear.
D. Slenderness Limit.
Limit states A, B, and C are strength limit states, whereas limit state D is a serviceability
limit state. For each strength limit state φTn must be calculated. The smallest value of φTn
governs the design and must satisfy the following basic LRFD formula:
φTn ≥ Tu .
Relevant information for each limit state is summarized below.
1
Steel Design - LRFD Tension Member Limit States Tutorial
A. Yielding of the gross cross-section.
φTn = φAg Fy
where,
φ = 0.9
Tn = nominal tensile strength for the yield limit state, kips
Ag = gross cross-sectional area of the tension member, in2
Fy = yield stress of the steel material, ksi
B. Fracture of the effective net cross-section.
φTn = φAe Fu
where,
φ = 0.75
Tn = nominal tensile strength for the fracture limit state, kips
Ae = U An = the effective net area, in2
U = the shear lag factor. Whenever the tension is transmitted through some but not
all of the cross-sectional elements of the tension member U must be determined per
LRFD Table D3.1 (manual page 16.1-28). For some cases in the table the factor is
calculated as U = 1 − Lx̄
x̄ = distance from the plane of shear transfer to the centroid of the tension member
cross-section, in
L = length of the connection in the direction of loading, in
An = the net cross-sectional area, in2
Fu = steel ultimate stress, ksi
2
Steel Design - LRFD Tension Member Limit States Tutorial
C. Block Shear.
For the block shear limit state φTn is determined according to the following expression:
φTn = φ[0.6Fu Anv + Ubs Fu Ant ] ≤ φ[0.6Fy Agv + Ubs Fu Ant ]

where,
φ = 0.75
Tn = nominal tensile strength for the block shear limit state, kips
Fu = steel ultimate stress, ksi
Fy = steel yield stress, ksi
Ant = net tension area, in2
Agv = gross shear area, in2
Anv = net shear area, in2
Ubs = block shear reduction factor = 1.0 for uniform stress distribution, 0.5 for nonuni-
form stress distribution see manual page 16.1-412 for guidance and examples.
D. Slenderness Limit.
The slenderness limit for tension members is specified by AISC and is prescribed in the
following formula:
L
≤ 300
r
where,
L =q
the laterally unsupported length of the tension member, in
r = AI = the minimum radius of gyration of the tension member cross-section, in
I = the minimum moment of inertia of the tension member cross-section, in4
A = the cross-sectional area of the tension member, in2
3
5-45
CHAPTER F
BEAMS AND OTHER FLEXURAL MEMBERS
Beams shall be distinguished from plate girders on the basis of the web slender-
ness ratio h/tw. When this value is greater than 970/^J the allowable bending
stress is given in Chapter G. The allowable shear stresses and stiffener require-
ments are given in Chapter F unless tension field action is used, then the allow-
able shear stresses are given in Chapter G.
This chapter applies to singly or doubly symmetric beams including hybrid

beams and girders loaded in the plane of symmetry. It also applies to channels
loaded in a plane passing through the shear center parallel to the web or re-
strained against twisting at load points and points of support. For members
subject to combined flexural and axial force, see Sect. HI.
F1. ALLOWABLE STRESS: STRONG AXIS BENDING OF I-SHAPED MEMBERS

AND CHANNELS
1. Members with Compact Sections
For members with compact sections as defined in Sect. B5.1 (excluding hybrid
beams and members with yield points greater than 65 ksi) symmetrical about,
and loaded in, the plane of their minor axis the allowable stress is
Fb = 0.66 Fy (Fl-1)
provided the flanges are connected continuously to the web or webs and the
laterally unsupported length of the compression flange Lb does not exceed the
value of Lc, as given by the smaller of:
76bf 20,000
or
—nk TTT-HTTT (Fl-2)
v
VFy (d/Af)Fy '
Members (including composite members and excluding hybrid members and
members with yield points greater than 65 ksi) which meet the requirements
for compact sections and are continuous over supports or rigidly framed to col-
umns, may be proportioned for 9/io of the negative moments produced by grav-
ity loading when such moments are maximum at points of support, provided
that, for such members, the maximum positive moment is increased by Vio of
the average negative moments. This reduction shall not apply to moments pro-
duced by loading on cantilevers. If the negative moment is resisted by a column
rigidly framed to the beam or girder, the Vio reduction is permitted in propor-
tioning the column for the combined axial and bending loading, provided that
the stress fa due to any concurrent axial load on the member, does not exceed
0.15Ffl.
AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION
5-46 BEAMS AND OTHER FLEXURAL MEMBERS [Chap. F
2. Members with Noncompact Sections
For members meeting the requirements of Sect. F l . l except that their flanges
are noncompact (excluding built-up members and members with yield points
greater than 65 ksi), the allowable stress is
Fb = Fy 0.79 - 0.002 ^ V ^ l (Fl-3)
For built-up members meeting the requirements of Sect. F l . l except that their
flanges are noncompact and their webs are compact or noncompact, (excluding
hybrid girders and members with yield points greater than 65 ksi) the allowable
stress is
Fb = Fy 0 . 7 9 - 0 . 0 0 2 / A / 5 "I (Fl-4)
2tfylkc
where
4.05
kc = 046 if hltw > 70, otherwise kc = 1.0.
\nltw)
For members with a noncompact section (Sect. B5), but not included above,
and loaded through the shear center and braced laterally in the region of
compression stress at intervals not exceeding l(sbfl\/7y, the allowable stress is
Fb = 0.60 Fy (Fl-5)
3. Members with Compact or Noncompact Sections with

Unbraced Length Greater than Lc
For flexural members with compact or noncompact sections as defined in Sect.
B5.1, and with unbraced lengths greater than Lc as defined in Sect. F l . l , the
allowable bending stress in tension is determined from Equation (Fl-5).
For such members with an axis of symmetry in, and loaded in the plane of their
web, the allowable bending stress in compression is determined as the larger
value from Equations (Fl-6) or (Fl-7) and (Fl-8), except that Equation (Fl-8)
is applicable only to sections with a compression flange that is solid and approx-
imately rectangular in cross section and that has an area not less than the ten-
sion flange. Higher values of the allowable compressive stress are permitted if
justified by a more precise analysis. Stresses shall not exceed those permitted
by Chapter G, if applicable.
For channels bent about their major axis, the allowable compressive stress is
determined from Equation (Fl-8).
Sect. F1] ALLOWABLE STRESS 5-47
When
/102 x 10 3 Q / /510x io3c„
y rT V Fy
-[h^rm\F^0MF' <"-»
When
510 x 10 3 C
7T* 4
F 170 x 103Cfc
* = ""„,' 7 2 ~ P < iyy
^ 0.60 F (Fl-7)
{llrTf
For any value of llrT:
12 x 103C6
Fb = * » < 0.60 F
F^y (Fl-8)
IdlAf
where
/ = distance between cross sections braced against twist or lateral dis-
placement of the compression flange, in. For cantilevers braced
against twist only at the support, / may conservatively be taken as the
actual length.
rT = radius of gyration of a section comprising the compression flange
plus V3 of the compression web area, taken about an axis in the plane
of the web, in.
Af = area of the compression flange, in.2
Cb = 1.75 + 1.05 (M1IM2) + 0.3 (M1IM2)2, but not more than 2.3* where
Mx is the smaller and M2 the larger bending moment at the ends of
the unbraced length, taken about the strong axis of the member, and
where MXIM2, the ratio of end moments, is positive when Mx and M2
have the same sign (reverse curvature bending) and negative when
they are of opposite signs (single curvature bending). When the
bending moment at any point within an unbraced length is larger
than that at both ends of this length, the value of Cb shall be taken
as unity. When computing Fbx to be used in Equation (Hl-1), Cb
may be computed by the equation given above for frames subject to
joint translation, and it shall be taken as unity for frames braced
against joint translation. Cb may conservatively be taken as unity for
cantilever beams.**
*It is conservative to take Cb as unity. For values smaller than 2.3, see Table 6 in the Numerical
Values Section.
**For the use of larger Cb values, see Galambos (1988).
For hybrid plate girders, Fy for Equations (¥1-6) and (Fl-7) is the yield stress
of the compression flange. Equation (Fl-8) shall not apply to hybrid girders.
Sect. F1.3 does not apply to tee sections if the stem is in compression anywhere
along the unbraced length.
F2. ALLOWABLE STRESS: WEAK AXIS BENDING OF I-SHAPED MEMBERS,

SOLID BARS AND RECTANGULAR PLATES
Lateral bracing is not required for members loaded through the shear center
about their w e a k axis nor for members of equal strength about both axes.
1. Members With Compact Sections
For doubly symmetrical I- and H-shape members with compact flanges (Sect.
B5) continuously connected to the web and bent about their weak axes (except
members with yield points greater than 65 ksi); solid round and square bars;
and solid rectangular sections bent about their weaker axes, the allowable
stress is
Fb = 0.75 Fy (F2-1)
2. Members With Noncompact Sections

For members not meeting the requirements for compact sections of Sect. B5
and not covered in Sect. F3, bent about their minor axis, the allowable stress
is
Fb = 0.60 Fy (F2-2)
Doubly symmetrical I- and H-shape members bent about their weak axes (ex-
cept members with yield points greater than 65 ksi) with noncompact flanges
(Sect. B5) continuously connected to the web may be designed on the basis of
an allowable stress of
Fb = Fy 1.075 - 0.005 U\ Vld (F2-3)
F3. ALLOWABLE STRESS: BENDING OF BOX MEMBERS,

RECTANGULAR TUBES AND CIRCULAR TUBES
1. Members With Compact Sections
For members bent about their strong or weak axes, members with compact sec-
tions as defined in Sect. B5 andflangescontinuously connected to the webs, the
allowable stress is
Fb = 0.66 Fy (F3-1)
To be classified as a compact section, a box-shaped member shall have, in addi-

tion to the requirements in Sect. B5, a depth not greater than 6 times the
width, aflangethickness not greater than 2 times the web thickness and a later-
ally unsupported length Lb less than or equal to
L c = ( l , 9 5 0 + 1,200 ^ j y (F3-2)

Sect. F3] ALLOWABLE STRESS 5-49
except that it need not be less than 1,200 (b/Fy), where Mx is the smaller and
M2 the larger bending moment at the ends of the unbraced length, taken about
the strong axis of the member, and where MilM2, the ratio of end moments,
is positive when Mx and M2 have the same sign (reverse curvature bending)
and negative when they are of opposite signs (single curvature bending).
2. Members With Noncompact Sections

For box-type and tubular flexural members that meet the noncompact section
requirements of Sect. B5, the allowable stress is
Fb = 0.60 Fy (F3-3)
Lateral bracing is not required for a box section whose depth is less than 6
times its width. Lateral-support requirements for box sections of larger depth-
to-width ratios must be determined by special analysis.
F4. ALLOWABLE SHEAR STRESS

For hltw < 380/V^, on the overall depth times the web thickness, the allowa-
ble shear stress is
Fv = 0.40 Fy (F4-1)
For hltw > 380/V^, the allowable shear stress is on the clear distance between
flanges times the web thickness is
F = (C;)
* fg9 * *MP> (F4 2)
"
where
r _ 45,000£v L ^ .
~ F (hit )2 n v 1S than
°'8
_ 190 /*:
- JJf y y when Cv is more than 0.8
5.34
kv = 4.00 4- -——-x when alh is less than 1.0
{alhf
= 5.34 + 7-77T7 when alh is more than 1.0

(alh)z
tw = thickness of web, in.
a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners, in.
h = clear distance between flanges at the section under investigation, in.
For shear rupture on coped beam end connections see Sect. J4.
Maximum hltw limits are given in Chapter G.
An alternative design method for plate girders utilizing tension field action is
given in Chapter G.
F5. TRANSVERSE STIFFENERS
Intermediate stiffeners are required when the ratio h/tw is greater than 260 and
the maximum web shear stress fv is greater than that permitted by Equation
(F4-2).
The spacing of intermediate stiffeners, when required, shall be such that the
web shear stress will not exceed the value for Fv given by Equation (F4-2) or
(G3-1), as applicable, and
^ ^ [ 2 6 0 I 2 a n d 3.0 (FM)
h l(hltw)\
F6. BUILT-UP MEMBERS

Where two or more rolled beams or channels are used side-by-side to form a
flexural member, they shall be connected together at intervals of not more than
5 ft. Through-bolts and separators are permitted, provided that, in beams hav-
ing a depth of 12 in. or more, no fewer than 2 bolts shall be used at each separa-
tor location. When concentrated loads are carried from one beam to the other,
or distributed between the beams, diaphragms having sufficient stiffness to dis-
tribute the load shall be riveted, bolted or welded between the beams.
F7. WEB-TAPERED MEMBERS

See Appendix F7.

SECTION 506 -DESIGN OF and the nominal flexural strength, M n , shall be determined
MEMBERS FOR FLEXURE according to Sections 506.2 through 506. 12.
This section applies to members subject to simple bending
about one principal axis. For simple bending, the member is 2. The provisions in this Section are based on the
loaded in a plane parallel to a principal axis that passes assumption that points of support for beams and girders
through the shear center or is restrained against twisting at are restrained against rotation about their longitudinal
load points and supports. axis.
The section is organized as follows: The following terms are common to the equations in this
Section except where noted:
506.1 General Provisions Cb = lateral-torsional buckling modification factor
506.2 Doubly Symmetric Compact I-Shaped Members for nonuniform moment diagrams when both
and Channels Bent about Their Major Axis ends of the unsupported segment are braced
506.3 Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with
Compact Webs and Non-compact or Slender 12.5Mmax
Cb RM 3.0 (506.1-1)
Flanges Bent about Their Major Axis 2.5Mmax 3MA 4MB 3MC
506.4 Other I-Shaped Members with Compact or
Noncompact Webs Bent about Their Major Axis where
Mmax = absolute value of maximum moment in the
Shaped Members with Slender Webs Bent
about Their Major Axis
MA = absolute value of moment at quarter point of the
506.6 I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent about
Their Minor Axis
MB = absolute value of moment at centerline of the
506.7 Square and Rectangular HSS and Box-Shaped
Members
MC = absolute value of moment at three-quarter
506.8 Round HSS
point of the unbraced segment, N-mm.
506.9 Tees and Double Angles Loaded in the Plane of
Rm = cross-section monosymmetry parameter
Symmetry
= 1.0, doubly symmetric members
506.10 Single Angles
= 1.0, singly symmetric members subjected to
506.11 Rectangular Bars and Rounds
single curvature bending
506.12 Unsymmetrical Shapes 2
506.13 Proportions of Beams and Girders I yc
= 0.5 2 , singly symmetric members
Iy
following sections apply: subjected to reverse curvature bending
508.1–508.3 Members subject to biaxial flexure or to Iy = moment of inertia about the principal y-axis,
combined flexure and axial force. mm4.
I
508.4 Members subject to flexure and torsion. yc = moment of inertia about y-axis referred to the
Appendix A-3 Members subject to fatigue. compression flange, or if reverse curvature
Section 507 Design provisions for shear. bending, referred to the smaller flange, mm4.
For guidance in determining the appropriate sections of this In singly symmetric members subjected to reverse
section to apply, Table User Note 506.1.1 may be used. curvature bending, the lateral-torsional buckling strength
shall be checked for both flanges.
506.1 General Provisions
The available flexural strength shall be greater than or
The design flexural strength, b M n , and the allowable equal to the maximum required moment causing
flexural strength, Mn b , shall be determined as compression within the flange under consideration Cb is
permitted to be conservatively taken as 1.0 for all cases.
follows:
For cantilevers or overhangs where the free end is
1. For all provisions in this Section unbraced, Cb = 1.0.
b 0.90 LRFD b 1.67 ASD

Table User Note 506.1.1

Selection Table for the Application of Section 506 Sections
Section
Flange Web Limit
In Cross Section
Slenderness Slenderness States
Section 506
506.2 C C Y, LTB
506.3 NC, S C LTB, FLB
506.4 C, NC, S C, NC Y, LTB, FLB, TFY
506.5 C, NC, S S Y, LTB, FLB, TFY
506.6 C, NC, S N/A Y, FLB
506.7 C, NC, S C, NC Y, FLB, WLB
506.8 N/A N/A Y, LB
506.9 C, NC, S N/A Y, LTB, FLB
506.10 N/A N/A Y, LTB, LLB
506.11 N/A N/A Y, LTB
506.12 Unsymmetrical shapes N/A N/A All limit states
Y = yielding, LTB = lateral-torsional buckling, FLB = flange local buckling, WLB = web local buckling, TFY = tension flange
yielding, LLB = leg local buckling, LB = local buckling, C = compact,
NC = noncompact, S = slender

2 2
Cb E Jc Lb
Fcr 2
1 0.078
User Note: For doubly symmetric members with no Lb S x ho rts
transverse loading between brace points, Equation 506.1-1
reduces to 2.27 for the case of equal end moments of rts
opposite sign and to 1.67 when one end moment equals (506.2-4)
zero. where
506.2 Doubly Symmetric Compact I-Shaped Members E = modulus of elasticity of steel = 200 000 MPa.
and Channels Bent about their Major Axis J = torsional constant, mm4.
This section applies to doubly symmetric I-shaped members Sx = elastic section modulus taken about the x-axis,
and channels bent about their major axis, having compact mm3.
webs and compact flanges as defined in Section 502.4.
User Note: The square root term in Equation 506.2-4 may
User Note: All current ASTM A6 W, S, M, C and MC be conservatively taken equal to 1.0.
shapes except W21×48, W14×99, W14×90, W12×65,
W10×12, W8×31, W8×10, W6×15, W6×9, W6×8.5, and The limiting lengths L p and Lr are determined as follows:
M4×6 have compact flanges for Fy 345 MPa; all current
E
ASTM A6 W, S, M, HP, C and MC shapes have compact L p 1.76ry (506.2-5)
webs at F y 450 MPa. Fy
The nominal flexural strength, M n , shall be the lower E Jc 0.7Fy Sxho

2
value obtained according to the limit states of yielding Lr 1.95rts 1 1 6.76

(plastic moment) and lateral-torsional buckling. 0.7Fy Sxh0 E Jc
506.2.1. Yielding (506.2-6)
M n= M p= F yZ x (506.2-1) where
where I yCw
r 2 ts (506.2-7)
F y = specified minimum yield stress of the type Sx
of steel being used, MPa.
Zx = plastic section modulus about the x-axis, mm3. and
For a doubly symmetric I-shape: c = 1 (506.2-8a)
1. When Lb Lp, the limit state of lateral-torsional ho Iy
buckling does not apply. For a channel: c (506.2-8b)
2 Cw
2. When L p < Lb Lr where
Lb Lp ho = distance between the flange centroids, mm.
Mn Cb M p M p 0.7Fy Sx Mp
Lr Lp
(506.2-2) User Note: If the square root term in Equation 506.2-4 is
3. When L b > L r conservatively taken equal to 1, Equation 506.2-6 becomes
Mn Fcr S x Mp (506.2-3)
E
Lr rts
where 0.7 F y
Lb = length between points that are either braced
against lateral displacement of compression Note that this approximation can be extremely
flange or braced against twist of the cross conservative.
section, mm.
For doubly symmetric I-shapes with rectangular flanges,
I y ho 2
Cw
4 and thus Equation 506.2-7 becomes

pf p is the limiting slenderness for a compact flange,

I y ho Table 502.4.1
r 2 ts
2S x
rts may be approximated accurately and conservatively as rf r is the limiting slenderness for a non compact
flange,Table 502.4.1
the radius of gyration of the compression flanges plus one-
sixth of the web:
4
Kc and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor
bf h tw
rts
greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes.
1 ht w
12 1
6 bf t f 506.4 Other I-Shaped Members with Compact or
Noncompact Webs Bent about their Major Axis
506.3 Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with This section applies to: (a) doubly symmetric I- shaped
Compact Webs and Noncompact or Slender Flanges members bent about their major axis with non compact webs;
Bent about their Major Axis and (b) singly symmetric I-shaped members with webs
attached to the mid-width of the flanges, bent about their
This section applies to doubly symmetric I- shaped members
major axis, with compact or non compact webs, as defined
bent about their major axis having compact webs and non
in Section 502.4.
compact or slender flanges as defined in Section 502.4.
User Note: I-shaped members for which this section is
User Note: The following shapes have non compact
applicable may be designed conservatively using Section
flanges for Fy 345 MPa: W21×48, W14×99, W14×90,
506.5.
W12×65, W10×12, W8×31, W8× 10, W6× 15, W6×9,
W6 × 8.5, and M4×6. All other ASTM A6 W, S, M, and
HP shapes have compact flanges for Fy 345 MPa. The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lowest value
obtained according to the limit states of compression flange
The nominal flexural strength, M n , shall be the lower buckling and tension flange yielding.
value obtained according to the limit states of lateral-
torsional buckling and compression flange local buckling. 506.4.1 Compression Flange Yielding
506.3.1 Lateral-Torsional Buckling Mn R pc M yc R pc F y S xc (506.4-1)

For lateral-torsional buckling, the provisions of Section
506.2.2 shall apply. 506.4.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling
1. When Lb Lp, the limit state of lateral-torsional
506.3.2 Compression Flange Local Buckling buckling does not apply.
For sections with non compact flanges
2. When L p <L b Lr
Mn Mp M p 0.7Fy S x
pf Lb Lp
Mn Cb RpcMyc RpcMyc FLSxc RpcMyc
rf pf Lr Lp
(506.3-1) (506.4-2)
For sections with slender flanges 3. When Lb L
0.9Ek c S x Mn Fcr S xc R pc M yc (506.4-3)

Mn 2
(506.3-2)
where
bf
2t f

where Mp = Z x F y 1.6S xc F y
Sxc.Sxt = elastic section modulus referred to tension and
M yc Fy S xc (506.4-4) compression flanges, respectively, mm3
= hc / tw
2
Cb 2
E J Lb pw = p, the limiting slenderness for a compact web,
Fcr 2
1 0.078 (506.4-5) Table 502.4. 1
Lb S x h0 rt
rw = r, the limiting slenderness for a noncompact
rt web, Table 502.4. 1
I yc The effective radius of gyration for lateral-torsional

For 0.23 . J shall be taken as zero
Iy buckling, rt , is determined as follows:
The stress, FL, is determined as follows: 1. For I-shapes with a rectangular compression flange:
S xt b fc
For 0.7 rt (506.4-10)
S xc ho 1 h2
12 aw
FL 0 .7 F y (506.4-6a) d 6 ho d
S xt where
For 0.7
S xc
hc t w
S aw (506.4-11)
FL Fy xt 0.5Fy (506.4-6b) b fct fc
Sxc
bfc = compression flange width, mm
The limiting laterally unbraced length for the limit state of
tfc = compression flange thickness, mm
yielding, L p, is
2. For I-shapes with channel caps or cover plates attached
E to the compression flange:
Lp 1.1r1 (506.4-7)
Fy rt = radius of gyration of the flange components in
flexural compression plus one-third of the web
The limiting unbraced length for the limit state of inelastic area in compression due to application of major
lateral-torsional buckling, Lr, is axis bending moment alone, mm.
E J FL Sxch0
2 aw = the ratio of two times the web area in
Lt 1.95rt 1 1 6.76 compression due to application of major axis
FL Sxch0 E J
bending moment alone to the area of the
(506.4-8) compression flange components
The web plastification factor, R pc , is determined as
User Note: For I-shapes with a rectangular compression
follows: r,
flange, t may be approximated accurately and
hc conservatively as the radius of gyration of the
a. For pw compression flange plus one-third of the compression
tw
portion of the web; in other words,
Mp
R pc (506.4-9a) b fc
M yc rt
1
hc 12 1 aw
6
b. For pw
tw
506.4.3 Compression Flange Local Buckling
Mp Mp pw Mp
Rpc 1 1. For sections with compact flanges, the limit state of
Myc Myc rw pw Myc local buckling does not apply.
(506.4-9b) 2. For sections with non compact flanges
where

= hc/tw
pf
Mn RpcM yc RpcM yc FLSxc pw = p,the limiting slenderness for a compact web,
rf pf defined in Table 502.4. 1
(506.4-12) rw = r,the limiting slenderness for a non compact
web, defined in Table 502.4.1
3. For sections with slender flanges
0.9Ekc Sxc
Mn (506.4-13) Shaped Members with Slender Webs Bent about their
2
Major Axis
where This section applies to doubly symmetric and singly
FL = defined in Equations 506.4-6a and 506.4-6b symmetric I- shaped members with slender webs attached to
R pc = the web plastification factor, determined by the mid-width of the flanges, bent about their major axis, as
Equations 506.4-9 defined in Section 502.4
4 The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lowest value

kc and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor obtained according to the limit states of compression flange
h tw
greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes buckling and tension flange yielding.
= (bfc / 2tfc) 506.5.1 Compression Flange Yielding

pf = p ,the limiting slenderness for a compact
flange, Table 502.4.1 Mn Rpg Fy S xc (506.5-1)
rf = r,the limiting slenderness for a noncompact
506.4.4 Tension Flange Yielding
Mn Rpg Fcr Sxc (506.5-2)
1. When S xt S xc the limit state of tension flange
yielding does not apply. 1. When Lb L p, the limit state of lateral-torsional
2. When S xt S xc
2. When L <Lb Lr
Mn Rpt M yt (506.4-14)
p
Lb Lp
where Fcr Cb Fy 0 .3 F y Fy
Lr Lp
Myt=FySxt
(506.5-3)
The web plastification factor corresponding to the tension 3. When L b > L r
flange yielding limit state, R pt is determined as follows:
2
Cb E
h Fcr 2
Fy (506.5-4)
a. For c pw Lb
tw
rt
Mp where
R pt (506.4-15a)
M yt L p is defined by Equation 506.4-7
hc
b. For pw
tw E
Lr rt (506.5-5)
0.7 Fy
Mp Mp pw Mp
R pt 1
M yt M yt rw pw M yt R pg is the bending strength reduction factor:
(506.4-15b) aw hc E
R pg 1 5.7 1.0
where 1200 300aw t w Fy

(506.5-6) 506.6.1 Yielding

where Mn M p FyZy 1.6FySy (506.6-1)
aw = defined by Equation 506.4-11 but shall not
exceed 10 and 506.6.2 Flange Local Buckling
rt = the effective radius of gyration for lateral 1. For Sections with compact flanges the limit state of
buckling as defined in Section 506.4. yielding shall apply.
506.5.3 Compression Flange Local Buckling User Note: All current ASTM A6 W,S,M,C and MC shapes
except W21x48, W14x99, W14x90, W12x65, W10x12,
Mn R pg Fcr S xc (506.5-7) W8x31, W8x10, W6x15, W6x9, W6x8.5, and M4x6 have
compact flanges at Fy = 345 Mpa.
1. For sections with compact flanges, the limit state of
compression flange local buckling does not apply. 2. For sections with noncompact flanges
2. For sections with noncompact flanges pf

Mn Mp (Mp 0.7FyS) Mp
rf pf
pf
Fct Fy 0.3Fy (506.5-8)
rf pf
(506.6-2)
3. For sections with slender flange sections

Mn Fcr S y (506.6-3)
0.9 Ekc where

Fcr 2
(506.5-9)
bf 0.69E
Fcr 2 (506.6-4)
2t f
bf
where 2t f
4
kc and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor = b/t
h tw pf = p,the limiting slenderness for a compact flange,
greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes Table 502.4. 1
= bfc/2tfc rf = r,the limiting slenderness for a noncompact
pf = p,the limiting slenderness for a compact flange, flange,Table 502.4.1
Table 502.4.1 Sy = for a channel shall be taken as the minimum
rf = r,the limiting slenderness for a noncompact section modulus
506.7 Square and Rectangular HSS and Box-shaped
506.5.4 Tension Flange Yielding Members
1. When Sxt Sxc the limit state of tension flange This section applies to square and rectangular HSS, and
yielding does not apply. doubly symmetric box-shaped members bent about either
axis, having compact or non compact webs and compact,
2 . W h e n Sxt Sxc non compact or slender flanges as defined in Section 502.4.
Mn Fy S xt (506.5-10) obtained according to the limit states of yielding (plastic
moment), flange local buckling and web local buckling
under pure flexure.
506.6 I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent about their
Minor Axis 506.7.1 Yielding
This section applies to I-shaped members and channels bent
about their minor axis. Mn Mp FyZ (506.7-1)
where
The nominal flexural strength, Mn , shall be the lower value
obtained according to the limit states of yielding (plastic Z = plastic section modulus about the axis of
moment) and flange local buckling. bending, mm3

506.7.2 Flange Local Buckling

1. For compact sections, the limit state of flange local 0.021E
buckling does not apply. Mn Fy S (506.8-2)
D
2. For sections with non compact flanges t
3. For sections with slender walls
b Fy
Mn Mp (Mp FyS) 3.57 4.0 Mp
t E Mn Fcr S (506.8-3)
(506.7-2) where
3. For sections with slender flanges 0.33E
Fcr (506.8-4)
Mn Fy Seff (506.7-3) D
S = elastic section modulus, mm3
where
S eff is the effective section modulus determined with the 506.9 Tees and Double Angles Loaded in the Plane of
Symmetry
effective width of the compression flange taken as:
This section applies to tees and double angles loaded in the
E 0.38 E plane of symmetry.
bc 1.92t 1 b (506.7-4)
Fy bt Fy
506.7.3 Web Local Buckling moment), lateral-torsional buckling and flange local
buckling.
1. For compact sections, the limit state of web local
506.9.1 Yielding
2. For sections with non compact webs
Mn Mp (506.9-1)
h Fy
Mn Mp Mp Fy Sx 0.305 0.378 Mp where
tw E
Mp Fy Z x 1.6 M y for stems in tension (506.9-2)
(506.7-5) M y for stems in compression (506.9-3)
506.8 Round HSS
This section applies to round HSS having D/t ratios of less
0.45 E EI y GJ
than Mn M cr B 1 B2
Fy Lb
The nominal flexural strength, Mn , shall be the lower value (506.9-4)
obtained according to the limit states of yielding (plastic where
moment) and local buckling. d Iy
B 2.3 (506.9-5)
Lb J
506.8.1 Yielding
Mn MP FyZ (506.8-1) The plus sign for B applies when the stem is in tension and the
minus sign applies when the stem is in compression. If the tip
of the stem is in compression anywhere along the unbraced
506.8.2 Local Buckling length, the negative value of B shall be used.
buckling does not apply. 506.9.3 Flange Local Buckling of Tees
2. For non compact sections MnFcrSxc (506.9-6)
S xc the elastic section modulus referred to the compression

flange. Fcr determined as follows:


My
buckling does not apply. Mn 1.92 1.17 My 1.5M y
Me
2. For non compact sections
(506.10-3)
bf Fy
Fct Fy 1.19 0.50 (506.9-7) where
2t f E
Me the elastic lateral-torsional buckling moment, is
3. For slender sections determined as follows:
0.69E 1. For bending about one of the geometric axes of an equal-

Fcr 2 leg angle with no lateral- torsional buckling moment
bf a. With maximum compression at the toe
2t f
(506.9-8) 2
0.66Eb4tCb Lt
Me 1 0.78 1
506.10 Single Angles L2 b2
This section applies to single angles with and without (506.10-4a)
continuous lateral restraint along their length.
b. With maximum tension at the toe
Single angles with continuous lateral-torsional restraint
along the length shall be permitted to be designed on the 0.66Eb4tCb Lt
Me 1 0.78 1
basis of geometric axis (x,y) bending. Single angles without L 2
b2
continuous lateral-torsional restraint along the length shall be
designed using the provisions for principal axis bending (506.10-4b)
except where the provision for bending about a geometric
axis is permitted. M y shall be taken as 0.80 times the yield moment calculated
using the geometric section modulus.
User Note: For geometric axis design, use section
properties computed about the x- and y-axis of the angle, User Note: M n may be taken as My for single angles with
parallel and perpendicular to the legs. For principal axis their vertical leg toe in compression, and having a span-to-
design use section properties computed about the major and depth ratio less than or equal to
minor principal axes of the angle.
2
1.64E t Fy
1.4
The nominal flexural strength, Mn shall be the lowest value Fy b E
moment), lateral-torsional buckling and leg local buckling. 1. For bending about one of the geometric axes of an
equal-leg angle withlateral-torsional restraint at the
506.10.1 Yielding point of maximum moment only
M n = 1.5My (506.10-1)
Me shall be taken as 1.25 times Me computed using
where Equation 506.10-4a or 506.10-4b
My = yield moment about the axis of bending, N- M y shall be taken as the yield moment calculated using the
mm. geometric section modulus.
506.10.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling 2. For bending about the major principal axis of equal-leg
angles:
For single angles without continuous lateral-torsional
restraint along the length (a) When M e M y 0.46Eb2t 2Cb
Me (506.10-5)
L
0.17Me
Mn 0.92 Me (506.10-2) 3. For bending about the major principal axis of unequal-leg
My angles:
when M e My

2 506.11 Rectangular Bars and Rounds

4.9 ElzCb 2 Lt
Me w 0.052 w This section applies to rectangular bars bent about either
L2 rz geometric axis and rounds.
(506.10-6)
The nominal flexural strength, M n , shall be the lower
where value obtained according to the limit states of yielding
(plastic moment) and lateral-torsional buckling, as required.
Cb = computed using Equation 506.1-1 with a
maximum value of 1.5. 506.11.1 Yielding
L = laterally unbraced length of a member, mm. Lb d 0.08E
Iz = minor principal axis moment of inertia, mm4. For rectangular bar with bent about their major
rz = radius of gyration for the minor principal axis, t2 Fy
mm. axis, rectangular bars bent about their minor axis, and rounds:
t = angle leg thickness, mm.
w = a section property for unequal leg angles, positive Mn M p Fy Z 1.6M y (506.11-1)
for short legs in compression and negative for
long legs in compression. If the long leg is in 506.11.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling
compression anywhere along the unbraced length
0.08E Lb d 1.9 E
of the member, the negative value of w shall be 1. For rectangular bars with 2
bent
used. Fy t Fy
about their major axis:
User Note: The equation for 3w and values for common
angle sizes are listed in the Commentary. Lb d Fy
Mn Cb 1.52 0.274 My Mp
506.10.3 Leg Local Buckling t2 E
The limit state of leg local buckling applies when the toe of (506.11-2)
the leg is in compression. Lb d 1.9E
2. For rectangular bars with bent about their
1. For compact sections, the limit state of leg local t2 Fy
buckling does not apply. major axis:
2. For sections with non compact legs Mn Fcr S x Mp (506.11-3)

b Fy
Mn Fy Sc 2.43 1.72 (506.10-7)
t E
3. For sections with slender legs

Mn Fcr Sc (506.10-8)
where
0.71E
Fcr 2
(506.10-9)
b
t
b = outside width of leg in compression, mm.

Sc = elastic section modulus to the toe in compression
relative to the axis of bending, mm3 . For
bending about one of the geometric axes of
an equal-leg angle with no lateral-torsional
restraint, Sc shall be 0.80 of the geometric axis
section modulus.

where 1. For Fu A fn Yt F y A fg , the limit state of tensile rupture

1.9ECb does not apply
Fcr (506.11-4)
Lb d
2. For Fu A fn Yt F y A fg , the nominal flexural strength, at
t2
the location of the holes in the tension flange shall not
t = width of rectangular bar parallel to axis of be taken greater than:
bending, mm.
d = depth of rectangular bar, in. mm.
Fu Afn
Mn Sx (506.13-1)
Lb = length between points that are either braced against Afg
lateral displacement of the compression region or
braced against twist of the cross section, in. mm. where
3. For rounds and rectangular bars bent about their minor Afg = gross tension flange area, calculated in
axis, the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling need accordance with the provisions of Section
not be considered. 504.3.1, mm2.
Afn = net tension flange area, calculated in accordance
506.12 Unsymmetrical Shapes with the provisions of Section 504.3.2, mm2.
This section applies to all unsymmetrical shapes, except Yt = 1.0 for Fy/Fu 0.80
single angles. = 1.1 otherwise
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lowest value 506.13.2 Proportioning Limits for I -Shaped Members
obtained according to the limit states of yielding (yield Singly symmetric I- shaped members shall satisfy the
moment), lateral-torsional buckling and local buckling where following limit:
M n Fn S (506.12-1) I yc
0.1 0.9 (506.13-2)
where Iy
S = lowest elastic modulus relative to the axis of I- shaped members with slender webs shall also satisfy the
bending, mm3. following limits:
506.12.1 Yielding a
1. For 1.5
h
Fn Fy (506.12-2)
h E
11.7 (506.13-3)
506.12.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling tw max
Fy
Fn Fcr Fy (506.12-3) 2. For

a
1.5
h
where
Fcr = buckling stress for the section as determined by
h 0.42 E
(506.13-4)
analysis, MPa. tw max
Fy
506.13 Proportions of Beams and Girders where

a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners, mm
506.13.1 Hole Reductions
This section applies to rolled or built-up shapes, and cover- In unstiffened girders h/tw shall not exceed 260. The ratio of the
plated beams with holes, proportioned on the basis of web area to the compression flange area shall not exceed 10.
flexural strength of the gross section.
506.13.3 Cover Plates
In addition to the limit states specified in other sections of
Flanges of welded beams or girders may be varied in
this section, the nominal flexural strength, Mn shall be thickness or width by splicing a series of plates or by the
limited according to the limit state of tensile rupture of the use of cover plates.
tension flange.
The total cross-sectional area of cover plates of bolted
girders shall not exceed 70 percent of the total flange area.

High-strength bolts or welds connecting flange to web, or

cover plate to flange, shall be proportioned to resist the total 1. When there is a continuous weld equal to or larger than
horizontal shear resulting from the bending forces on the three-fourths of the plate thickness across the end of the
girder. The longitudinal distribution of these bolts or plate
intermittent welds shall be in proportion to the intensity of
the shear. However, the longitudinal spacing shall not exceed a' = w (506.13-5)
the maximum permitted for compression or tension members
where
in Section 505.6 or 504.4, respectively. Bolts or welds
connecting flange to web shall also be proportioned to w = width of cover plate, mm
transmit to the web any loads applied directly to the flange,
2. When there is a continuous weld smaller than three-
unless provision is made to transmit such loads by direct
fourths of the plate thickness across the end of the plate
bearing.
a' = 1.5w (506.13-6)
Partial-length cover plates shall be extended beyond the
theoretical cutoff point and the extended portion shall be 3. When there is no weld across the end of the plate
attached to the beam or girder by high-strength bolts in a
slip-critical connection orfillet welds. The attachment shall be a' = 2w (506.13-7)
adequate, at the applicable strength given in Sections 510.2.2,
510.3.8, or 502.3.9 to develop the cover plate’s portion of the 506.13.4. Built-Up Beams
flexural strength in the beam or girder at the theoretical cutoff Where two or more beams or channels are used side-by-side
point. to form a flexural member, they shall be connected together
in compliance with Section 505.6.2. When concentrated
For welded cover plates, the welds connecting the cover plate loads are carried from one beam to another, or distributed
termination to the beam or girder shall have continuous between the beams, diaphragms having sufficient stiffness to
welds along both edges of the cover plate in the length a', distribute the load shall be welded or bolted between the
defined below, and shall be adequate to develop the cover beams.
plate’s portion of the strength of the beam or girder at the
distance a' from the end of the cover plate.

ENDS 231 Note Set 25 S2008abn
Column Design – Centric & Eccentric Loading

Loading Location
Centric loading: The load is applied at the centroid of the cross section. The limiting
allowable stress is determined from strength (P/A) or buckling.
Eccentric loading: The load is offset from the centroid of the cross section because of how the
beam load comes into the column. This offset introduces bending along
with axial stress. (This can also happen with continuous beams across a
column or wind loading.)
Eccentric Loading
The eccentricity causes bending stresses by a moment of value P x e. Within the elastic range
(linear stresses) we can superposition or add up the normal and bending stresses:
P My
f x = fa + fb = +
A I
fa fb fx
The resulting stress distribution is still linear. And the n.a. moves (if there is one).
fa fb fx
1
The value of e (or location of P) that causes the stress at an edge to become
zero is at the edge of the kern. As long as P stays within the kern, there will
not be any tension stress.
If there is bending in two directions (bi-axial bending), there will be one

more bending stress added to the total:
P M1y M 2z
f x = f a + f bx + f by = + +
With P, M1, and M2: A Iz Iy
y
b B
e1 x
h + + =
e2
z P
A x y z result
M 2 = P ⋅ e2 M 1 = P ⋅ e1
Eccentric Loading Design
Because there are combined stresses, we can’t just compare the axial stress to a limit axial stress
or a bending stress to a limit bending stress. We use a limit called the interaction diagram. The
diagram can be simplified as a straight line from the ratio of
axial stress to allowable stress= 1 (no bending) to the ratio of
bending stress to allowable stress = 1 (no axial load).
fa
Fa
The interaction diagram can be more sophisticated (represented 1
by a curve instead of a straight line). These type of diagrams
take the effect of the bending moment increasing because the
beam deflects. This is called the P-Δ (P-delta) effect.
fb
1 Fb
Limit Criteria Methods
fa f
1) + b ≤ 1 .0 interaction formula (bending in one direction)
Fa Fb
fa f f by
2) + bx + ≤ 1 .0 interaction formula (biaxial bending)
Fa Fbx Fby
f a f b × (Magnification factor )
3) + ≤ 1.0 interaction formula (P-Δ effect)
Fa Fb
2
Steel - ASD:
fa C mx f bx C my f by
The modification factors are included in the form: + + ≤ 1 .0
Fa ⎛ fa ⎞ ⎛ f ⎞
⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ Fbx ⎜1 − a ⎟ Fby
⎝ F ′
ex ⎠
⎜ Fey′ ⎟⎠
⎝
where:
fa
1− = magnification factor accounting for P-Δ
Fe′
12 π 2 E
Fe′ =
( )2 = allowable buckling stress
23 KL
r
Cm = modification factor accounting for end conditions,
= 0.6 – 0.4 (M1/M2) where M1 and M2 are the end moments and M1<M2.
M1/M2 is positive when the member is bent in reverse curvature, negative
when bent in single curvature
= 0.85, members in frames subject to joint translation (sidesway)
Wood: - NDS:
2
⎡ fc ⎤ f bx
The modification factors are included in the form: ⎢ ′ ⎥ + ≤ 1 .0
⎣ Fc ⎦ Fbx′ ⎡⎢1 − c ⎤
f
⎣ FcEx ⎥⎦
where:
fc
1− = magnification factor accounting for P-Δ
FcEx
Fbx′ = allowable bending stress
Steel – LRFD:
The modification factors are included in the form for two conditions.
Pu Pu 8 ⎛ M ux M uy ⎞
For ≥ 0 .2 : + ⎜ + ⎟ ≤ 1 .0
φ c Pn φ c Pn 9 ⎜⎝ φb M nx φb M ny ⎟
⎠
Pu Pu ⎛ M ux M uy ⎞
For < 0 .2 : +⎜ + ⎟ ≤ 1 .0
φc Pn 2φ c Pn ⎜⎝ φb M nx φb M ny ⎟
⎠
where:
φ c = 0.85 for compression
φ b = 0.90 for flexure
3
Column Design Methodology
In order to design an adequate section for allowable stress, we have to start somewhere:
1. Make assumptions about the limiting stress from:

- buckling
- axial stress
- combined stress
2. See if we can find values for r or A or S (=I/cmax)
3. Pick a trial section based on if we think r or A is going to govern the section size.
4. Analyze the stresses and compare to allowable using the allowable stress method or
interaction formula for eccentric columns.
5. Did the section pass the stress test?
- If not, do you increase r or A or S?
- If so, is the difference really big so that you could decrease r or A or S to make it
more efficient (economical)?
6. Change the section choice and go back to step 4. Repeat until the section meets the
stress criteria.
Example 1
17 .8
= 0.873
A992. 20 .38
Fb = 27.8 ksi. (b) bending
0.6( 6.15 )
9.2’ = = 0.13
27 .8
13.9’
50 ksi
Sx = 117 in3 12 π 2 ( 30000 )
Fe′ = = 230 ksi
23 ( 25 .9 )2
1 .0
= = 1.084
1 − 17 .8 / 230
20.38 ksi 0.873+0.13(1.084) = 1.01 ≈ 1.0
4
Example 2
F’b = 2152 psi Fc = 1350 psi
A = 8.25 in2
Sx* = 7.56 in3
CD = 1.6 from wind loading
0.36
= 2376(0.36) = 855 psi
16in
12 in / ft
809
0.399
855
5
LESSON 11. Design of Compression Members
11.1 INTRODUCTION
A strut is defined as a structural member subjected to compression in a direction
parallel to its longitudinal axis. The term strut is commonly used for compression
members in roof trusses. A strut may be used in a vertical position or in an inclined
position in roof trusses. The compression members may be subjected to both axial
compression and bending.
When compression members are overloaded then their failure may take place
because of one of the following:
1. Direct compression
2. Excessive bending
3. Bending combined with twisting
The failure of column depends upon its slenderness ratio. The load required to cause
above mentioned failures decreases as the length of compression member increases,
the cross-sectional area of the member being constant.
11.2 COMMON SECTIONS OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS

The common sections used for compression members are shown in Fig. 11.1 with their
approximate radii of gyration. A column or a compression member may be made of many
different sections to support a given load. Few
sections satisfy practical requirement in a given
case. A tubular section is most efficient and
economical for the column free to buckle in any
direction. The radius of gyration r for the tubular
section in all the directions remains same. The
tubular section has high local buckling strength.
The tubular sections are suitable for medium
loads. However, it is difficult to have their end
connections. A solid round bar having a cross-
sectional area equal to that of a tubular section has
radius of gyration, r much smaller than that of
tube. The solid round bar is less economical than
the tubular section. The solid round bar is better
than the thin rectangular section or a flat strip. The
radius of gyration of flat strip about its narrow
direction is very small. Theoretically, the rods and
bars do resist some compression. When the length
of structural member is about 3 m, then the
compressive strengths of the rods and bars are
very small.
Single angle sections are rarely used except in light roof trusses, because of eccentricity at
the end connections. Tee-sections are often used in roof trusses. The single rolled steel I-
section and single rolled steel channel section are seldom used as column. The value of
radius of gyration r, about the axis parallel to the web is small. The intermediate additional
supports in the weak direction make the use of these sections economical. Sometimes the use
of I-sections and channel sections are preferred because of the method of rolling at the mills,
since, the out-to-out dimensions remain same for a given depth. This failure is not there with
other rolled steel sections. The costs of single rolled steel sections per unit weight are less
than those of built-up sections. Therefore the single rolled steel sections are preferred so long
as their use is feasible.
11.3 STRENGTH OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
The strength of a compression member is defined as its safe load carrying capacity. The
strength of a centrally loaded straight steel column depends on the effective cross-sectional
area, radius of gyration (viz., shape of the cross-section), the effective length, the magnitude
and distribution of residual stresses, annealing, out of straightness and cold straightening.
The effective cross-sectional area and the slenderness ratio of the compression members are
the main features, which influence its strength. In case, the allowable stress is assumed to
vary parabolically with the slenderness ratio, it may be proved that the efficiency of a shape
of a compression member is related to A/r2. The efficiency of a shape is defined as the ratio
of the allowable load for a given slenderness ratio to that for slenderness ratio equal to zero.
The safe load carrying capacity of compression member of known sectional area may be
determined as follows:
Step 1. From the actual length of the compression member and the support conditions of
the member, which are known, the effective length of the member is computed.
Step 2. From the radius of gyration about various axes of the section given in section
tables, the minimum radius of gyration (rmin) is taken. rmin for a built up section is
calculated.
Step 3. The maximum slenderness ratio (l/ rmin) is determined for the compression
member.
Step 4. The allowable working stress (σac) in the direction of compression is found
corresponding to the maximum slenderness ratio of the column from IS:800-1984.
Step 5. The effective sectional area (A) of the member is noted from structural steel
section tables. For the built up members it can be calculated.
Step 6. The safe load carrying capacity of the member is determined as P=(σac.A), where
P=safe load
11.4 ANGLE STRUTS
The compression members consisting of single sections are of two types:
1. Discontinuous members
2. Continuous members
11.4.1 Continuous members
The compression members (consisting of single or double angles) which are continuous
over a number of joints are known as continuous members. The top chord members of
truss girders and principal rafters of roof trusses are continuous members. The effective
length of such compression members is adopted between 0.7 and 1.0 times the distance
between the centres of intersections, depending upon degree of restraint provided. When
the members of trusses buckle in the plane perpendicular to the plane of the truss, the
effective length shall be taken as 1.0 times the distance between the points of restraint.
The working stresses for such compression members is adopted from IS:800-1984
corresponding to the slenderness ratio of the member and yield stress for steel.
11.4.2 Discontinuous members
The compression members which are not continuous over a number of joints, i.e., which
extend between two adjacent joints only are known as discontinuous members. The
discontinuous members may consist of single angle strut or double angle strut. When an
angle strut is connected to a gusset plate or to any structural member by one leg, the load
transmitted through the strut, is eccentric on the section of the strut. As a result of this,
bending stress is developed along with direct stress. While designing or determining
strength of an angle strut, the bending stress developed because of eccentricity of loading
is accounted for as follows:
i.Single angle strut

1. When single angle discontinuous strut is connected to a gusset plate with
one rivet as shown in Fig. 11.2.A, its effective length is adopted as centre
to centre of intersection at each end and the allowable working stress
corresponding to the slenderness ratio of the member is reduced to 80 per
cent. However, the slenderness ratio of such single angle strut should not
exceed 180.
2. When a single angle discontinuous strut is connected with two or more
number of rivets or welding as shown in Fig. 11.2.B, its effective length is
adopted as 0.85 times the length of strut centre to centre of intersection of
each end and allowable working stress corresponding to the slenderness
ratio of the member is not reduced.
ii.Double angle strut
1. A double angle discontinuous strut with angles placed back to back and
connected to both sides of a gusset or any rolled steel section by not less than
two rivets or bolts or in line along the angles at each end or by equivalent in
welding as shown in Fig. 11.3.A, can be regarded as an axially loaded strut.
Its effective length is adopted as 0.85 times the distance between
intersections, depending on the degree of restraint provided and in the plane
perpendicular to that of the gusset, the effective length ‘l’ shall be taken as
equal to the distance between centres of the intersections. The tacking rivets
should be provided at appropriate pitch.
2. The double angles, back to back connected to one side of a gusset plate or a
section by one or more rivets or bolts or welds as show in Fig. 11.3.B, these
are designed as single angle discontinuous strut connected by single rivet or
bolt.
If the struts carry in addition to axial loads, loads which cause transverse bending, the
combined bending and axial stress shall be checked as described for the columns subjected to
eccentric loading. The tacking rivets should be provided at appropriate pitch.
The tacking rivets are also termed as stitching rivets. In case of compression members, when
the maximum distance between centres of two adjacent rivets exceeds 12 t to 200 mm
whichever is less, then tacking rivets are used. The tacking rivets are not subjected to
calculated stress. The tacking rivets are provided throughout the length of a compression
member composed of two components back to back. The two components of a member act
together as one piece by providing tacking rivets at a pitch in line not exceeding 600 mm and
such that minimum slenderness ratio of each member between the connections is not greater
than 40 or 0.6 times the maximum slenderness ratio of the strut as a whole, whichever is less.
In case where plates are used, the tacking rivets are provided at a pitch in line not exceeding
32 times the thickness of outside plate or 300 mm whichever is less. Where the plates are
exposed to weather the pitch in line shall not exceed 16 times the thickness of the outside
plate or 200 mm whichever is less. In both cases, the lines of rivets shall not be apart at a
distance greater than these pitches.
The single angle sections are used for the compression members for small trusses and
bracing. The equal angle sections are more desirable usually. The unequal angle sections are
also used. The minimum radius of gyration about one of the principal axis is adopted for
calculating the slenderness ratios. The minimum radius of gyration of the single angle
section is much less than the other sections of same cross-sectional area. Therefore, the
single angle sections are not suitable for the compression member of long lengths. The single
angle sections are commonly used in the single plane trusses (i.e., the trusses having gusset
plates in one plane). The angle sections simplify the end connections.
The tee-sections are suitable for the compression members for small trusses. The tee-sections
are more suitable for welding.
Example 11.1 A single angle discontinuous strut ISA 150 mm x 150 mm x 12 mm (ISA 150
150,@0.272 kN/m) with single riveted connection is 3.5 m long. Calculate safe load carrying
capacity of the section.
Solution:
Step 1: Properties of angle section
ISA 150 mm x 150 mm x 12 mm (ISA 150 150,@0.272 kN/m) is used as discontinuous
strut. From the steel tables, the geometrical properties of the section are as follows:
Sectional area A = 3459 mm2

Radius of gyration rxx= ryy=149.3 mm
Radius of gyration ruu= 58.3 mm, rvv=29.3 mm
Step 2: Slenderness ratio,

Minimum radius of gyration rmin= 29.3 mm
Effective length of strut l= 3.5 m

Slenderness ratio of the strut
Step 3: Safe load
From IS:800-1984 for l/r=119.5 and the steel having yield stress, fy=260 N/mm2, allowable
working stress in compression σac =64.45 N/mm2 (MPa)
For single angle discontinuous strut with single riveted connection, allowable working stress
0.80 σac = (0.80 x 64.45) = 51.56 N/mm2.
The safe load carrying capacity

Example 11.2 In case in Example 11.1, a discontinuous strut 150 x 150 x 15 angle section is
used, calculate the safe load carrying capacity of the section.
Solution:
Angle section 150 mm x 150 mm x 15 mm is used as discontinuous strut. From the steel
tables, the geometrical properties of the section are as follows:


Effective length of strut l= 3.5 m

Step 3: Safe load
For single angle discontinuous strut with single riveted connection, allowable working stress
0.80 σac = (0.80 x 64.45) = 51.56 N/mm2.

Example 11.3 In Example 11.1, if single angle discontinuous strut is connected with more than
two rivets in line along the angle at each end, calculate the safe load carrying capacity of the
section.
Solution:
Discontinuous strut ISA 150 mm x 150 mm x 12 mm (ISA 150 150,@0.272 kN/m) is used
with double riveted connections. From the steel tables, the geometrical properties of the
section are as follows:

Length of strut between centre to centre of intersection L=3.50 m

Effective length of discontinuous strut double riveted 0.85 x L= 0.85 x 3.5 = 2.975 m

Step 3: Safe load
Allowable working stress for discontinuous strut double riveted is not reduced.

Example 11.4 A double angle discontinuous strut ISA 125 mm x 95 mm x 10 mm (ISA 125
95,@0.165 kN/m) long legs back to back is connected to both the sides of a gusset plate 10 mm
thick with 2 rivets. The length of strut between centre to centre of intersections is 4 m. Determine
the safe load carrying capacity of the section.
Solution:
The double angle discontinuous strut 2 ISA 125 mm x 95 mm x 10 mm (ISA 125 95,@0.165
kN/m) is shown in Fig. 11.4. Assume the tacking rivets are used along the length. From the
steel tables, the geometrical properties of (two angle back to back) the sections are as
follows:

Radius of gyration rxx= 39.4 mm
Angles are 10 mm apart

Radius of gyration ryy= 40.1 mm
Length of strut between centre to centre of intersection L=4 m

Effective length of discontinuous strut 0.85 x L= 0.85 x 4.0 = 3.40 m

Step 3: Safe load

Example 11.5 In Example 11.4, if double discontinuous strut is connected to one side of a
gusset, determine safe load carrying capacity of the strut.
Solution:
kN/m) connected to one side of a gusset is shown in Fig. 11.5. Assume the tacking rivets are
used along the length. From the steel tables, the geometrical properties of (two angle back to
back) the sections are as follows:

Distance back to back of angles is zero

Effective length of strut whether single riveted or double riveted L=4 m


Step 3: Safe load
From IS:800-1984 for l/r=109 and the steel having yield stress, fy=260 N/mm2, allowable
For above strut, allowable working stress 0.80 σac = (0.80 x 73.9) = 59.12 N/mm2.

Example 11.6 In Example 11.4, double angle strut is continuous and connected with a gusset
plate with single rivet; determine safe load carrying capacity of the strut.
Solution:
kN/m) is singly riveted as shown in Fig. 11.4. Assume the tacking rivets are used along the
length. From the steel tables, the geometrical properties of (two angle back to back) the
sections are as follows:

Angles are 10 mm apart

Length of strut between centre to centre of intersection L=4 m

Effective length L= 4 m

Step 3: Safe load

Example 11.7 Design a single angle discontinuous strut to carry 110 kN load. The length of the
strut between centre to centre of intersections is 3.25 m.
Design:
Step 1: Selection of trial section
Assuming that the angle strut is connected to the gusset plate with two or more than two
rivets.
Effective length of strut l=0.85L=(0.85 x 3.25 x 1000) = 2762.5 mm.
The slenderness ratio for the single angle discontinuous strut and value of yield stress
for the steel may be assumed as 130 and 260 N/mm2, respectively.
Therefore, allowable stress in compression for strut σac =57 N/mm2 (MPa)
Effective sectional area required

The equal angle section is suitable for single angle strut. It has maximum value for minimum
radius of gyration.
Step 2: Properties of trial section
From steel section tables, try ISA 110 mm x 110 mm x 10 mm (ISA 110 [email protected] kN/m)
Sectional area A=2106 mm2, rxx=ryy=33.6 mm, ruu=42.5 mm,

rvv=21.4 mm
Therefore rmin=21.4 mm
Step 3: Slenderness ratio
Slenderness ratio
Step 4: Safe load
From IS:800-1984, allowable working stress in compression for the steel having yield stress
as 260 N/mm2 σac =57.56 N/mm2 (MPa)

The angle section lighter in weight than this is not suitable. Hence the design is satisfactory.
Step 5: Check for width of outstanding leg
Width of outstanding leg to thickness ratio

Hence, satisfactory. Provide ISA 110 mm x 110 mm x 10 mm (ISA 110 [email protected] kN/m)
for discontinuous strut.
Alternatively:
From IS:808-1984, try angle section 120 x 120 x 10 (@ 18.2 kg/m)
Sectional area, A=2320 mm2, rxx=ryy=36.7 mm, ruu=46.3 mm,
rvv=23.6 mm
Step3: Slenderness ratio

Effective length of strut is 2762.5 mm
Minimum radius of gyration rmin=23.6 mm
Slenderness ratio
Step 4: Safe load carrying capacity
From IS:800-1984 for l/r=117.055 and the steel having yield stress, fy=260 N/mm2,
allowable working stress in compression
Safe load carrying capacity

Example 11.8 Design a double angle discontinuous strut to carry 150 kN load. The length of
strut between centre to centre of intersections is 4 m
Design:
Step 1: Selection of trial section
Assuming that the strut is connected to both sides of gusset 10 mm thick by two or more than
two rivets.
Length of strut L= 4.00 m
Effective length of strut l=0.85L=(0.85 x 4) = 3.40 m.
The slenderness ratio of a double angle discontinuous strut and the value of yield
stress for the steel may be assumed as 120 and 260 N/mm2, respectively.
Therefore, allowable stress in compression σac =64 N/mm2 (MPa)
Effective sectional area required

From steel section tables (properties of two angles back to back), try 2 ISA 100 mm x 65 mm
x 8 mm (2 ISA 100 65,@0.099 kN/m)
Sectional area A=2514 mm2, rxx=31.6 mm,
For angles having 10 mm distance back to back and long legs vertical ryy=27.5 mm
Therefore rmin=27.5 mm
Step 3: Slenderness ratio
Slenderness ratio
Step 4: Safe load
From IS:800-1984, allowable working stress in compression for the steel having yield stress
as 260 N/mm2 σac =61.48 N/mm2 (MPa)

Provide 2 ISA 100 mm x 65 mm x 8 mm for the strut. Provide tacking rivets 18 mm in
diameter at 500 mm spacing.
Chapter 5: Compression Members
The following information is taken from “Unified Design of Steel Structures,” Second Edition, Louis F.
Geschwindner, 2012, Chapter 5.
5.1 Compression Members in Structures

A compression member is a structural element subjected to an axial force that
tends to push the ends of the member together.
• The column is the best known compression member in a building structure.
- Columns are usually considered to be vertical structural members that
support the horizontal elements of a roof or floor system.
- However, columns can be positioned in any orientation (e.g. diagonal and
horizontal compression elements in a truss).
• Other compression members include the chords of trusses, various bracing
members in floors and walls, and struts and posts.
- Struts are short vertical members subjected to compressive loads.
• Other members have compression elements: compression flanges of rolled
beams and built-up sections.
Compression members discussed in this chapter will be loaded only with concentric
axial forces.
• In real structures, additional load effects (e.g. load eccentricities, transverse
loads) acting on a compression member cause combined effects of axial force
and bending (e.g. beam-columns).
Chapter E of the Specification addresses members subjected to axial compression

resulting from forces applied concentrically at the centroidal axis.
5.2 Cross-Sectional Shapes for Compression Members

Compression members carry axial forces, so the primary cross-sectional property
of interest is the cross-sectional area.
• The basic relationship between force and stress in an axially loaded member is
given by the following equation.
f = P/A
• Theoretically, all cross sections with the same area will perform in the same
way.
• However, in real structures, other factors influence the strength of the
compression member, and the configuration of the area becomes important.
5.1
The typical compression member in a building is a column and the typical column is a
wide-flange shape.
• The wide-flange shape is not the most efficient section for a column.
- Round and square hollow structural steel sections and pipe sections are the
most efficient shapes.
• The wide-flange shape provides a compression member that can be easily
connected to other members of the structural system, such as beams and other
columns.
- The ease of the connections significantly influences the selection of the
wide-flange shape as an appropriate column cross-section.
There are a number of shapes that can be selected to resist a compression load in
a given structure.
• The number of possible options is limited by available sections, connection
methods, and the type of structure in which the section is to be used.
• Figure 5.2 (p. 114 of the textbook) shows various types of shapes used as
compression members.
- Many of these shapes are also used as tension members since the nature of
the loading in tension or compression is an axial load.
• Single-angles are used as bracing and as compression members in light trusses.
• Structural tees are used as the top chord compression members in roof trusses
because other truss members can be welded directly to the stems of the tees.
• Hollow structural sections (square, rectangular, or round HSS) and steel pipe
are common sections used for buildings, bridges, and other structures.
- Advantages of hollow structural sections include the following.
◦ Four-sided and round sections are easier to paint than open W, S, and M
sections.
◦ Hollow structural tubing does not have the problem of dirt collecting
between the flanges associated with open structural shapes.
- One disadvantage of hollow structural sections includes the following.
◦ The ends of the tube and pipe sections that are subject to corrosive
atmospheres may have to be sealed to protect the inaccessible inside
surfaces from corrosion.
• Built-up sections, a section comprised of two or more shapes and/or plates, may
be needed if the members are long and support very heavy loads.
• Composite columns, consisting of steel pipe and structural tubing filled with
concrete, or W shapes encased in concrete, are being used more frequently.
5.2
5.3 Compression Member Strength
A column’s ability to carry a load is greatly influenced by column slenderness and
column length.
• Very short, stout columns fail by crushing due to material failure.
- Failure occurs once the stress exceeds the elastic (yield point) limit of the
material.
• Long, slender columns fail by buckling – a function of the column’s dimensions
and its modulus of elasticity.
- Buckling is the sudden uncontrolled lateral displacement of a column at which
point no additional load can be supported.
- Failure occurs at a lower stress level than the column’s material strength
due to buckling (i.e. lateral instability).
Short columns
Short columns (a.k.a. stub columns) fail by crushing at high stress levels that
exceed the elastic limit of the column material.
The maximum compressive force for short columns is based on the following basic
stress equation.
Py = Fy Ag
where
Py = yield load (psi or ksi)
Fy = yield stress (psi or ksi)
Ag = gross cross-sectional area of the column (in2)
Euler Column
Long columns fail by buckling at stress levels that are below the elastic limit of the
column material.
Buckling in long, slender columns is due to the following effects.

• Eccentricities in loading.
• Irregularities in the column material.
Buckling can be avoided (theoretically) if the loads were applied absolutely axially,
the column material was totally homogeneous with no imperfections, and
construction was true and plumb.
5.3
A Swiss mathematician named Leonhard Euler (1707 – 1783) was the first to
investigate the buckling behavior of slender columns within the elastic limit of the
column’s material.
• Euler presented his analysis in 1759.
• Euler’s equation shows the relationship between the load that causes buckling of
a (pinned end) column and the material and stiffness properties of the column.
• Euler’s column model, usually called the perfect column or the pure column is
based on the following assumptions.
- The column ends are frictionless pins.
- The column is perfectly straight.
- The load is applied concentrically (i.e. along the centroidal axis)
- The material behaves elastically.
The critical buckling load (a.k.a. the Euler’s buckling load) can be determined by the
following equation.
Pcr = π2EImin/L2
where
Pcr = critical axial load that causes buckling in the column (pounds or kips)
E = modulus of elasticity of the column material (psi or ksi)
Imin = smallest moment of inertia of the column cross-section (in4)
(Most sections have Ix and Iy; angles have Ix, Iy and Iz.)
L = column length between pinned ends (inches)
• As the column length increases, the critical load rapidly decreases (since the
critical load is inversely proportional to L2), approaching zero as a limit.
Euler’s equation is valid only for long, slender columns that fail due to buckling.
• Euler’s equation contains no safety factors.
• Euler’s equation results in compressive stresses developed in columns that are
well below the elastic limit of the material.
Other Boundary Conditions

To generalize the buckling equation for end conditions other than that for pinned
ends, the column length L is replaced by the column effective length KL, where K is
the effective length factor.
• The general buckling equation takes the following form.
5.4
Pcr = π2EImin/(KL)2
End restraint affects the load-carrying capacity of columns.

• Columns with significant rotational or translational end restraint can support
considerably more load than those with little end restraint.
The effective length of a column (referred to as KL) is the distance between

inflection points, or points of zero moment in the column.
• The concept of effective length is simply a mathematical method of taking a
column, whatever its end bracing conditions, and replacing it with an equivalent
pinned-end braced column.
• The effective length factor K is used as a multiplier for converting the actual
column length to an effective column length based on end conditions.
The six most common theoretical end conditions and the associated theoretical and
recommended design values for K are shown in following table (ref. Table C-A-7.1,
AISC Commentary, Appendix 7, shown as Figure 5.6, p. 118 of the textbook).
5.5
a. Both ends fixed: Structure is adequately braced against lateral forces.
Theoretical: K = 0.5
Recommended design value: K = 0.65
Example: Steel column rigidly connected (welded) to large steel beams top and
bottom.
b. One end pinned and one end fixed: Structure is adequately braced against
lateral forces.
Example: Steel column rigidly connected to a concrete footing at the base and
attached to light-gauge roofing at the top.
c. Both ends fixed with some lateral translation.

Example: Steel column in a relatively flexible rigid frame structure.
d. Both ends pinned: Structure is adequately braced against lateral (wind and
earthquake) forces.
Examples: Steel column with simple clip angle connection top and bottom.
e. One end free and one end fixed: Lateral translation possible (develops eccentric
column load).
Examples: Water tank mounted on a simple pipe column; flagpole.
f. Base pinned, top fixed with some lateral translation.

Examples: Steel column with a rigid connection to a beam above and a simple pin
connection at the base.
5.6
Pinned end supports are often assumed for design purposes.
• Pinned ends are usually assumed even if the ends of steel columns are
restrained at the bottom (e.g. by being welded to base plates, which in turn are
anchor-bolted to concrete footings).
• Steel pipe columns generally have plates welded at each end, and then bolted to
other parts of the structure.
- Such restraints vary greatly and are difficult to evaluate.
• Designers rarely take advantage of the end restraint to increase the allowable
stress.
- Such design is conservative and therefore adds to the factor of safety of
the design.
In the case of fixed-end conditions, tests have indicated that the “theoretical” K
values are somewhat non-conservative when designing steel columns.
• Since true joint fixity is rarely possible, the AISC recommends the use of
recommended K-values (listed in Table C-A-7.1, AISC Commentary, Appendix 7,
shown as Figure 5.6, p. 118 of the textbook).
5.7
Example Problems – Theoretical Column Strength using the Euler Formula
Example
Given: W10 x 22 is used as a pin-connected column.

Steel: A992 (Fy = 50 ksi)
Find:
a) Column’s buckling load using the Euler formula for a 15’-long column.
b) Column’s buckling load using the Euler formula for an 8’-long column.
Solution
W10 x 22 (A = 6.49 in2, Iy = 11.4 in4)
a) 15’-long column
Effective length (pinned-pinned): KL = 1.0 (15.0) = 15.0’
Determine the Euler buckling load: Pcr = π2EImin/(KL)2
Pcr = π2 (29,000) 11.4/(15 x 12”/’)2 = 100.7 kips
Determine the load that would cause yielding.
Py = Fy As = 50 (6.49) = 324.5 kips
Since Pcr < Py, the theoretical column strength is 100.7 kips.
• The column would buckle before it reached its yield stress.
b) 8’-long column
Effective length (pinned-pinned): KL = 1.0 (8.0) = 8.0’
Determine the Euler buckling load: Pcr = π2EImin/(KL)2
Pcr = π2 (29,000) 11.4/(8 x 12”/’)2 = 354.0 kips
Determine the load that would cause yielding.
Py = Fy As = 50 (6.49) = 324.5 kips (same as before)
Since Pcr > Py, the theoretical column strength is 324.5 kips.
• The column would reach its yield stress before it buckled.
5.8
Example
Given: W10 x 22 with fixed supports.

Find: Column length that would theoretically cause the column to buckle elastically
before yielding.
Solution
W10 x 22 (A = 6.49 in2, Iy = 11.4 in4)
Determine the force that would cause the column to yield.

Py = Fy As = 50 (6.49) = 324.5 kips
Applicable equation: Pcr = π2EImin/(KL)2

Effective length (fixed-fixed): KL = 0.5 L
Determine the column length at which Py would also cause buckling.
Pcr = Py = 324.5 = π2 (29,000) 11.4/(0.5 L)2
324.5 = 13,051,565/L2
L2 = 13,051,565/324.5 = 40,221
L = 200.6” (16.7’)
The column length that would theoretically cause the column to buckle elastically
before yielding is 16.7’.
5.9
Real Column
Actual column strength observed by testing is less than that predicted by the
Euler buckling equation or by that expected by material yielding.
• A number of factors make it difficult to accurately predict column strength.
• The following three factors are the main factors that influence column
strength.
- Material inelasticity, resulting from built-in or residual stresses.
- Column initial out-of-straightness.
- End conditions, as previously discussed.
Residual stresses are the direct result of the manufacturing process.

• A major cause of residual stress is the uneven cooling of shapes after hot
rolling.
- For example, in a W-shape the outer tips of the flanges and the middle of
the web cool quickly, while the areas at the intersection of the flanges and
web cool more slowly.
• The magnitude of the residual stresses from uneven cooling varies from 10 to
30 ksi, depending on the shape.
• Welding can produce severe residual stresses that may approach the yield point
in the vicinity of the weld.
• Residual stresses may be caused during fabrication when cambering is
performed by cold bending.
Initial column out-of-straightness significantly impacts column strength and is also

the result of the manufacturing process.
• Standard tolerances prescribed by the AISC Code of Standard Practice permit
an initial out-of-straightness of 1/1000 of the length between points of lateral
support – a seemingly small variation that still impacts column strength.
• The small lateral displacement of the column results in secondary moments
along the length of the column.
• When material inelasticity and out-of-straightness are combined, the Euler
equation cannot properly predict column behavior.
Curve plots of column test data have been developed on the basis of curve-fitting
in an attempt to develop a simple way to predict column behavior.
5.10
AISC Provisions
The AISC Specification provides one equation (based on the Euler equation) for
long columns with elastic buckling and an empirical equation for short and
intermediate columns.
• By using these equations a flexural buckling stress Fcr is determined for a
compression member.
• The flexural buckling stress Fcr is multiplied by the cross sectional area of the
member to obtain the nominal strength of the column.
The nominal compressive strength Pn and the LRFD design strength and ASD
allowable strength of a column member without slender elements are determined
from the following equations.
Pn = Fcr Ag AISC Equation E3-1
LRFD design compression strength (φc = 0.90): φc Pn = φc Fcr Ag
ASD allowable compression strength (Ωc = 1.67): Pn/Ωc = Fcr Ag/Ωc
The flexural buckling stress Fcr is determined from the following equations.
a) If KL/r ≤ 4.71(E/Fy)1/2 (or Fy/Fe ≤ 2.25),
then Fcr = [0.658 Fy/Fe] Fy AISC Equation E3-2
b) If KL/r > 4.71(E/Fy)1/2 (or Fy/Fe > 2.25),

then Fcr = 0.877 Fe AISC Equation E3-3
where
Fe = the elastic critical buckling stress (i.e. the Euler stress)
= π2E/(KL/r)2 AISC Equation E3-4
Calculations using the column equations are rarely made because the AISC Manual
provides computed values of critical stresses φcFcr and Fcr/Ωc in Table 4-22.
• Critical stress values are listed for slenderness ratios (i.e. KL/r) from 1 to 200
and for steels with Fy = 35, 36, 42, 46, and 50 ksi.
Tables 4-1 through 4-20 of the AISC Manual may be used to analyze and design
various column sections without the necessity of a trial-and-error procedure.
Earlier editions of the AISC Specification prescribed a maximum slenderness ratio

of KL/r = 200.
5.11
• The value was based on engineering judgment, practical economics, and the fact
that special care was required to prevent damage to very slender members
during fabrication, shipping, and assembly.
Recent editions of the AISC Specification no longer prescribe a specific maximum

slenderness ratio.
• Since many factors influence column strength a very slender column might
actually be acceptable.
• However, Section E2 of the AISC Commentary indicates that if KL/r > 200,
then the critical stress Fcr will be less than 6.3 ksi.
- By User Note, the 14th Edition of the Specification states, “For members
designed on the basis of compression, the effective slenderness ratio KL/r
preferably should not exceed 200.”
- The design aids for columns (e.g. Table 4-22) list do not provide critical
stress values for slenderness ratios in excess of 200.
• Based on these important practical considerations, it is prudent to select
compression members with slenderness ratios below 200.
5.12
Example Problems – Column Formulas
Example
Given: The column shown.

Steel: W12 x 72 (Fy = 50 ksi)
E = 29,000 ksi
Find: Determine the following.

a) Using the critical stress values in Table 4-22 of
the AISC Manual, determine the LRFD design
compression strength φcPn and the ASD
allowable compression strength Pn/Ωc.
b) Repeat the problem, using Table 4-1 of the AISC Manual.
c) Calculate φc Pn and Pn/Ωc using the column formulas from Section E3 of the
AISC Manual.
Solution
W12 x 72 (A = 21.1 in2, bf/2tf = 8.99, h/tw = 22.6, rx = 5.31”, ry = 3.04”)

K = 0.80 (Recommended design value, AISC Table C-A-7.1)
Check for slender elements using AISC Table B4.1a.

Flange (Case 1): λr = 0.56(E/Fy)1/2 = 0.56 (29,000/50)1/2 = 13.49 > bf/2tf = 8.99
The flange is not slender.
Web (Case 5): λr = 1.49(E/Fy)1/2 = 1.49 (29,000/50)1/2 = 35.9 > h/tw = 22.6
The web is not slender.
a) Using the critical stress values in Table 4-22 of the AISC Manual.
(KL/r)max = (KL/r)y = 0.80 (15) (12”/’)/3.04 = 47.37
By interpolating from Table 4-22 of the AISC Manual:
LRFD: φc Fcr = 38.19 ksi
ASD: Fcr/Ωc = 25.43 ksi
LRFD design compression strength (φc = 0.90):
φc Pn = (φc Fcr) Ag = 38.19 (21.1) = 805.8 kips
ASD allowable compression strength (Ωc = 1.67):
Pn/Ωc = (Fcr/Ωc) Ag = 25.43 (21.1) = 536.6 kips
5.13
b) Using Table 4-1 of the AISC Manual.
KL = 0.80 (15) = 12.0’
LRFD design compression strength: φc Pn = 806 kips
ASD allowable compression strength: Pn/Ωc = 536 kips
c) Using the column formulas from AISC Manual.

(KL/r)max = (KL/r)y = 0.80 (15) (12”/’)/3.04 = 47.37 (same as before)
Determine the flexural buckling stress Fcr.

Fe = π2E/(KL/r)2 = π2 (29,000)/(47.37)2 = 127.55 ksi
4.71 (E/Fy)1/2 = 4.71 (29,000/50)1/2 = 113.43 > KL/ry = 47.37
So, Fcr = [0.658 Fy/Fe] Fy = [0.658 50/127.55] 50 = 42.43 ksi

φc Pn = φc (Fcr Ag) = 0.90(42.43)(21.1) = 805.7 kips
Pn/Ωc = (Fcr Ag)/Ωc = 42.43 (21.1)/1.67 = 536.1 kips
5.14
Example
Given: An 18’ long HSS 16 x 16 x ½ column with pinned end supports.

Steel: Fy = 46 ksi
E = 29,000 ksi

a) Using the critical stress values in Table 4-22 of the AISC Manual, determine
the LRFD compression design strength φcPn and the ASD allowable
compression strength Pn/Ωc.
b) Repeat the problem, using Table 4-4 of the AISC Manual.
c) Calculate φcPn and Pn/Ωc using the column formulas from Section E3 of the
AISC Manual.
Solution
HSS 16 x 16 x ½ (A = 28.3 in2, b/t = 31.4, rx = ry = 6.31”)

K = 1.00 (Recommended design value, AISC Table C-A-7.1)

Walls (Case 6): λr = 1.40(E/Fy)1/2 = 1.40 (29,000/46)1/2 = 35.15 > b/t = 31.4
The walls are not slender.
(KL/r)max = (KL/r)y = 1.00 (18) (12”/’)/6.31 = 34.23

KL = 1.00 (18) = 18.0’
5.15
(KL/r)max = (KL/r) = 1.00 (18) (12”/’)/6.31 = 34.23 (same as before)
Fe = π2E/(KL/r)2 = π2 (29,000)/(34.23)2 = 244.28 ksi
4.71 (E/Fy)1/2 = 4.71 (29,000/46)1/2 = 118.26 > KL/r = 34.23
So, Fcr = [0.658 Fy/Fe] Fy = [0.658 46/244.28] 46 = 42.51 ksi
Pn/Ωc = (Fcr Ag)/Ωc = 42.51(28.3)/1.67 = 720.4 kips
5.16
Example
Given: A 32’ long W14 x 90 column, with the weak axis braced as shown.
Steel: Fy = 50 ksi
E = 29,000 ksi

a) Using the critical stress values in Table 4-22
of the AISC Manual, determine the LRFD
design compression strength φcPn and the
ASD allowable compression strength Pn/Ωc.
b) Repeat the problem, using Table 4-1 of the
AISC Manual.
c) Calculate φcPn and Pn/Ωc using the column
formulas from Section E3 of the AISC
Manual.
Solution
W14 x 90 (A = 26.5 in2, bf/2tf = 10.2, h/tw = 25.9, rx = 6.14”, ry = 3.70”)

K = 0.80 and 1.00 (Recommended design values, AISC Table C-A-7.1)

Flange (Case 1): λr = 0.56(E/Fy)1/2 = 0.56 (29,000/50)1/2 = 13.49 > bf/2tf = 10.2
The flange is not slender.
Web (Case 5): λr = 1.49(E/Fy)1/2 = 1.49 (29,000/50)1/2 = 35.9 > h/tw = 25.9
The web is not slender.
Determine the slenderness ratios:
(KL/r)x = 0.80 (32) (12”/’)/6.14 = 50.03 (controls)
(KL/r)y = 0.80 (12) (12”/’)/3.70 = 31.14
(KL/r)y = 1.00 (10) (12”/’)/3.70 = 32.43
5.17

KxLx = 0.80 (32) = 25.6’
KyLy = 0.80 (12) = 9.6’
KyLy = 1.00 (10) = 10.0’ (controls for weak axis)
Table 4-1 has been developed based the least radius of gyration r y. Due to
bracing, the strong axis (i.e. the x-axis) actually controls the design and as a
result a value of KxLx that is equivalent to KyLy needs to be determined in order
to use the table.
Thus, KxLx/rx = Equivalent KyLy/ry
Equivalent KyLy = KxLx (ry/rx) = 0.8 (32’) (3.70”/6.14”) = 15.43’
The equivalent KyLy = 15.43’ > actual KyLy = 10.0’; thus use KyLy = 15.43’.
From the column tables with KyLy = 15.43’, by interpolating:

(KL/r)max = (KL/r)x = 0.80 (32) (12”/’)/6.14 = 50.03 (from before)
Fe = π2E/(KL/r)2 = π2 (29,000)/(50.03)2 = 114.35 ksi
4.71 (E/Fy)1/2 = 4.71 (29,000/50)1/2 = 113.43 > KL/r = 50.03
So, Fcr = [0.658 Fy/Fe] Fy = [0.658 50/114.35] 50 = 41.64 ksi

Pn/Ωc = (Fcr Ag)/Ωc = 41.64(26.5)/1.67 = 660.8 kips
5.18
5.4 Additional Limit States for Compression
The two limit states for compression members presented previously include the
following.
1. Yielding
• The upper limit for column strength (i.e. FyAg) is reached only for the zero-
length column.
2. Flexural buckling (also called Euler buckling) is the primary type of buckling.
• Members are subject to flexure (bending) when they become unstable.
Loading of singly symmetric, unsymmetric, and certain doubly symmetric members

may be governed by the following limit states.
1. Torsional buckling or flexural-torsional buckling may occur in columns that
have certain cross-sectional configurations.
• These columns fail by twisting (torsion) or by a combination of torsional and
flexural buckling.
2. Local buckling occurs when some part or parts of the cross section of a column
are so thin that they buckle locally in compression before the other modes of
buckling can occur.
• Such columns are said to be a column with slender elements.
• The susceptibility of a column to local buckling is measured by the width-
thickness ratios of the parts of its cross section (e.g. thin flanges and webs
of W-shapes).
5.5 Length Effects

As previously discussed, the six most common theoretical end conditions and the
recommended design values for K are presented in Table C-A-7.1, AISC
Commentary, Appendix 7, and shown in Figure 5.17, p. 132 of the textbook.
• The theoretical K values were developed for columns with certain idealized
conditions of end restraint, which may be different from practical design
conditions.
• In most cases, the recommended design value for K is slightly greater than the
theoretical value because actual column end conditions are unlikely to match the
theoretical assumptions.
When a column is part of a frame, the stiffness of the members framing into the
column impact the rotation that may occur at the column ends and a more detailed
analysis may be advantageous.
5.19
• In statically indeterminate structures, sidesway may occur due to the following
conditions.
- The frame deflects laterally due to the presence of lateral loads.
- Unsymmetrical vertical loads are applied to the frame.
- The frame is unsymmetrical.
• Sidesway also occurs in columns whose ends can move transversely when they
are loaded to the point that buckling occurs.
If frames are used with diagonal bracing or shear walls, then sidesway will be
prevented and some rotational restraint is provided at the ends of the column.
• In such instances, K values will fall somewhere between Case (a) (i.e. fixed-
fixed supports) and Case (d) (i.e. pinned-pinned support) of AISC Table C-A-7.1.
Section 7.3 of Appendix 7 of the AISC Specification (entitled “Alternative

Methods of Design for Stability”) states, “In braced frame systems, shear wall
systems, and other structural systems where lateral stability and resistance to
lateral loads does not rely on the flexural stiffness of columns, the effective
length factor, K, of members subject to compression shall be taken as 1.0, unless
rational analysis indicates that a lower value is appropriate.”
• A specification like K = 1.0 is often quite conservative and a more detailed
analysis may often result in some cost savings.
The true effective length of a column is a property of the entire structure.

• In many buildings, it is probable that the masonry walls used for elevator shafts
of stairways provide sufficient lateral support to prevent sidesway.
• On the contrary, light curtain walls provide little resistance to sidesway.
• Sidesway is present in tall buildings unless a bracing system or shear walls are
used.
• In some cases resistance to sidesway is provided by the lateral stiffness of the
frame alone.
Theoretical mathematical analyses may be used to determine effective lengths.

• Many such procedures are typically too lengthy and too difficult for most
designers.
• The usual procedure is to use AISC Table C-A-7.1 (cf. AISC Commentary to
Appendix 7), interpolating between the idealized values as the designer feels is
appropriate, or simply taking K = 1.0.
5.20
• The most common method for obtaining effective lengths is to employ the
alignment charts presented in the Commentary to Appendix 7.
- One chart was developed for columns braced against sidesway:
Figure C-A-7.1 entitled “Alignment chart – sidesway inhibited (braced
frame)”, and shown as Figure 5.19 (p. 134 of the textbook).
- One chart was developed for columns subject to sidesway: Figure C-A-7.2
entitled “Alignment chart - sidesway uninhibited (moment frame)”], and
shown as Figure 5.20 (p. 134 of the textbook).
- The use of these charts enables the designer to obtain good K values
without struggling through lengthy trial-and-error procedures.
The alignment charts were developed on the basis of a certain set of assumptions.
• A complete list of the assumptions is given in the Commentary to Appendix 7.
• Among these assumptions are the following.
1. The members are elastic, have constant cross sections, and are connected
with rigid joints.
2. All columns buckle simultaneously.
3. For columns in frames with sidesway inhibited, rotations at opposite ends of
the restraining beams are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction,
producing single curvature bending in the beam.
4. For columns in frames with sidesway uninhibited, rotations at opposite ends
of the restraining beams are equal in magnitude and direction, producing
double (reverse) curvature in the beam.
5. Axial compression forces in the girders are negligible.
The alignment charts are based on equations provided in the Commentary to

Appendix 7.
• The alignment chart for sidesway inhibited frames (shown in Figure 5.19) is
based on Equation C-A-7-1.
• The alignment chart for sidesway uninhibited frames (shown in Figure 5.20) is
based on Equation C-A-7-2.
To use the alignment charts, it is necessary to have preliminary sizes for the
girders and columns before the K factor can be determined for a column.
• Preliminary sizes for the columns and girders may be obtained using
approximate methods of analysis (e.g. portal method, or cantilever method).
• G values, a ratio of column stiffness ∑(Ic/Lc) to girder stiffness ∑(Ig/Lg), are
then determined for each end of the column.
5.21
The resistance to rotation furnished by the beams and girders meeting at one end
of a column is dependent on the rotational stiffnesses of those members.
• The rotational restraint at the end of a particular column is proportional to the
ratio of the sum of the column stiffnesses to the girder stiffnesses meeting at
that joint and located in the plane in which buckling of the column is being
considered (i.e. the value G).
G = ∑(Ic/Lc)/∑(Ig/Lg)
• For pinned connections of columns, G is theoretically infinite since the
resistance to rotation from the connection is nearly zero.
- Such is the case when a column is connected to a footing with a frictionless
hinge.
- Since such a connection is not actually frictionless, it is recommended that G
be made equal to 10.0 where such nonrigid supports are used.
• For rigid connections of columns to footings or to very stiff beams or girders,
the resistance to rotation from the beam (i.e. the beam’s stiffness) is very
high, and G theoretically approaches zero.
- From a practical standpoint, a value of 1.0 is recommended, because no
connection is perfectly rigid.
K factors for columns of a steel frame using the alignment charts may be
determined as follows.
1. Select the appropriate chart (sidesway inhibited or sidesway uninhibited).
2. Compute G at each end of the column and label the values GA and GB.
3. Draw a straight line on the chart between the GA and GB values, and read K
where the line hits the center K scale.
An initial design provides preliminary sizes for each of the members in the frame.
• After the effective lengths are determined, each column can be redesigned.
- Should the sizes change appreciably, new effective lengths can be
determined, and the column designs repeated.
The following equations provide approximate solutions that easily yield results as
accurate as those obtained by reading a value from the alignment charts.
• For a braced frame (sidesway inhibited):
K = [3 GA GB + 1.4(GA + GB) + 0.64] / [3 GA GB + 2(GA + GB) + 1.28]
• For an unbraced frame (sidesway uninhibited):
K = {[1.6 GA GB + 4(GA + GB) + 7.5] / (GA + GB + 7.5)}1/2
5.22
Example Problem – Frames Meeting Alignment Chart Assumptions
Example
Given: Frame shown.

Frame is not braced against sidesway.
Find: Effective length factor K for each column using the alignment chart from the
Commentary to Appendix 7 (Figure C-A-7.2), as shown in Figure 5.20 (p. 134 of
the textbook).
Solution
Determine the stiffness factors (Ix/L).

• In this example buckling of the columns is analyzed about the strong axis, so Ix
is used for the columns and Ix is used for the beams.
Member Shape Ix L Ix/L
AB W8 x 24 82.7 12 6.89
BC W8 x 24 82.7 10 8.27
DE W8 x 40 146 12 12.17
EF W8 x 40 146 10 14.6
GH W8 x 24 82.7 12 6.89
HI W8 x 24 82.7 10 8.27
BE W18 x 50 800 20 40.0
CF W16 x 36 448 20 22.4
EH W18 x 97 1750 30 58.33
FI W16 x 57 758 30 25.27
5.23
Determine G factors for each joint.
Joint ∑(Ic/Lc)/∑(Ig/Lg) G
A Pinned 10.0
B (6.89 + 8.27)/40.0 0.379
C 8.27/22.4 0.369
D Pinned 10.0
E (12.17 + 14.6)/(40.0 + 58.33) 0.272
F 14.6/(22.4 + 25.27) 0.306
G Pinned 10.0
H (6.89 + 8.27)/58.33 0.260
I 8.27/25.27 0.327
Column K factors from the alignment chart (Figure 7.2b).

Column GA GB K
AB 10.0 0.379 1.78
BC 0.379 0.369 1.12
DE 10.0 0.272 1.77
EF 0.272 0.306 1.11
GH 10.0 0.260 1.76
HI 0.260 0.327 1.11
Using the stiffness ratios GA and GB determined above, the K factor for column AB
is determined using Equation 5.19 (p. 135 of the textbook) as follows.
K = {[1.6 GA GB + 4(GA + GB) + 7.5]/(GA + GB + 7.5)}1/2
K = {[1.6(10.0)0.379 + 4(10.0 + 0.379) + 7.5]/(10.0 + 0.379 + 7.5)}1/2
= (55.08/17.879)1/2
K = 1.76 (which compares favorably with the value of 1.78 determined above)
Using the stiffness ratios GA and GB determined above, the K factor for column BC
is determined using Equation 5.19 (p. 135 of the textbook) as follows.
K = {[1.6 GA GB + 4(GA + GB) + 7.5]/(GA + GB + 7.5)}1/2
K = {[1.6(0.379)0.369 + 4(0.379 + 0.369) + 7.5]/(0.379 + 0.369 + 7.5)}1/2
= (10.716/8.248)1/2
K = 1.14 (which compares favorably with the value of 1.12 determined above)
5.24
In the previous example, buckling was examined about the strong axis (i.e. the x-
axis) for both the columns and beams.
• For most buildings, the values Kx and Ky should be examined separately.
- There may be different framing conditions in the two directions.
◦ Many multistory frames consist of rigid frames in one direction and
conventionally connected frames with sidesway bracing in the other.
◦ Points of lateral support may be different in the two directions.
The alignment chart of Figure 5.20 for frames with sidesway uninhibited always
indicates that K ≥ 1.0.
• Calculated K factors of 2.0 to 3.0 are common, and larger values are
occasionally obtained.
- To many designers, such large factors seem unreasonable.
• If seemingly high K factors are determined, the designer should carefully
review the G values used to enter the chart, as well as the basic assumptions
made in preparing the charts.
Effective Length for Inelastic Columns

It is important to remember that the alignment charts are based on the
assumptions of idealized conditions (including that the behavior is purely elastic);
however, these conditions seldom exist in real structures.
• Differing end conditions and residual stresses play a significant role in
determining column strength through inelastic behavior.
• When column buckling occurs in the inelastic range, the alignment charts usually
give conservative results.
For more accurate results, inelastic K-factors can be determined from the
alignment charts by multiplying the elastic stiffness ratios GA and GB by a
stiffness reduction factor, τb (i.e. replace EcIc with τbEcIc).
• The stiffness reduction factor τb is the ratio ET/E (i.e. the ratio of the
tangent modulus to the elastic modulus).
• AISC Manual Table 4-21 provides values for τb based on the required strength,
Pu/Ag (LRFD) and Pa/Ag (ASD).
- The use of Table 4-21 assumes that the column is loaded to its full available
strength.
- If the column is not loaded to its full available strength, then Table 4-21
provides a conservative assessment of the inelastic stiffness reduction
factor and the effective length.
5.25
5.6 Slender Elements in Compression
Elements that make up the column shape, such as the thin flanges or webs of a
column, can buckle locally in compression before the buckling strength of the whole
column is reached.
• When thin plates are used to carry compressive stresses, they are susceptible
to buckling about their weak axes due to the small moments of inertia about
those axes.
Section B4 of the AISC Specification provides limiting values for the width-
thickness ratios of the individual parts of shapes subject to axial compression.
• For members subject to axial compression, sections are classified as nonslender
element or slender-element sections.
• For a section to be considered as nonslender, its compression elements must
have width-thickness ratios equal to or less than the limiting values for λ r
(Greek small letter “lambda”).
- These values are given for various elements in Table B4.1a of the AISC
Specification (and shown in part as Table 5.4, pp. 141 of the textbook).
• If the width-thickness ratio of any compression element exceeds λr, then the
section is a slender-element section.
Almost all of the W, M, and S shapes listed in the AISC Manual have no slender-
element sections for steels with a yield stress of 50 ksi.
• The shapes that do contain slender-element sections are so indicated by
footnote in the column tables of the AISC Manual (e.g. HSS 5 x 2½ x 1/8, in
Table 4-3).
- The values listed in the column tables reflect the reduced design stresses
available for these slender-element sections.
The AISC Specification outlines provisions for members with slender elements.
• If the width-thickness limits for slender-element sections are exceeded for
members subject to axial compression, then refer to Section E7 of the AISC
Specification.
5.7 Column Design Tables

Tables 4-1 through 4-20 of the AISC Manual may be used to select various column
sections without the necessity of a trial-and-error procedure.
• These tables provide LRFD axial design strengths (φcPn) and ASD allowable
design strengths (Pn/Ωc) for various practical lengths of the steel sections
commonly used as columns.
5.26
• The AISC tables provide design strengths of columns with respect to the
weaker axis.
- Design strengths for W, HP, hollow structural sections (HSS), and pipe are
with respect to the y-axis.
◦ Standard steel pipe sections are labeled “Std” in the table.
◦ Extra strong pipe (XS) has thicker walls than standard steel pipe; it is
also heavier and more expensive than standard pipe.
◦ Double extra-strong pipe (XXS) has thicker walls and greater weight
than extra strong pipe.
- Design strengths for structural tees (i.e. WT) and double angles are with
respect to the axis indicated in the respective table.
- Design strengths for single angles are with respect to the z-axis.
To determine the design compression stress for a particular column, theoretically

both slenderness ratios (KL/r)x and (KL/r)y should be computed.
• For most steel sections used for columns, r y is much less than rx and only
(KL/r)y needs to be computed and used in the column analysis or design.
• If bracing of the weak axis is provided, both (KL/r)x and (KL/r)y must be
computed and the larger value used for determining the design stress φcFcr and
the allowable stress Fcr/Ωc for the member.
- Bracing may be accomplished by connecting braces or beams into the sides
of a column (e.g. such horizontal members, called girts).
- Steel columns may be built into masonry walls in such a manner that the
column is supported by the wall in the weaker direction.
5.27
Example Problems – AISC Column Design Tables
Example
Given: A column pinned at the top and bottom.

Service loads: PD = 130 kips, PL = 210 kips
KL = 10 feet
Find: a) Select the lightest W section (Fy = 50 ksi).

b) Select the lightest rectangular or square HSS section (Fy = 46 ksi).
c) Select the lightest round HSS section (Fy = 42 ksi).
d) Select the lightest pipe section (Fy = 35 ksi).
Solution
LRFD: Pu = 1.2 D + 1.6 L = 1.2 (130) + 1.6 (210) = 492 kips

ASD: Pa = D + L = 130 + 210 = 340 kips
a) Select the lightest W section (Fy = 50 ksi).

From AISC Manual Table 4-1
Possible selections (LRFD) Possible selections (ASD)
W8 x 48 (φcPn = 497 kips) W8 x 58 (Pn/Ωc = 403 kips)
Select W8 x 48 Select W10 x 49
b) Select the lightest rectangular or square HSS section (Fy = 46 ksi).

From AISC Manual Tables 4-3 and 4-4
Possible selections (LRFD)
HSS 9 x 7 x 5/8, Wt = 59.3 lb/ft (φcPn = 593 kips)
5.28
Select HSS 12 x 8 x 3/8 or HSS 10 x 10 x 3/8
Possible selections (ASD)

HSS 9 x 7 x 5/8, Wt = 59.3 lb/ft (Pn/Ωc = 395 kips)
Select HSS 10 x 10 x 3/8
c) Select the lightest round HSS section (Fy = 42 ksi).

HSS 8.625 x 0.625, Wt = 53.5 lb/ft (φcPn = 498 kips)
5.29
Select HSS 16.000 x 0.312

HSS 10.000 x 0.625, Wt = 62.6 lb/ft (Pn/Ωc = 400 kips)
Select HSS 16.000 x 0.312
d) Select the lightest pipe section (Fy = 35 ksi).

XXS Pipe 8, Wt = 72.5 lb/ft (φcPn = 573 kips)
XS Pipe 12, Wt = 65.5 lb/ft (φcPn = 530 kips)
Select XS Pipe 12

XXS Pipe 8, Wt = 72.5 lb/ft (φcPn = 381 kips)
XS Pipe 12, Wt = 65.5 lb/ft (φcPn = 353 kips)
Select XS Pipe 12
5.30
The AISC Manual provides a method by which a section can be selected from its
tables when an axially loaded column is laterally restrained in its weak direction and
the unbraced lengths are different.
• For equal strengths about the x- and y-axes, the following relation must hold.
KxLx/rx = KyLy/ry
and KxLx = KyLy (rx/ry)
• The procedure is outlined as follows.
a. The designer enters the appropriate table with KyLy and selects a shape.
b. For that shape, the value rx/ry is taken from the table.
c. Multiply (rx/ry) by KyLy and compare with KxLx.
- If KyLy (rx/ry) > KxLx, then KyLy controls and the shape initially selected
is the correct one.
- If KyLy (rx/ry) < KxLx, then KxLx controls and the designer reenters the
table with a larger equivalent KyLy = KxLx/(rx/ry) to select the final
section.
5.31
Example Problem – Columns with Different Unbraced Lengths
Example
Given: A column with the following conditions.

Steel: Fy = 50 ksi
KxLx = 26’
KyLy = 13’
Find: Select the lightest W12 section using both the LRFD and ASD methods.
a) By trial-and-error, using AISC Table 4-22.
b) Using AISC Table 4-1.
Solution
a) By trial-and-error, using AISC Table 4-22.

LRFD
Pu = 1.2 D + 1.6 L = 1.2 (250) + 1.6 (400) = 940 kips
Assume KL/r = 50 and compute an estimated column area.

From AISC Table 4-22: φcFcr = 37.5 ksi
Required Ag = Pu/φcFcr = 940/37.5 = 25.1 in2
Select a trial section.

Try W12 x 87 (A = 25.6 in2, rx = 5.38”, ry = 3.07”)
Determine the critical slenderness ratio.

(KL/r)x = 26(12”/’)/5.38 = 57.99 (controls)
(KL/r)y = 13(12”/’)/3.07 = 50.81

φcPn = φcFcr Ag = 35.20 (25.6) = 901.1 kips < Pu = 940 kips NG
Try the next larger W12 section.

Try W12 x 96 (A = 28.2 in2, rx = 5.44”, ry = 3.09”)
5.32
(KL/r)x = 26(12”/’)/5.44 = 57.35 (controls)
(KL/r)y = 13(12”/’)/3.09 = 50.49

φcPn = φcFcr Ag = 35.40 (28.2) = 998.3 kips > Pu = 940 kips OK
Select W12 x 96
ASD
Pa = D + L = 250 + 400 = 650 kips

From AISC Table 4-22: Fcr/Ωc = 24.9 ksi
Required Ag = Pa/(Fcr/Ωc) = 650/24.9 = 26.1 in2

Try W12 x 96 (A = 28.2 in2, rx = 5.44”, ry = 3.09”)

(KL/r)x = 26.0 (12”/’)/5.44 = 57.35 (controls)
(KL/r)y = 13.0 (12”/’)/3.09 = 50.49
From AISC Table 4-22: Fcr/Ωc = 23.53

Pn/Ωc = FcrAg/Ωc = 23.53 (28.2) = 663.5 kips > Pa = 650 OK
Select W12 x 96
b) Using AISC Table 4-1.

LRFD
Pu = 1.2 D + 1.6 L = 1.2 (250) + 1.6 (400) = 940 kips
For KyLy = 13’: Try W12 x 87 (φcPn = 954 kips > 940 kips)
rx/ry = 1.75
Compare KyLy (rx/ry) with KxLx.
KyLy (rx/ry) = 13.0 (1.75) = 22.75’ < KxLx = 26’ Thus, KxLx controls.
Compute the equivalent KyLy.
Equivalent KyLy = KxLx/(rx/ry) = 26/1.75 = 14.86’
5.33
Reenter Table 4-1: Try W12 x 96
By interpolating, φcPn = 994.2 kips > Pu = 940 kips OK
Select W12 x 96
ASD
Pa = D + L = 250 + 400 = 650 kips
For KyLy = 13’: Try W12 x 96 (Pn/Ωc = 701 kips > 650 kips)
rx/ry = 1.76
Compare KyLy (rx/ry) with KxLx.
KyLy (rx/ry) = 13.0 (1.76) = 22.88’ < KxLx = 26’ Thus, KxLx controls.
Compute the equivalent KyLy.
Equivalent KyLy = KxLx/(rx/ry) = 26/1.76 = 14.77’
Reenter Table 4-1: Try W12 x 96
By interpolating, φcPn = 663.8 kips > Pa = 650 kips OK
Select W12 x 96
5.34
5.8 Torsional Buckling and Flexural Torsional Buckling
Up to this point, two limit states have been presented: flexural buckling and local
buckling.
• Two additional limit states for column behavior must also be considered:
torsional buckling and flexural-torsional buckling.
Axially loaded compression members can theoretically fail in four different ways.
1. Local buckling of the elements that form the cross section (e.g. flanges, webs).
2. Flexural buckling of the compression member.
- Flexural buckling (also called Euler buckling when elastic behavior occurs) is
the situation considered up to this point.
- The column design strengths given in the AISC column tables for W, M, S,
tube, and pipe sections are based on flexural buckling.
3. Torsional buckling of the compression member.
- Because torsional buckling can be very complex, it is desirable to prevent its
occurrence.
- Torsional buckling can be prevented by careful arrangement of the members
and by providing bracing to prevent lateral movement and twisting.
- If sufficient end supports and intermediate lateral bracing are provided,
flexural buckling will always control over torsional buckling.
4. Flexural-torsional buckling of the compression member.
Symmetrical members such as W sections are generally used as columns.

• The limit states of torsional buckling and flexural-torsional buckling are not
normally considered in the design of W-shape columns.
- Doubly symmetrical column members (such as W sections) are normally
subject only to local buckling, flexural buckling, and torsional buckling.
- The limit states of torsional buckling and flexural-torsional buckling
generally do not govern and when they do the critical load differs very little
from the strength determined from flexural buckling.
• If a torsional situation is encountered, it is best to use box sections or to make
box sections out of W sections by adding welded side plates.
Singly symmetric such as WT and non-symmetric shapes can fail through flexural,
torsional, or flexural-torsional buckling.
• Torsional problems can also be reduced by shortening the lengths of members
that are subject to torsion and through proper bracing of the column.
5.35
• Torsional problems can also be reduced by avoiding torsional loading.
- Torsion will not occur in such sections if the lines of action of the lateral
loads pass through the shear centers of the sections.
- The shear center is that point in the cross section of a member through
which the resultant of the transverse loads must pass so that no torsion will
occur.
- The figure at the right shows the
location of the shear center for
various shapes.
◦ The shear centers of commonly
used doubly symmetrical sections
occur at the centroids of these
sections.
◦ The shear center does not occur at
the centroid for sections such as
angles and channels.
The values given in the AISC column load tables for double-angle and structural
tee sections were computed for buckling about the weaker of the x- or y-axis and
for flexural-torsional buckling.
• For a singly symmetrical section such as a tee or double angle, Euler buckling
may occur about the x- or y-axis.
• For equal-leg single angles, Euler buckling may occur about the z-axis.
• For all these sections, flexural-torsional buckling is definitely a possibility and
may control.
- Flexural-torsional buckling will always control for unequal-leg single angle
columns.
Section E4 of the AISC Specification provides a method to determine the nominal

compressive strength Pn based on torsional or flexural-torsional buckling of
members without slender elements.
• Part (a) is applicable specifically to double-angle and tee-shaped compression
members used as columns.
• Part (b) of the section presents a general method applicable to all shapes.
Using the AISC Specification, there are four steps involved to determine the
nominal compressive strength Pn based on flexural buckling, torsional buckling, or
flexural-torsional buckling of members without slender elements.
5.36
1. Determine the flexural buckling strength Fcr of the member for its x-axis using
AISC Equations E3-4, E3-2 or E3-3 as applicable, and the nominal compressive
strength Pn using Equation E3-1.
2. Determine the flexural buckling strength Fcr of the member for its y-axis using
AISC Equations E3-4, E3-2 or E3-3 as applicable, and the nominal compressive
strength Pn using Equation E3-1.
3. Determine the flexural torsional buckling strength Fcr of the member for its y-
axis using AISC Equations E4-2 through E4-11 as applicable, and the nominal
compressive strength Pn using Equation E4-1.
4. Select the smallest Pn value determined in the preceding three steps.
An additional factor in determining strength based on limit states of torsional

buckling and flexural-torsional buckling is the torsional effective length factor Kz.
• The Commentary recommends that conservatively Kz = 1.0 and provides several
other possibilities if greater accuracy is desired.
5.37
Example Problem - Flexural-Torsional Buckling of Compression Members
Example
Given: Column consisting of a WT10.5 x 66

KLx = 25 feet
KLy = KLz = 20 feet
The bracing is not adequate to resist torsion.
Find: The nominal compressive strength Pn.
Solution
WT10.5 x 66
A = 19.4 in2, tf = 1.04”, bf/2tf = 6.01, d/tw = 16.8, Ix = 181 in4, rx = 3.06”, Iy = 166 in4,
ry = 2.93”, y = 2.33”, J = 5.62 in4, G = 11,200 ksi
(Note: G is the shear modulus listed in Specification E4.)
Check for slender elements (AISC Table B4.1a)

Flange (Case 1): bf/2tf = 6.01 < 0.56(E/Fy)1/2 = 0.56(29,000/50)1/2 = 13.49
The flange is not a slender element.
Stem (Case 4): d/tw = 16.8 < 0.75(E/Fy)1/2 = 0.75(29,000/50)1/2 = 18.06
The stem is not a slender element.
a) Determine the flexural buckling strength Fcr for the x-axis (based on Section
E3 of the AISC Specification).
(KL/r)x = 25(12”/’)/3.06 = 98.04
Fex = π2E/(KL/r)x2 = π2 (29,000)/(98.04)2 = 29.78 AISC Equation E3-4
(KL/r)x = 98.04 < 4.71 (E/Fy)1/2
= 4.71 (29,000/50)1/2 = 113.43
Use Equation E3-2 for Fcrx.
Fcrx = (0.658 Fy/Fe) Fy = (0.658 50/29.78
) 50 = 24.76 ksi AISC Equation E3-2
The nominal strength Pn for flexural buckling about the x-axis is
Pn = Fcrx Ag = 24.76 (19.4) = 480.3 kips AISC Equation E3-1
5.38
b) Determine the flexural buckling strength Fcr for the y-axis (based on Section
E3 of the AISC Specification).
(KL/r)y = 20(12”/’)/2.93 = 81.91
Fey = π2E/(KL/r)y2 = π2 (29,000)/(81.91)2 = 42.66 AISC Equation E3-4
(KL/r)y = 81.91 < 4.71 (E/Fy)1/2
= 4.71 (29,000/50)1/2 = 113.43
Use Equation E3-2 for Fcry.
Fy/Fe 50/42.66
Fcry = (0.658 ) Fy = (0.658 ) 50 = 30.61 ksi AISC Equation E3-2
The nominal strength Pn for flexural buckling about the y-axis is
Pn = Fcry Ag = 30.61 (19.4) = 593.8 kips AISC Equation E3-1
c) Determine the flexural torsional buckling strength Fcr of the member about the
y-axis (based on Section E4 of the AISC Specification).
Use Equation E4-2 for Fcr.
• The following values need to be determined: Fcry, Fcrz, and H.
Fcry = 30.61 ksi (previously determined)
Use Equation E4-3 to determine Fcrz.
xo = 0 Note: xo = x-coordinate of shear center with respect to the
centroid; the shear center of the tee is located at the intersection
of the stem and the flange.
yo = y - tf/2 = 2.33 – 1.04/2 = 1.81”
Note: yo = y-coordinate of shear center with respect to the centroid.
r o2 = xo2 + yo2 + (Ix + Iy)/Ag AISC Equation E4-11

= 02 + 1.812 + (181 + 166)/19.4 = 21.16 in2
H = 1 – (xo2 + yo2)/ r o2 AISC Equation E4-10

= 1 - (02 + 1.812)/21.16 = 1 - 0.155 = 0.845
Fcrz = (GJ/Ag r o2) = 11,200 (5.62)/19.4 (21.16) = 153.33 ksi AISC Eq. E4-3
For tee shaped compression members (ref. Commentary Table C-E4.1):

Fcr = [(Fcry + Fcrz)/2H] {1 – [1 – 4 Fcry Fcrz H/(Fcry + Fcrz)2]1/2 } AISC Eq. E4-2
= [(30.61 + 153.33)/2(0.845)] x
{1 – [1 – 4 (30.61)(153.33)(0.845)/(30.61 + 153.33)2]1/2 }
Fcr = 108.84 (0.271) = 29.50 ksi
5.39
The nominal strength Pn for flexural torsional buckling about the y-axis is
Pn = Fcr Ag = 29.50 (19.4) = 572.3 kips AISC Equation E4-1
d) The smallest of the Pn values determined in a), b), and c) above is the nominal
strength.
Flexural torsional buckling strength for the x-axis controls.
Thus, Pn = 480.3 kips
LRFD design strength (φ = 0.90): φcPn = 0.90 (480.3) = 432.3 kips
ASD allowable strength (Ωc = 1.67): Pn/Ωc = 480.3/1.67 = 287.6 kips
These values compare favorably with the values listed in AISC Table 4-7.
• Flexural buckling strength about the x-axis: Pn = 480.3 kips
From AISC Table 4-7 (KL = 25’): φcPn = 432.5 kips (by interpolation)
Pn/Ωc = 288.0 kips (by interpolation)
• Flexural torsional buckling strength about the y-axis: Pn = 572.3 kips

From AISC Table 4-7 (KL = 20’): φcPn = 515 kips

Pn/Ωc = 343 kips
5.40
5.9 Single-Angle Compression Members
The AISC has long been concerned about the problems involved in loading single-
angle compression members concentrically.
• Loads can be applied concentrically if the ends are milled and if the loads are
applied through bearing plates.
• In practice, single-angle columns are often used in such a manner that large
eccentricities of load applications are present.
- As a result, it is easy to under-design such members.
• Table 4-11 of the AISC Manual provides calculated strengths of concentrically
loaded single angles.
- Values are based on the slenderness ratio KL/rz.
Section E5 of the AISC Specification provides a special specification for the

design of single-angle compression members.
• For single angles with a width-thickness ratio b/t > 20, Section E4 shall be used.
- b = the angle leg length
- t = the angle thickness
• The effects of eccentricity on single angle members may be neglected when
evaluated as axially loaded compression members using one of the effective
slenderness ratios specified in Section E5(a) or E5(b), provided that:
1. Members are loaded at the ends in compression through the same one leg;
2. Members are attached by welding or by connections with a minimum of two
bolts; and
3. There are no intermediate transverse loads.
• Writers of the specification assume that connections to one leg of an angle
provide considerable resistance to bending about the y-axis of that angle (or
the axis that is perpendicular to the connected leg).
- The angle is assumed to bend and buckle about the x-axis of the member and
attention is given to the (L/r)x ratio.
To account for the eccentric loading of single angles, larger (L/r)x ratios for
various situations are provided by AISC Equations E5-1 to E5-4 and are used to
obtain the design stresses.
• Two cases are given for these provisions.
a) For equal-leg angles or unequal-leg angles connected through the longer leg
that are individual members or are web members of planar trusses with
5.41
adjacent web members attached to the same side of the gusset plate or
chord:
When L/rx ≤ 80: KL/r = 72 + 0.75(L/rx) AISC Equation E5-1
When L/rx > 80: KL/r = 32 + 1.25(L/rx) ≤ 200 AISC Equation E5-2
For unequal-leg angles with leg length ratios (bl/bs) less than 1.7 and
connected through the shorter leg, KL/r from Equations E5-1 and E5-2 shall
be increased by adding 4[(bl/bs)2 – 1], but KL/r of the members shall not be
less than 0.95 (L/rz).
where
bl = the length of the longer leg (inches)
bs = the length of the shorter leg (inches)
b) For equal-leg angles or unequal-leg angles connected through the longer leg
that are web members of box or space trusses with adjacent web members
attached to the same side of the gusset plate or chord:
When L/rx ≤ 75: KL/r = 60 + 0.8(L/rx) AISC Equation E5-3
When L/rx > 75: KL/r = 45 + (L/rx) ≤ 200 AISC Equation E5-4
For unequal-leg angles with leg length ratios (bl/bs) less than 1.7 and
connected through the shorter leg, KL/r from Equations E5-3 and E5-4 shall
be increased by adding 6[(bl/bs)2 – 1], but KL/r of the members shall not be
less than 0.82 (L/rz).
where
bl = the length of the longer leg (inches)
bs = the length of the shorter leg (inches)
Table 4-12 of the AISC Manual provides design values for angles eccentrically
loaded based on the following assumptions (ref. AISC Manual, p. 4-9).
• The long leg of the angle is assumed to be attached to a gusset plate with a
thickness of 1.5t.
• The tabulated values assume a load placed at the mid-width of the long leg of
the angle at a distance of 0.75t from the face of this leg (ref. Figure 4-4,
p. 4-9 of the AISC Manual).
• The effective length KL is assumed to be the same for all axes.
• The table considers the combined bending stresses at the heel and ends of
each leg of the angle produced by axial compression plus biaxial bending
moments about the principal axes using AISC Specification Equation H2-1.
5.42
Example Problem – Single-Angle Compression Member
Example
Given: A 10-foot long, L8 x 8 x ¾ with simple end connections used in a planar

truss. Other web members meeting at the ends of this member are
connected on the same side of the gusset plate.
Steel: A36
Find: Determine φcPn and Pn/Ωc.
Solution
L8 x 8 x ¾ (A = 11.5 in2, rx = 2.46”)

L/rx = 10(12”/’)/2.46 = 48.78 < 80
AISC Equation E5-1: KL/r = 72 + 0.75(L/rx) = 72 + 0.75(48.78) = 108.59
LRFD
From AISC Table 4-22 (KL/r = 108.59, Fy = 36 ksi): φcFcr = 17.38 ksi
φcPn = φcFcr A = 17.38 (11.5) = 199.9 kips
Compare with AISC Table 4-12 (KL = 10’): φcPn = 163 kips
ASD
From AISC Table 4-22 (KL/r = 108.59, Fy = 36 ksi): Fcr/Ωc = 11.58 ksi
Pn/Ωc = (Fcr/Ωc) A = 11.58 (11.5) = 133.2 kips
Compare with AISC Table 4-12: Pn/Ωc = 107 kips
5.43
5.10 Built-Up Members
Compression members may be constructed with two or more shapes built up into a
single member (ref. Figures 5.2h through n, p. 114 of the textbook).
• Built-up members may consist of parts in contact with each other (e.g. cover-
plated sections).
• Built-up members may consist of parts in near contact with each other (e.g.
pairs of angles separated by end connections or gusset plates).
• Built-up members may consist of parts that are spread well apart (e.g. plates
with pairs of channels, or four angles).
Built-up Columns Whose Components are in Contact with Each Other

Several requirements concerning built-up columns are presented in Section E6.2 of
the AISC Specification.
• When built-up columns consist of different components that are in contact with
each other and are bearing on base plates or milled surfaces, the components
must be connected at the ends with bolts or welds.
- If welds are used, the weld lengths must at least equal the maximum width
of the member.
- If bolts are used, the bolts may not be spaced longitudinally more than four
bolt diameters on center.
◦ The connection must extend a distance at least equal to 1½ times the
maximum width of the member.
The design strength of a built-up column is reduced if the spacing of the

connectors is such that one of the components of the column can buckle before the
whole column buckles.
When the component of a built-up column consists of an outside plate, Section E6.2
of the AISC Specification provides specific maximum spacing for fastening.
• If intermittent welds are used along the edges of the components, then the
maximum spacing of the welds may not be greater than the thickness of the
thinner plate times 0.75 (E/Fy)1/2, nor greater than 12”.
• If bolts are used along the edges of the components, then the maximum spacing
of the bolts may not be greater than the thickness of the thinner plate times
0.75 (E/Fy)1/2, nor greater than 12”.
• If the fasteners are staggered, then the maximum spacing along each gage line
shall not exceed the thickness of the thinner plate times 1.12 (E/Fy)1/2 nor 18”.
5.44
If compression members consisting of two or more shapes are used, these
members must meet the following requirement.
• The shapes must be connected at intervals such that the effective slenderness
ratio Ka/ri of each of the component shapes between the connectors is not
larger than ¾ times the governing or controlling slenderness ratio of the whole
built-up member.
where
a = distance between connectors
ri = the least radius of gyration of an individual component of the column
• The end connections must be made using welds or using slip-critical bolts with
Class A or B faying surfaces (ref. AISC Specification Section J3.8).
- Faying surface is that surface of an object which comes in contact with
another object to which it is fastened (e.g. plates, angle irons, etc).
◦ Class A faying surface is an unpainted clean mill scale steel surface or a
surface with Class A coatings on blast-cleaned steel and hot dipped
galvanized and roughened surfaces.
◦ Class B faying surface is an unpainted blast-cleaned steel surface or
surface with Class B coatings on blast-cleaned steel.
• The design strength of compression members built-up from two or more shapes
in contact with each other is determined with the usual applicable AISC
Equations E3-2, E3-3, and E3-4, with one exception.
- If the column tends to buckle in such a manner that relative deformations in
the different parts cause shear forces in the connectors between the parts,
it is necessary to modify the KL/r value for that axis of buckling (per AISC
Specification Section E6).
a. For intermediate connectors that are snug-tight bolted:
(KL/r)m = [(KL/r)o2 + (a/ri)2]1/2 AISC Equation E6-1
b. For intermediate connectors that are welded or are connected by means
of pretensioned bolts, as required for slip-critical joints:
i) When a/ri ≤ 40
(KL/r)m = (KL/r)o AISC Equation E6-2a
ii) When a/ri > 40

(KL/r)m = [(KL/r)o2 + (Kia/ri)2]1/2 AISC Equation E6-2b
where
(KL/r)m = modified slenderness ratio of the built-up member
5.45
(KL/r)o = slenderness ratio of the built-up member acting as a unit
in the buckling direction being considered
Ki = 0.50 for angles back-to-back
= 0.75 for channels back-to-back
= 0.86 for all other cases
a = distance between connectors (inches)
ri = minimum radius of gyration of individual component (inches)
5.46
Example Problem – Built-Up Columns
Example
Given: Column section shown consisting of a

W12 x 120 plus cover plates.
Steel: Fy = 50 ksi
KL = 14 feet
Design cover plates to be snug-tight bolted at 6” spacings.
Find: Design the column.
Solution:
W12 x 120 (A = 35.2 in2, d = 13.1”, bf = 12.3”, Ix = 1070 in4, Iy = 345 in4)
LRFD
Pu = 1.2 D + 1.6 L = 1.2 (750) + 1.6 (1000) = 2500 kips
Assume KL/r = 50 and determine the area of the plates.

Required A = 2500/37.50 = 66.67 in2
Area of the plates: 66.67 – 35.2 = 31.47 in2 (15.74 in2 each)
Try plates: PL 1 x 16 for each flange
Compute the area for the built-up section.

A = 35.2 + 2(1) (16) = 67.2 in2
Determine the critical slenderness ratio of the built-up section.

Ix = 1070 + 2 (16) (13.1/2 + 1.0/2)2 = 2660 in4
rx = (Ix/A)1/2 = (2660/67.2)1/2 = 6.29”
(KL/r)x = 14(12”/’)/6.29 = 26.71
Iy = 345 + 2 (1) (16)3/12 = 1027.7 in4
ry = (Iy/A)1/2 = (1027.7/67.2)1/2 = 3.91”
(KL/r)y = 14(12”/’)/3.91 = 42.97 (controls)
5.47
Compute the modified slenderness ratio for buckling about the x-axis of the built-
up section since this buckling mode produces shear forces in the connectors
between the individual shapes.
Slenderness ratio for each plate:
ri = (I/A)1/2 = {[16(1)3/12]/16(1)}1/2 = 0.289”
a = 6” (the distance between connectors)
a/ri = 6/0.289 = 20.76
The modified slenderness ratio for intermediate connectors that are snug-tight
bolted is computed as follows:
(KL/r)m = [(KL/r)o2 + (a/ri)2] 1/2 AISC Equation E6-1
2 2 1/2
= [(26.71) + (20.76) ] = 33.83 < (KL/r)y = 42.97
(KL/r)m does not control
Check the slenderness ratio of the plates.

a/ri = 20.76 < ¾ (KL/r)y = 0.75(42.97) = 32.23 OK
From AISC Table 4-22 (Fy = 50 ksi): φcFcr = 39.31 ksi for KL/r = 42.97
φcPn = φcFcr A = 39.31 (67.2) = 2641.6 kips > 2500 kips OK
ASD
Pa = D + L = 750 + 1000 = 1750 kips
Assume KL/r = 50 and determine the area of the plates.

From AISC Table 4-22: Fcr/Ωc = 24.9 ksi
Required A = 1750/24.9 = 70.28 in2
Area of the plates: 70.28 – 35.2 = 35.08 in2 (17.54 in2 each)
Try plates: PL 1 x 16 for each flange
Compute the area for the built-up section.

A = 35.2 + 2(1) (16) = 67.2 in2
Determine the critical slenderness ratio of the built-up section.

Ix = 1070 + 2 (16) (13.1/2 + 1.0/2)2 = 2660 in4
rx = (Ix/A)1/2 = (2660/67.2)1/2 = 6.29”
(KL/r)x = 14(12”/’)/6.29 = 26.71
Iy = 345 + 2 (1) (16)3/12 = 1027.7 in4
ry = (Iy/A)1/2 = (1027.7/67.2)1/2 = 3.91”
(KL/r)y = 14(12”/’)/3.91 = 42.97 (controls)
5.48
Compute the modified slenderness ratio for buckling about the x-axis of the built-
up section since this buckling mode produces shear forces in the connectors
between the individual shapes.
Slenderness ratio for each plate:
ri = (I/A)1/2 = {[16(1)3/12]/16(1)}1/2 = 0.289”
a = 6” (the distance between connectors)
a/ri = 6/0.289 = 20.76
The modified slenderness ratio for intermediate connectors that are snug-tight
bolted is computed as follows:
(KL/r)m = [(KL/r)o2 + (a/ri)2] 1/2 AISC Equation E6-1
2 2 1/2
= [(26.71) + (20.76) ] = 33.83 < (KL/r)y = 42.97
(KL/r)m does not control
Check the slenderness ratio of the plates.

a/ri = 20.76 < ¾ (KL/r)y = 0.75(42.97) = 32.23 OK
From AISC Table 4-22 (Fy = 50 ksi): Fcr/Ωc = 26.20 ksi for KL/r = 42.97
Pn/Ωc = (Fcr/Ωc) A = 26.20 (67.2) = 1760.6 kips > 1750 kips OK
5.49
Built-up Columns with Components Not in Contact with Each Other
The parts of such members need to be connected or laced together across their
open sides.
• The open sides of compression members that are built up from plates or shapes
may be connected together with continuous cover plates featuring perforated
holes for access purposes, or they may be connected together with lacing and
tie plates.
- The perforated cover plates and the lacing hold the various parts parallel
and the correct distance apart, and equalize the stress distribution between
the various parts.
- Each part tends to buckle individually unless they are tied together to act as
a unit in supporting the load.
Continuous Cover Plates Perforated with Access Holes

Section E6.2 of the AISC Specification prescribes the dimensional requirements if
continuous cover plates perforated with access holes are used to tie the members
together.
1) The plates must comply with the limiting width-thickness ratios specified for
compression elements in Section B4 of the AISC Specification.
2) The ratio of the access hole length (in the direction of stress) to the hole
width may not exceed 2.
3) The clear distance between holes in the direction of stress may not be less
than the transverse distance between the nearest lines of connecting fasteners
or weld.
4) The periphery of the holes at all points must have a radius no less than 1½”.
Stress concentrations and secondary bending stresses are usually neglected in the
cover plates, but lateral shearing forces must be checked.
The unsupported width of the cover plates at access holes is assumed to

contribute to the design strength of the member if the conditions as to sizes and
width-thickness ratios described in Section E6.2 of the AISC Specification are
met (as stated above).
Perforated cover plates for built-up members are attractive to many designers
because of the following advantages.
1. They are easily fabricated with modern gas cutting methods.
5.50
2. Some specifications permit the net areas of the cover plates to be included in
the effective section of the main members, provided that the holes are made in
accordance with the AISC requirements.
3. Painting of the members is simplified, compared with painting of ordinary lacing
bars.
Lacing and Tie Plates

As an alternative to perforated cover plates, lacing with tie plates is permitted for
built-up members.
Dimensions and details for lacing with tie plates in built-up members are controlled
by the requirements of Section E6 of the AISC Specification.
• Tie plates shall be as near the ends as practical.
• End tie plates shall have a length (i.e. the distance along the member) of not
less than the distance between the lines of fasteners or welds connecting them
to the components of the members.
• Intermediate tie plates shall have a length not less than one-half the distance
between the lines of fasteners or welds connecting them to the components of
the member.
• In bolted construction, tie plates shall have a width (between the members) of
not less than the distance between the lines of fasteners plus adequate edge
distance.
• In welded construction, tie plates shall have a width (between the members) of
the distance between the lines of welds.
• Tie plates shall have a thickness at least equal to 1/50 of the distance between
lines of welds or fasteners connecting them to the segments of the members.
• In welded construction, the welding on each line connecting a tie plate shall
total not less than one-third of the length of the plate.
• In bolted construction, the spacing in the direction of stress in tie plates shall
be not more than six bolt diameters and the tie plates shall be connected to
each segment by at least three fasteners.
• The inclination of lacing bars to the axis of the member shall preferably be not
less than 60° for single lacing and 45° for double lacing.
• When the distance between the lines of weld or fasteners is more than 15”, the
lacing shall preferably be double or made of angles.
5.51
Additional details for lacing in built-up members are also controlled by the
requirements of Section E6 of the AISC Specification.
• Lacing may consist of flat bars, angles, channels, or other rolled sections.
• Lacing pieces must be spaced so that the individual parts being connected will
not have L/r values of the member between the connections greater than
three-fourths times the governing slenderness ratio for the whole built-up
member.
• Lacing shall be proportioned to provide a shearing strength normal to the axis
of the member equal to 2% of the available compressive strength of the
member.
• The AISC column formulas are used to design the lacing in the usual manner.
- Slenderness ratios are limited to 140 for single lacing and 200 for double
lacing.
5.52
Example Problem – Built-Up Columns with Components Not in Contact with Each
Other
Example
Given: Column shown consisting of a pair of

12” standard channels.
Steel: Fy = 50 ksi (channels)
Fy = 36 ksi (flat bar for lacing)
Bolt diameter: 3/4”
Find: Select the channels. Consider both

LRFD and ASD. Design the bolted single
lacing.
Solution
LRFD
Pu = 1.2 D + 1.6 L = 1.2 (100) + 1.6 (300) = 600 kips
From AISC Table 4-22 (Fy = 50 ksi): φcFcr = 37.50 ksi
Required A = 600/37.50 = 16.00 in2

Try 2 - C12 x 30 (For each channel: A = 8.81 in2, Ix = 162.0 in4, Iy = 5.12 in4,
x = 0.674”, ry = 0.762”, workable gage = 1.75”)

Ix = 2 (162.0) = 324.0 in4
rx = (Ix/A)1/2 = [324.0/2(8.81)]1/2 = 4.29”
(KL/r)x = 1(20)(12”/’)/4.29 = 55.94 (controls)
Iy = 2 [5.12 + 8.81 (6.00 – 0.674)2] = 510.0 in4
ry = (Iy/A)1/2 = [510.0/2(8.81)]1/2 = 5.38”
(KL/r)y = 1(20)(12”/’)/5.38 = 44.61
From AISC Table 4-22 (Fy = 50 ksi): φcFcr = 35.82 ksi for (KL/r)x = 55.94
φcPn = φcFcr A = 35.82 (2)(8.81) = 631.1 kips > Pu = 600 kips OK
5.53
ASD
Pa = D + L = 100 + 300 = 400 kips
From AISC Table 4-22 (Fy = 50 ksi): Fcr/Ωc = 24.90 ksi
Required A = 400/24.90 = 16.06 in2

Try 2 - C12 x 30 (For each channel: A = 8.81 in2, Ix = 162.0 in4, Iy = 5.12 in4,
x = 0.674”, ry = 0.762”, workable gage = 1.75”)

Ix = 2 (162.0) = 324.0 in4
rx = (Ix/A)1/2 = [324.0/2(8.81)]1/2 = 4.29”
(KL/r)x = 1(20)(12”/’)/4.29 = 55.94 (controls)
Iy = 2 [5.12 + 8.81 (6.00 – 0.674)2] = 510.0 in4
ry = (Iy/A)1/2 = [510.0/2(8.81)]1/2 = 5.38”
(KL/r)y = 1(20)(12”/’)/5.38 = 44.61
From AISC Table 4-22 (Fy = 50 ksi): Fcr/Ωc = 23.81 ksi for (KL/r)x = 55.94
Pn/Ωc = Fcr/Ωc A = 23.81 (2)(8.81) = 419.5 kips > Pa = 400 kips OK
Check the width-thickness ratios of the channels.

C12 x 30 (d = 12.0”, bf = 3.17”, tf = 0.501”, tw = 0.510”, k = 1.125”)
Flanges
AISC Table B4.1a (Case 1):
Check b/t ≤ 0.56 (E/Fy)1/2
b/t = bf/tf = 3.17/0.501 = 6.33 < 0.56(29,000/50)1/2 = 13.49 OK
Webs
AISC Table B4.1a (Case 5):
Check h/tw ≤ 1.49 (E/Fy)1/2
h/tw = (d – 2k)/tw = [12.0 – 2(1.125)]/0.510 = 19.12
< 1.49(29,000/50)1/2 = 35.88 OK
5.54
Design Bolted Single Lacing
Assume that lacing bars (flat bars) are inclined at 60° with the axis of the
channels.
Determine the length of the column channels between connections.

Distance between connections = 12 – 2g = 12.0 – 2(1.75) = 8.50”
where
g = workable gage (listed in AISC Table 1-5)
Length = (8.5”/cos 30°) = 9.8”

(Note: Since the lacing forms an equilateral triangle, the hypotenuse of the 30-60-90 triangle is
also equal to the length of channel between connections.)
Check the slenderness ratio of the column channels between the lacing connections.
Channel L/r < ¾ (governing KL/r for the built-up member)
Channel L/r = 9.8/0.762 = 12.86 < ¾ (55.94) = 41.95 OK
LRFD
Vu = 2% of the design compression strength of the built-up member
Design compression strength: φcPn = φcFcr A = 631.1 kips (previously determined)
Vu = 0.02 φcPn = 0.02 (631.1) = 12.62 kips
Determine the shear force on each of the

two planes of the single lacing.
½ Vu = 0.5 (12.62) = 6.31 kips
Determine the force in each lacing bar.

(9.8/8.5) (6.31) = 7.28 kips
(Note: The forces in the bars and the bar dimensions are geometrically similar.)
5.55
Determine the geometric properties of a flat bar.
Imin = bt3/12 and A = bt
Thus, rmin = [(bt3/12)/bt]1/2 = 0.289 t
Design the lacing bar.

Assume L/r = 140
L/rmin = 9.8/0.289 t = 140 t = 0.242” (Try ¼” flat bar.)
Calculate the actual slenderness ratio for a ¼” lacing bar.

L/r = L/0.289 t = 9.8/0.289 (0.25) = 135.6 < 140 OK
Determine the lacing bar width.

From AISC Table 4-22 (Fy = 36 ksi): φcFcr = 12.28 ksi for KL/r = 135.6
Required A = Force in each bar/φcFcr = 7.28/12.28 = 0.593 in2
Required width = A/t = 0.593/0.25 = 2.37”
Minimum edge distance for ¾” bolt = 1¼” AISC Table J3.4
Minimum width (for ¾” bolts) = 2(1¼”) = 2.50” > 2.37” (Use 2.50”)
Determine the minimum lacing bar length:
Length = 9.8 + 2(1¼”) = 12.3” (Say 14”)
Use ¼” x 2½” x 14” bars for the lacing.
ASD
Va = 2% of the design compression strength of the built-up member
Design compression strength: Pn/Ωc = (Fcr/Ωc) A
= 419.5 kips (previously determined)
Va = 0.02 Pn/Ωc = 0.02 (419.5) = 8.39 kips
Determine the shear force on each of the two planes of the single lacing.
½ Va = 0.5 (8.39) = 4.20 kips
Determine the force in each lacing bar.

(9.8/8.5) (4.20) = 4.84 kips
(Note: The forces in the bars and the bar dimensions are geometrically similar.)
Determine the geometric properties of a flat bar.

Imin = bt3/12 and A = bt
Thus, rmin = [(bt /12)/bt]1/2 = 0.289 t
3
5.56
Design the lacing bar.
Assume L/r = 140
L/rmin = 9.8/0.289 t = 140 t = 0.242” (Try ¼” flat bar.)
Calculate the actual slenderness ratio for a ¼” lacing bar.
L/r = L/0.289 t = 9.8/0.289 (0.25) = 135.6 < 140 OK
Determine the lacing bar width.
From AISC Table 4-22 (Fy = 36 ksi): Fcr/Ωc = 8.18 ksi for KL/r = 135.6
Required A = Force in each bar/(Fcr/Ωc) = 4.84/8.18 = 0.592 in2
Required width = A/t = 0.592/0.25 = 2.37”
Minimum edge distance for ¾” bolt = 1¼” AISC Table J3.4
Minimum width (for ¾” bolts) = 2(1¼”) = 2.50” > 2.37” (Use 2.50”)
Determine the minimum lacing bar length:
Length = 9.8 + 2(1¼”) = 12.3” (Say 14”)
Use ¼” x 2½” x 14” bars for the lacing.
Design the end tie plates

Minimum length = distance between fasteners = 8.5”
Minimum t = (1/50) x distance between fasteners

= (1/50) 8.5 = 0.17” (Use 3/16”)
Minimum width (for ¾” bolts) = 8.5 + 2(1¼”) = 11” (Use 12”)
Use 3/16” x 8½” x 12” end tie plates.
5.57
5.11 Column Base Plates
When a steel column is supported by a footing, it is necessary for the column load
to be spread over a sufficient area to keep the footing from being overstressed.
• Loads from steel columns are transferred through a steel base plate to a fairly
large area of the footing below.
Methods for connecting base plates to columns include the following.

• Base plates for steel columns can be welded directly to the columns.
• Base plates for steel columns may be fastened to the columns by means of some
type of bolted or welded angles.
• A minimum of four anchor bolts are used to anchor the base plate to the
footing.
Practical considerations for the design and installation of base plates include the
following.
• The lengths and widths of column base plates are usually selected in multiples
of inches.
• The thicknesses of base plates are usually selected in multiples of 1/8” up to
1.25”, and in multiples of 1/4” for plates 1.25” and thicker.
• To make certain that column loads are spread uniformly over the base plate, it
is essential to have good contact between the column and the base plate.
- Surface preparation of these plates is governed by the AISC Specification
Section M2.8.
• At least one hole should be provided near the center of large area base plates
for placing grout.
- These holes permit more even placement of grout under the plates, which
will tend to prevent air pockets.
The basis for designing column base plates is outlined as follows.

• The column is assumed to apply a total load to the base plate equal to Pu (for
LRFD) or Pa (for ASD).
• The load is assumed to be transmitted uniformly through the plate to the
footing below with a pressure equal to Pu/A or Pa/A where A is the area of the
base plate.
5.58
• The footing will push back with an equal pressure.
- This pressure will tend to curl
up the cantilevered parts of
the base plate outside of the
column.
- This pressure will also tend to
push up the base plate between
the flanges of the column.
• The AISC Manual (ref. p. 14-5)
suggests that the maximum
moments in a base plate occur at
distances 0.80bf and 0.95d apart.
- The bending moment can be
calculated at each of these
sections, and the larger value is
used to determine the required
plate thickness.
- This method of analysis is
approximate, because the
actual plate stresses are
caused by a combination of
bending in two directions.
Plate Area
The design strength of the concrete in bearing beneath the base plate must at
least equal the load to be carried.
• When the base plate covers the entire area of concrete, the nominal bearing
strength of the concrete (Pp) is
Pp = 0.85 fc’ A1 AISC Equation J8-1
where
fc’ = the 28-day compression strength of the concrete
A1 = the area of the base plate (Note: The minimum A1 = bf d.)
=BxN
and, B = 0.80 bf + 2 n
N = 0.95 d + 2 m
5.59
• When the base plate covers less than the entire area of concrete, the nominal
bearing strength of the concrete (Pp) can then be determined by the following
equation.
Pp = (0.85 fc’ A1) (A2/A1)1/2 ≤ 1.7 fc’ A1 AISC Equation J8-2
• If the plate does not cover the full area of the concrete support, the concrete
under the plate, surrounded by concrete outside, will be somewhat stronger.
- For this situation AISC Specification permits the nominal strength 0.85fc’A1
to be increased by multiplying it by (A2/A1)1/2.
where
A2 = the maximum area of the portion of the supporting concrete that is
geometrically similar to and concentric with the loaded area
The quantity (A2/A1)1/2 is limited to a maximum value of 2.0.
The plate area can be determined based on the following equations.

• For LRFD (φc = 0.65):
Pu = φc Pp = φc (0.85 fc’ A1) (A2/A1)1/2
A1 = Pu/[φc (0.85 fc’)(A2/A1)1/2]
• For ASD (Ωc = 2.31):

Pa = Pp/Ωc = (0.85 fc’ A1) (A2/A1)1/2/Ωc
A1 = Pa Ωc/[(0.85 fc’) (A2/A1)1/2]
After the controlling value of A1 is determined, the plate dimensions B and N are
selected to the nearest 1” or 2” so that the values of m and n are approximately
equal.
• From a practical standpoint, designers will often use square base plates (i.e.
B = N) with anchor bolts arranged in a square pattern.
B = N = (A1)1/2
• Designers may use a rectangular base plate to keep the plate thickness to a
minimum.
- The values for “m” and “n” are set approximately equal so that the cantilever
moments in the two directions are approximately the same.
A1 = area of plate = B x N
Plate Thickness
To determine the required plate thickness, t, moments are taken in two directions
as though the plate were cantilevered out by the dimensions “m” and “n.”
5.60
• The moments in the two directions (assuming a 1” width of plate) are
determined by the following equations.
For LRFD: (Pu/BN) m (m/2) = Pum2/2BN or (Pu/BN) n (n/2) = Pun2/2BN
For ASD: (Pa/BN) m (m/2) = Pam2/2BN or (Pa/BN) n (n/2) = Pan2/2BN
Because of the possibility of a lightly loaded plate (with correspondingly small

areas and small thicknesses), a modified method is used to determine the required
plate thickness.
• The thickness of the plate is determined by the largest of m, n, or λn’.
- This largest value is ℓ, where ℓ = max (m, n, or λn’).
where
m = (N – 0.95 d)/2 Equation 14-2
n = (B - 0.80 bf)/2 Equation 14-3
n’ = ¼ (d bf)1/2 Equation 14-4
λ = 1.0 (conservative for all cases)
• Letting the largest value of m, n, or λn’ be referred to as ℓ, the largest moment
in the plate will equal
For LRFD: Pu ℓ2/2BN
For ASD: Pa ℓ2/2BN
• The required plate thickness can be determined from the following equations.
For LRFD: tmin = ℓ (2 Pu/0.9 Fy B N)1/2 Equation 14-7a
For ASD: tmin = ℓ (3.33 Pa/Fy B N)1/2 Equation 14-7b
5.61
Example Problems – Column Base Plates
Example
Given: Base plate for W12 x 65 column.

Column steel: Fy = 50 ksi
Base plate steel: A36 (Fy = 36 ksi)
Concrete compression strength: fc’ = 3 ksi
Footing dimensions: 9’ x 9’
Find: Design the column base plate.
Solution
W12 x 65 (d = 12.1”, bf = 12.0”)
LRFD
Pu = 1.2 D + 1.6 L = 1.2 (200) + 1.6 (300) = 720 kips
Determine the base plate area (φc = 0.65).

• The area of the supporting concrete is much greater than the base plate area,
such that (A2/A1)1/2 = 2.0.
A1 = Pu/[φc (0.85 fc’)(A2/A1)1/2] = 720/[0.65(0.85)(3.0)(2.0)] = 217.2 in2
• The base plate must be at least as large as the column.
bf d = 12.0 (12.1) = 145.2 in2 < A1 = 217.2 in2 OK
Determine the base plate dimensions.

• Simplify the base plate dimensions by making it square.
B = N = (217.2)1/2 = 14.74” (Say 15” x 15”)
Check the bearing strength of the concrete (φc = 0.65).

φc Pp = φc 0.85 fc’ A1 (A2/A1)1/2
= 0.65(0.85)(3.0)(15 x 15)(2.0) = 745.9 kips > Pu = 720 kips OK
Compute the required base plate thickness.

m = (N – 0.95d)/2 = [15 – 0.95(12.1)]/2 = 1.753”
n = (B - 0.80bf)/2 = [15 – 0.80(12.0)]/2 = 2.700”
5.62
n’ = ¼ (d bf)1/2 = ¼ [12.1 (12.0)]1/2 = 3.012”
ℓ = max (m, n, or λn’) = 3.012”
tmin = ℓ (2 Pu/0.9 Fy B N)1/2
= 3.012 [2(720)/0.90(36.0)(15)(15)]1/2 = 1.34” (Say 1.50”)
Use PL 1½” x 15” x 15” (A36 steel)
Alternative rectangular base plate design

• Optimize the base plate dimensions to make m and n approximately equal.
N x B = 217.2 = (0.95 d + 2Δ) (0.80 bf + 2Δ)
217.2 = [0.95(12.1) + 2Δ] [0.80(12.0) + 2Δ] = (11.495 + 2Δ)(9.60 + 2Δ)
217.2 = 110.352 + 42.19Δ + 4Δ2
4Δ2 + 42.19Δ – 106.85 = 0
• Using the quadratic equation, Δ = 2.110”
N = 0.95 d + 2 Δ = 0.95(12.1) + 2(2.110) = 15.72” (Say 16”)
B = 0.80 bf + 2 Δ = 0.80(12.0) + 2(2.110) = 13.82” (Say 14”)

φc Pp = φc 0.85 fc’ A1 (A2/A1)1/2
= 0.65(0.85)(3.0)(16 x 14)(2.0) = 742.6 kips > Pu = 720 kips OK

m = (N – 0.95d)/2 = [16 – 0.95(12.1)]/2 = 2.253”
n = (B - 0.80bf)/2 = [14 – 0.80(12.0)]/2 = 2.200”
n’ = ¼ (d bf)1/2 = ¼ [12.1 (12.0)]1/2 = 3.012”
ℓ = max (m, n, or λn’) = 3.012”
tmin = ℓ (2 Pu/0.9 Fy B N)1/2
= 3.012 [2(720)/0.90(36.0)(16)(14)]1/2 = 1.34” (Say 1.50”)
Use PL 1½” x 16” x 14” (A36 steel)
5.63
ASD
Pa = D + L = 200 + 300 = 500 kips
Determine the base plate area (Ωc = 2.31).

such that (A2/A1)1/2 = 2.0.
A1 = Pa Ωc/[(0.85 fc’) (A2/A1)1/2] = 500 (2.31)/[0.85(3.0)(2.0)] = 226.5 in2
bf d = 12.0 (12.1) = 145.2 in2 < 226.5 in2 OK
Determine the base plate dimensions.

• Simplify the plate by making it square.
B = N = (226.5)1/2 = 15.05” (Say 16” x 16”)
Check the bearing strength of the concrete (Ωc = 2.31).

Pp/Ωc = (1/Ωc) 0.85 fc’ A1 (A2/A1)1/2
= (1/2.31)(0.85)(3.0)(16 x 16)(2.0) = 565.2 kips > Pa = 500 kips OK

m = (N – 0.95d)/2 = [16 – 0.95(12.1)]/2 = 2.252”
n = (B - 0.80bf)/2 = [16 – 0.80(12.0)]/2 = 3.200”
n’ = ¼ (d bf)1/2 = ¼ [12.1 (12.0)]1/2 = 3.012”
ℓ = max (m, n, or λn’) = 3.20”
tmin = ℓ (3.33 Pa/Fy B N)1/2
= 3.20 [3.33(500)/(36.0)(16)(16)]1/2 = 1.36” (Say 1.50”)
Use PL 1½” x 16” x 16” (A36 steel)
Alternative rectangular base plate design

Optimize the base plate dimensions to make m and n approximately equal.
N x B = 245.1 = (0.95 d + 2Δ) (0.80 bf + 2Δ)
226.5 = [0.95(12.1) + 2Δ] [0.80(12.0) + 2Δ] = (11.495 + 2Δ)(9.60 + 2Δ)
226.5 = 110.352 + 42.19Δ + 4Δ2
4Δ2 + 42.19Δ – 116.15 = 0
• Using the quadratic equation, Δ = 2.266”
N = 0.95 d + 2 Δ = 0.95(12.1) + 2(2.266) = 16.03” (Say 17”)
B = 0.80 bf + 2 Δ = 0.80(12.0) + 2(2.266) = 14.13” (Say 15”)
5.64
Pp/Ωc = (1/Ωc) 0.85 fc’ A1 (A2/A1)1/2
= (1/2.31)(0.85)(3.0)(17 x 15)(2.0) = 563.0 kips > Pa = 500 kips OK

m = (N – 0.95d)/2 = [17 – 0.95(12.1)]/2 = 2.753”
n = (B - 0.80bf)/2 = [15 – 0.80(12.0)]/2 = 2.700”
n’ = ¼ (d bf)1/2 = ¼ [12.1 (12.0)]1/2 = 3.012”
ℓ = max (m, n, or λn’) = 3.012”
tmin = ℓ (3.33 Pa/Fy B N)1/2
= 3.012 [3.33(500)/(36.0)(17)(15)]1/2 = 1.283” (Say 1.50”)
Use PL 1½” x 17” x 15” (A36 steel)
5.65
Example
Given: Base plate for HSS 10 x 10 x 5/16 column.

Column steel: Fy = 46 ksi
Base plate steel: A36 (Fy = 36 ksi, Fu = 58 ksi)
Concrete compression strength: fc’ = 4 ksi
Spread footing dimensions: 9’ x 9’
Find: Design the column base plate.
Solution
LRFD
Pu = 1.2 D + 1.6 L = 1.2 (100) + 1.6 (150) = 360 kips
Determine the base plate area (φc = 0.65).

such that (A2/A1)1/2 = 2.0.
A1 = Pu/[φc (0.85 fc’)(A2/A1)1/2] = 360/[0.65(0.85)(4.0)(2.0)] = 81.45 in2
bf d = 10.0 (10.0) = 100.0 in2 > 81.45 in2
• Try a square base plate extending 4” from the face of the column in each
direction.
B = N = 18” (Say 18” x 18”)

φc Pp = φc 0.85 fc’ A1 (A2/A1)1/2
= 0.65(0.85)(4.0)(18 x 18)(2.0) = 1432.1 kips > 360 kips OK

m = n = (N – 0.95d)/2 = [18 – 0.95(10.0)]/2 = 4.25”
n’ = ¼ (d bf)1/2 = ¼ [10 (10)]1/2 = 2.50”
ℓ = max (m, n, or λn’) = 4.25”
tmin = ℓ (2 Pu/0.9 Fy B N)1/2
= 4.25 [2(360)/0.90(36.0)(18)(18)]1/2 = 1.11” (Say 1.25”)
Use PL 1¼” x 18” x 18” (A36 steel)
5.66
ASD
Pa = D + L = 100 + 150 = 250 kips
Determine the base plate area (Ωc = 2.31).

such that (A2/A1)1/2 = 2.0.
A1 = Pa Ωc/[(0.85 fc’) (A2/A1)1/2] = 250 (2.31)/[0.85(4.0)(2.0)] = 84.9 in2
bf d = 10.0 (10.0) = 100.0 in2 > 84.9 in2
• Try a square base plate extending 4” from the face of the column in each
direction.
B = N = 18” (Say 18” x 18”)

Pp/Ωc = (1/Ωc) 0.85 fc’ A1 (A2/A1)1/2
= (1/2.31)(0.85)(4.0)(18 x 18)(2.0) = 953.8 kips > 250 kips OK

m = n = (N – 0.95d)/2 = [18 – 0.95(10.0)]/2 = 4.25”
n’ = ¼ (d bf)1/2 = ¼ [10 (10)]1/2 = 2.50”
ℓ = max (m, n, or λn’) = 4.25”
tmin = ℓ (3.33 Pa/Fy B N)1/2
= 4.25 [3.33(250)/(36.0)(18)(18)]1/2 = 1.14” (Say 1.25”)
Use PL 1¼” x 18” x 18” (A36 steel)
5.67
Consideration of Slenderness Effect in Columns
Read Assignment
Text: Section 9.12; Code and Commentary: 10.10, 10.11
General
Short Column - Strength can be computed by considering only the column section
properties.
Slender Column - One whose strength is less than that computed based on section properties;
axial load and moment capacities are significantly affected by length,
loading conditions of column
Concentrically Loaded Columns

Euler postulated the phenomenon of elastic buckling as:
π 2 Et I
Pcr =
( KL) 2
π 2 Et I
f cr =
( KL / r ) 2
where
Pcr = Maximum possible axial load
Et = Tangent modulus of column material at buckling
I = Moment of inertia of the section
K = A scalar to adjust for column end conditions
L = Column unsupported length
r = Radius of gyration of section r = I / A
Buckling Load Versus Slenderness Ratio:
Figure 1. Effect of Slenderness on Strength of Axially Load Column.
1
If the stress-strain curve of short piece of the given member is of the shape of (a) below, as it
would be for reinforced concrete columns, Et is equal to Young’s modulus, provided the buckling
stress Pc/A is below the proportional limit fp.. If it is larger than fp, buckling occurs in the inelastic
range. In this case Et is the tangent modulus (the slope of the stress-strain curve). As the stress
increases Et decreases. A plot of the buckling load vs. the slenderness ratio, a so-called column
curve (Figure 1.b above), which shows the reduction in buckling strength with increasing
slenderness.
• If the slenderness ratio is smaller than (kl/r)min failure occurs by crushing.

• If the slenderness ratio is larger than (kl/r)min failure occurs by buckling, buckling
load or stress decreasing for greater slenderness.
2
Evaluation of the "k" Coefficient
Figure 2. Buckling and Effective Length of Axially Loaded Columns.
Comments on Axially Loaded Columns

• A column might be considered short under some load conditions and end conditions,
slender under others.
• Columns braced against side sway have effective length between 0.5L and L. Columns
not braced against side sway always have effective lengths greater than L.
• High strength steel and concrete make slender columns more common. Consideration of
length effects becomes more important.
• Evaluation of k will be considered in more detail in the next section.
3
In reinforced concrete structures we are not usually concerned with single members but rather
with rigid frames of various configurations. See Figure 3, if sided say is prevented as indicated by
a brace, the buckling configuration will be as shown in Figure 3.a. The buckled shape of the
column corresponds to Figure 2.c., except the lower end is hinged. The unbraced length kl will be
smaller than l.
On the other hand if no sides way bracing is provided to to an identical frame, the buckling will
look like Figure 3.b. The column is in a situation similar to that of 2.d upside down, except that
the upper end is not fixed but only partially restrained by the girder. Even though both frames in
Figure 3 are identical, the unbraced frame will buckle at a radically smaller load than the braced
frame.
Figure 3. Rigid Frame Bucklin: (a) Laterally Braced; (b) unbraced.
4
Consideration of Second-Order Effects - Axial Load and Bending
A column under the influence of axial load and bending will have a deformation at
midspan (and in addition a maximum moment) which will be affected by the length and stiffness
of the column (or "beam-column" as it may approximately be called).
Consider a column bent in single curvature by either end moments or lateral loads:
Figure 4. Moments in Slender Members with Compression plus Bending, Bent in Single
Curvature.
Is there a method by which the influence of axial load may be related to original deflection?
It has been shown by Timoshenko and Gere that
1
y = y0
1 − p / pcr
Where
y= Elastic deflection of beam-column, single curvature
yo = Deflection of corresponding beam without axial load
P= Applied axial load
Pcr = The critical axial load for the column without exterior moment
5
Johnson showed that with simplified assumptions, the maximum moment for the beam column
could be written as
1
M max = M 0
1 − p / pcr
where
Mmax = Maximum moment in the singly curved beam-column
Mo = Maximum moment in beam, axial load
where 1/(1 - P/Pcr) is known as a moment magnification factor, which reflects the amount by
which the beam moment Mo is magnified by the presence of a simultaneous axial force P.
Implications
As slenderness ratio increases, Pcr decreases and Mmax increases
Figure 5. Effect of slenderness and Effect of Axial Load on Column Moments.
Keep in mind that our interaction diagram, derived earlier for a section is valid regardless of
column length. We must reconsider its use in light of these modifications to load condition.
Thus, we see high moment magnification in columns with single curvature. What would
occur in the case of column with end moments of opposite sense?
6
Resulting in Double Curvature.
Moment Diagram may take one of the following general shapes with maximum moments at or
near ends:
Figure 6. Moments in Slender Members with Compression Plus Bending, Bent in Double
Curvature.
As a result, our moment modification is small.
The general moment magnification case may then be written as:
cm
M max = M 0
1 − p / pcr
where
Cm = a factor of moment diagram relation

M
= 0.6 + 0.4 1 ≥ 0.4 members braced against side sway no transverse loading
M2
= 1.0 side sway, other cases.
7
M2 is the larger moment:
M1
is positive if have single curvature
M2
M1
is negative if have double curvature
M2
Figure 7. Fixed Portal Frame, Laterally Unbraced.
Figure 8. Fixed Portal Frame, Laterally Braced.
8
ACI 10.11.1. Read.
(a) Modulus of Elasticity – ACI 8.5.1
(b) Moment of Inertia
Beams ............................................................ 0.35 I g
Columns .......................................................... 0.70 I g
Walls – Uncracked.......................................... 0.70 I g
Cracked............................................... 0.25 I g
Flat Plates and Flat Slabs................................ 0.25 I g
(c) Area 1.0 Ag
ACI 10.11.2
Radius of gyration r = 0.30h for rectangular members, where h is in the direction stability
is being considered, or r = 0.24 D for circular members, where D is the diameter of the
compression member.
How do we find the column rigidity EI?
Due to the fact that a reinforced column is a non-homogeneous member consisting of steel
and concrete and concrete is subjected to creep and shrinkage while steel is not, it is not easy to
find EI exactly. If we try to do an exact analysis to find the EI, the value we find will be as good
as our assumptions.
ACI Section 10.12.3 say:
0.2 Ec I g + ES I se
EI = ACI 10-11 page 128
1 + βd
Or conservatively
0.4 Ec I g
EI = ACI 10-12 page 128
1 + βd
Where
Ec = Modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi
Es = Modulus of elasticity of steel, (29,000,000 psi)
Ig = Moment of inertia of gross section (in4)
Is = Moment of inertia of reinforcement about the centroidal axis of member cross
section (in4)
βd = Ratio of maximum factored dead load moment to maximum factored total load
moment, always positive.
9
factor βd accounts for the effect of creep in the concrete. Therefore, it is more appropriate to
apply the term 1+βd to the term EcIg/5 only because concrete is the one which creeps.
Eq. 10-12 is not unreasonable for lightly reinforced concrete members, but greatly
underestimates the effect of reinforcement of heavily reinforced members.
ACI CODE CONSIDERATION OF LENGTH EFFECTS IN COLUMNS
A. Braced Frames.
For moment resisting frame that is effectively braced against sides way by shear walls or
diagonally braced frames:
M c = δ ns M 2 ACI 10-8
where the moment-magnification factor is given as:
cm
δ ns = ≥ 1.0
Pu
1− ACI 10-9
0.75Pc
π 2 Et I
Pcr = ACI 10-10
( klu ) 2
where lu is the unsupported length of compression member
For the frames braced against side sway and without loads between supports (ACI 318
Sect. 10.11.5.3):
M1
Cm = 0.6 + 0.4 ≥ 0.4 ACI 10-13
M2
M2 is the larger of (M1 and M2)
M1/M2 > 0 Single curvature
M1/M2 < 0 Double curvature
Other cases
Cm = 1.0
For columns with no or very small applied moments (i.e., axially or nearly axially loaded
columns), increasing slenderness also, reduces strength.
ACI 10.12.3.2
M 2,min = Pu (0.6 + 0.03h ) where 0.6 and h are in inches.
10
B. Unbraced Frames
Because side sway can occur only for all columns of a story simultaneously, rather than
for any individual column, the ACI Code specifies that in framed not braced against side sway,
the value of amplification factor that pertains to the loads causing sway should be computed for
the entire story acting on unbraced frames.
M1 = M1ns + δs M1s ACI 10-15 page 130

M2 = M2ns + δs M2s ACI 10-16 page 130
The moment magnification factors are:
(a) ACI 10.13.4.1. The magnified sway moment δs Ms shall be taken as the column
end moments calculated using a second order analysis based on the member
stiffnesses detailed above (ACI10.11.1).
(b) ACI 10.13.4.2

Ms
δsM s = ≥ Ms
1− Q
If δ s calculated in this way exceeds 1.5, δ s M s shall be calculated using ACI
10.13.4.2 or ACI 10.13.4.4.
(c) ACI 10.13.4.3
Ms
δsM s = ≥ Ms ACI 10-18
1− ∑
P u
0.75∑ P c
Read ACI 10.13.5
Criteria for Neglect of Slenderness (ACI 10.12.2)

For compression members braced against side sway, the effect of slenderness may be
neglected when
M
Braced Frames: klu ≤ 34 − 12 1 ACI 10-7 page 128
M2
Unbraced Frames: klu < 22 ACI 10.13.3 page 130
and for all compression members with klu < 100 an analysis as defined by Section 10.10.1 shall
be made.
11
SECTION 504 - DESIGN OF t 0.75 (LRFD) t 2.00(ASD)

MEMBERS FOR TENSION where
This section applies to members subject to axial tension Ae = effective net area, mm2
caused by static forces acting through the centroidal axis. Ag = gross area of member, mm2
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the type of
The section is organized as follows: steel being used, MPa
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the type of
504.1 Slenderness Limitations steel being used, MPa
504.2 Tensile Strength
504.3 Area Determination When members without holes are fully connected by
504.4 Built-Up Members welds, the effective net area used in Equation 504.2-2
504.5 Pin-Connected Members shall be as defined in Section 504.3. When holes are
504.6 Eyebars present in a member with welded end connections, or at
the welded connection in the case of plug or slot welds, the
User Note: For cases not included in this section the effective net area through the holes shall be used in Equation
following sections apply: 504.2-2.
502.3.9 Members subject to fatigue 504.3 Area Determination

508 Members subject to combined
axial tension and flexure. 504.3.1 Gross Area
510.3 Threaded rods. The gross area, Ag, of a member is the total cross-
510.4. 1 Connecting elements in sectional area.
tension.
510.4.3 Block shear rupture strength at
504.3.2 Net Area
end connections of tension
The net area, An, of a member is the sum of the products of
members.
the thickness and the net width of each element computed
as follows:
504.1 Slenderness Limitations
There is no maximum slenderness limit for design of In computing net area for tension and shear, the width of a
members in tension. bolt hole shall be taken 2 mm greater than the nominal
dimension of the hole.
User Note: For members designed on the basis of tension,
the slenderness ratio L/r preferably should not exceed For a chain of holes extending across a part in any diagonal
300. This suggestion does not apply to rods or hangers in or zigzag line, the net width of the part shall be obtained by
tension. deducting from the gross width the sum of the diameters or
slot dimensions as provided in Section 510.3.2, of all holes
504.2 Tensile Strength in the chain, and adding, for each gage space in the chain,
the quantity s2/4g
The design tensile strength, t Pn , and the allowable tensile
strength, Pn t of tension members, shall be the lower where
value obtained according to the limit states of tensile s = longitudinal center-to-center spacing (pitch) of
yielding in the gross section and tensile rupture in the net any two consecutive holes, mm.
section. g = transverse center-to-center spacing (gage)
between fastener gage lines, mm.
1. For tensile yielding in the gross section:
Pn Fy Ag For angles, the gage for holes in opposite adjacent legs
(504.2-1) shall be the sum of the gages from the back of the angles
less the thickness.
t 0.90 (LRFD) t 1.67 (ASD)
2. For tensile rupture in the net section: For slotted HSS welded to a gusset plate, the net area, An,
is the gross area minus the product of the thickness and the
Pn Fu Ae (504.2-2)
total width of material that is removed to form the slot. In
determining the net area across plug or slot welds, the weld
metal shall not be considered as adding to the net area.

User Note: Section 510.4.1(b) limits An to a maximum of Pn 0.6 Fu Asf (504.5-2)

0.85Ag for splice plates with holes.
sf 0.75 (LRFD) sf 2.00 (ASD)
504.3.3 Effective Net Area
The effective area of tension members shall be where
determined as follows: A sf = 2t(a + d/2), mm2
A = shortest distance from edge of the pin hole to
Ae = AnU (504.3-1)
the edge of the member measured parallel to
the direction of the force, mm.
where U, the shear lag factor, is determined as shown in beff = 2t + 16, mm but not more than the actual
Table 504.3. 1. distance from the edge of the hole to the edge of
the part measured in the direction normal to the
Members such as single angles, double angles and WT applied force
sections shall have connections proportioned such that U is d = pin diameter, mm.
equal to or greater than 0.60. Alternatively, a lesser value of t = thickness of plate, mm.
U is permitted if these tension members are designed for
the effect of eccentricity in accordance with 508.1.2 or 3. For bearing on the projected area of the pin, see
508.2. Section 510.7.
4. For yielding on the gross section, use Equation
504.4 Built-up Members 504.2-1.
For limitations on the longitudinal spacing of connectors
between elements in continuous contact consisting of a 504.5.2 Dimensional Requirements
plate and a shape or two plates, see Section 510.3.5. The pin hole shall be located midway between the edges
of the member in the direction normal to the applied
Either perforated cover plates or tie plates without lacing force. When the pin is expected to provide for relative
are permitted to be used on the open sides of built-up movement between connected parts while under full
tension members. Tie plates shall have a length not less than load, the diameter of the pin hole shall not be more than 1
two-thirds the distance between the lines of welds or mm greater than the diameter of the pin.
fasteners connecting them to the components of the member.
The thickness of such tie plates shall not be less than one-
fiftieth of the distance between these lines. The
longitudinal spacing of intermittent welds or fasteners at
tie plates shall not exceed 150 mm.
User Note: The longitudinal spacing of connectors

between components should preferably limit the
slenderness ratio in any component between the
connectors to 300.
504.5 Pin-Connected Members
504.5.1 Tensile Strength

The design tensile strength, t Pn , and the allowable tensile
strength, Pn t of of pin-connected members, shall be
the lower value obtained according to the limit states of
tensile rupture, shear rupture, bearing, and yielding
1. For tensile rupture on the net effective area:

Pn 2tbeff Fu (504.5-1)
t 0.75 (LRFD) t 2.00 (ASD)
2. For shear rupture on the effective area:

Table 504.3.1
Shear Lag Factors for Connections to Tension Members
Case Description of Element Shear Lag Factor, U Example

All tension members where the tension load is transmitted
U = 1.0
1 directly to each of cross-sectional elements by fasteners or ___
welds. (except as in Cases 3, 4, 5 and 6)
All tension members, except plates and HSS, where the tension
load is transmitted to some but not all of the cross-sectional x /l
2 U 1
elements by fasteners or longitudinal welds (Alternately, for
W, M, S and HP, Case 7 may be used.)
U = 1.0
All tension members where the tension load is transmitted by
and
3 transverse welds to some but not all of the cross-sectional ___
An = area of the directly
elements.
connected elements
l 2w … U = 1.0
Plates where the tension load is transmitted by longitudinal 2w > l 1.5w… U = 0.87
4
welds only. 1.5w > l w … U = 0.75
l 1.3 D...U 1.0

x /l
5 Round HSS with a single concentric gusset plate. D l<1.3 D… U 1
x D/
x /l
l H ...U 1
with a single concentric
gusset plate B 2 2 BH
x
4( B H )
6 Rectangular HSS x /l
l H ...U 1
with two side gusset plates B2
x
4( B H )
with flange connected with
bf 2/3d … U = 0.90
W, M, S or HP Shapes or Tees 3 or more fasteners per line ___
bf < 2/3d … U = 0.85
cut from these shapes. (If U is in direction of loading
7
calculated per Case 2, the larger with web connected with 4
value is permitted to be used) or more fasteners per line in U = 0.70 ___
direction of loading
With 4 or more fasteners per
U = 0.80 ___
Single angles (If U is calculated line in direction of loading
8 per Case 2, the larger value is With 2 or 3 fasteners per
permitted to be used line in the direction of U = 0.60 ___
loading
l = length of connection, mm. w= plate width, mm; x = connection eccentricity, mm; B = overall width of
rectangular HSS member, measured 90 degrees to the plane of the connection, mm H = overall height of rectangular
HSS member, measured in the plane of the connection, mm.

The width of the plate at the pin hole shall not be less
SECTION 505 - DESIGN OF
than 2beff + d and the minimum extension, a, beyond the
bearing end of the pin hole, parallel to the axis of the MEMBERS FOR COMPRESSION
member, shall not be less than 1.33 × beff. This section addresses members subject to axial
compression through the centroidal axis.
The corners beyond the pin hole are permitted to be cut at The section is organized as follows:
45° to the axis of the member, provided the net area
beyond the pin hole, on a plane perpendicular to the cut, 505.1 General Provisions
is not less than that required beyond the pin hole parallel to 505.2 Slenderness Limitations and Effective Length
the axis of the member. 505.3 Compressive Strength for Flexural Buckling of
Members without Slender Elements
504.6 Eyebars
504.6.1 Tensile Strength following sections apply:
The available tensile strength of eyebars shall be
determined in accordance with Section 504.2, with Ag 508.1 – 508.3 Members subject to combined axial
taken as the cross-sectional area of the body. compression and flexure.
508.4 Members subject to axial compression
For calculation purposes, the width of the body of the and torsion.
eyebars shall not exceed eight times its thickness.
510.4.4 Compressive strength of connecting
504.6.2 Dimensional Requirements elements.
Eyebars shall be of uniform thickness, without 509.2 Composite axial members.
reinforcement at the pin holes, and have circular heads
with the periphery concentric with the pin hole. 505.1 General Provisions
The design compressive strength, c Pn, and the
The radius of transition between the circular head and the
allowable compressive strength, Pn/ c, are determined
eyebar body shall not be less than the head diameter.
as follows:
The pin diameter shall not be less than seven-eighths times
the eyebar body width, and the pin hole diameter shall not The nominal compressive strength, Pn, shall be the lowest
be more than 1 mm greater than the pin diameter. value obtained according to the limit states offlexural
buckling, torsional buckling andflexural-torsional buckling.
For steels having Fy greater than 485 MPa, the hole 1. For doubly symmetric and singly symmetric members
diameter shall not exceed five times the plate thickness, and the limit state of flexural buckling is applicable.
the width of the eyebar body shall be reduced accordingly.
A thickness of less than 13 mm is permissible only if 2. For singly symmetric and unsymmetric members, and
external nuts are provided to tighten pin plates and filler certain doubly symmetric members, such as cruciform
plates into snug contact. The width from the hole edge to or built-up columns, the limit states of torsional or
the plate edge perpendicular to the direction of applied flexural-torsional buckling are also applicable.
load shall be greater than two-thirds and, for the purpose 0.90 LRFD 1.67 ASD
of calculation, not more than three-fourths times the c C
eyebar bodywidth.
505.2 Slenderness Limitations and Effective Length
The effective length factor, K, for calculation of column
slenderness, KL/r, shall be determined in accordance with
section 503,
where
L = laterally unbraced length of the member, mm.
r = governing radius of gyration, mm.
K = the effective length factor determined in
accordance with Section 503.2

User Note: For members designed on the basis of

compression, the slenderness ratio KL/r preferably 505.4 Compressive Strength for Torsional and
should not exceed 200. Flexural-Torsional Buckling of Members without
Slender Elements
505.3 Compressive Strength for Flexural Buckling of This section applies to singly symmetric and unsymmetric
Members Without Slender Elements members, and certain doubly symmetric members, such
This section applies to compression members with as cruciform or built-up columns with compact and
compact and noncompact sections, as defined in Section noncompact sections, as defined in Section 502.4 for
502.4, for uniformly compressed elements. uniformly compressed elements. These provisions are not
required for single angles, which are covered in Section
User Note: When the torsional unbraced length is larger 505.5.
than the lateral unbraced length, this section may control
the design of wide flange and similarly shaped columns. The nominal compressive strength, Pn, shall be
determined based on the limit states of flexural-torsional
The nominal compressive strength, Pn, shall be determined and torsional buckling, as follows:
based on the limit state of flexural buckling.
Pn = FcrAg (505.4-1)
Pn = FcrAg (505.3-1)
1. For double-angle and tee-shaped compression
The flexural buckling stress, Fcr, is determined as follows: members:
KL E Fcry Fcrz 4 Fcry Fcrz H

1. when 4.71 or ( Fe 0 .44 F y ) Fcr 1 1
r Fy 2H Fcry Fcrz 2
Fy (505.4-2)
Fcr 0.658 Fe Fy (505.3-2) where Fcry taken as Fcr from Equation 505.3-2 or
505.3-3, for flexural buckling about the y-axis of
KL KL
symmetry and , and
KL E r ry
2. when 4.71 or ( Fe 0 .44 F y )
r Fy GJ
Fcrz (505.4-3)
Fcr 0.877Fe (505.3-3) Ag r 2
where 2. For all other cases, Fcr shall be determined according

to Equation 505.3-2 or 505.3-3, using the torsional or
Fe = elastic critical buckling stress determined flexural-torsional elastic buckling stress, Fe,
according to Equation 505.3-4, Section 505.4, or determined as follows:
the provisions of Section 503.2, as applicable,
MPa. a. For doubly symmetric members:
2
E Fey Fez 1
Fe 2 Fe 2
GJ (505.4-4)
KL Kz L Ix I y
r
b. For singly symmetric members where y is the axis of
symmetry:
User Note: The two equations for calculating the limits
and applicability of Sections 505.3(a) and 505.3(b), one
based on KL/r and one based on Fe, provide the same result. Fey Fez 4Fey Fez H
Fe 1 1 2
2H Fey Fez
(505.4-5)
c. For unsymmetric members, Fe is the lowest root of
the cubic equation:

xo 2 505-3 or Section 505-7, as appropriate, for axially loaded

(Fe Fex )(Fe Fey )(Fe Fez ) Fe 2 (Fe Fey )( ) members, as well as those subject to the slenderness
ro modification of Section 505-5(a) or 505-5(b), provided the
members meet the criteria imposed.
xo 2 yo
Fe 2 ( Fe Fey )( ) Fe 2 ( Fe Fex )( ) 0
ro ro The effects of eccentricity on single angle members are
(505.4-6) permitted to be neglected when the members are evaluated
as axially loaded compression members using one of the
where effective slenderness ratios specified below, provided that: (1)
Ag = gross area of member, mm2 members are loaded at the ends in compression through the
Cw = warping constant, mm6 same one leg; (2) members are attached by welding or by
minimum two-bolt connections; and (3) there are no
Ix Iy intermediate transverse loads.
ro2 x o2 y o2 (505.4-
Ag 1. For equal-leg angles or unequal-leg angles connected
7) through the longer leg that are individual members or
are web members of planar trusses with adjacent web
xo2 yo2 members attached to the same side of the gusset plate
H 1 (505.4-8)
ro2 or chord:
2
E
L
Fex a. when 0 80 :
2 rx
KxL
rx KL L
(505.4-9) 72 0.75 (505.5-1)
r rx
2
E (505.4-10) L
Fey b. when 80:
KyL
2
rx
ry KL L
32 1.25 200 (505.5-2)
2
ECw 1 r rx
Fez GJ (505.4-11)
Kz L 2 Ag ro2 For unequal-leg angles with leg length ratios less than 1.7
and connected through the shorter leg, KL/r from
G = shear modulus of elasticity of steel Equations 505.5-1 and 505.5-2 shall be increased by
= 77 200 MPa. adding 4[(bl/bs)2 1], but KL/r of the members shall not be
I x, I y = moment of inertia about the principal axes, less than 0.95L/rz.
mm4.
2. For equal-leg angles or unequal-leg angles connected
J = torsional constant, mm4.
through the longer leg that are web members of box or
Kz = effective length factor for torsional buckling
space trusses with adjacent web members attached to
xo, yo = coordinates of shear center with respect to the
the same side of the gusset plate or chord:
centroid, mm.
ro = polar radius of gyration about the shear L
center, mm. a. when 0 75:
ry = radius of gyration about y-axis, mm. rx
User Note: For doubly symmetric I-shaped sections, KL L

60 0.8 (505.5-3)
2
Cw may be taken as I y ho 4 , where ho is the distance r rx
between flange centroids, in lieu of a more precise L
analysis. For tees and double angles, omit term with Cw b. when 75:
when computing Fez and take xo as 0. rx
505.5 Single Angle Compression Members

KL L
45 200 (505.5-4)
The nominal compressive strength, Pn, of single angle r rx
members shall be determined in accordance with Section

For unequal-leg angles with leg length ratios less than 1.7 KL
and connected through the shorter leg, KL/r from = modified column slenderness of built-up
r m
Equations 505.5-3 and 505.5-4 shall be increased by
adding 6[(bl/bs)2 1], but KL/r of the member shall not be member
less than 0.82L/rz, KL
= column slenderness of built-up member
r
where o
acting as a unit in the buckling
L = length of member between work points at direction being considered
truss chord centerlines, mm. a = distance between connectors, mm.
bl = longer leg of angle, mm. ri = minimum radius of gyration of individual
bs = shorter leg of angle, mm. component, mm.
rx = radius of gyration about geometric axis r
ib = radius of gyration of individual component
parallel to connected leg, mm. relative to its centroidal axis parallel to
rz = radius of gyration for the minor principal axis, member axis of buckling, mm.
mm. = separation ratio = h/2rib
3. Single angle members with different end conditions h = distance between centroids of individual
from those described in Section 505.5(a) or (b), with components perpendicular to the member
leg length ratios greater than 1.7, or with transverse axis of buckling, mm.
loading shall be evaluated for combined axial load 2. The nominal compressive strength of built-up
and flexure using the provisions of section 508. End members composed of two or more shapes or plates
connection to different legs on each end or to with at least one open side interconnected by
bothlegs, the use of single bolts or the attachment of perforated cover plates or lacing with tie plates shall
adjacent web members to opposite sides of the gusset be determined in accordance with Sections 505.3,
plate or chord shall constitute different end conditions 505.4, or 505.7 subject to the modification given in
requiring the use of section 508 provisions. Section 505.6.1(a).
505.6 Built-up Members 505.6.2 Dimensional Requirements
Individual components of compression members composed
505.6.1 Compressive Strength
of two or more shapes shall be connected to one another at
1. The nominal compressive strength of built-up intervals, a, such that the effective slenderness ratio Ka/ri
members composed of two or more shapes that are of each of the component shapes, between the fasteners,
interconnected by bolts or welds shall be determined does not exceed three-fourths times the governing
in accordance with Sections 505.3, 505.4, or slenderness ratio of the built-up member. The least radius
505.7 subject to the following modification. In of gyration, ri, shall be used in computing the slenderness
lieu of more accurate analysis, if the buckling mode ratio of each component part. The end connection shall be
involves relative deformations that produce shear welded or pretensioned bolted with Class A or B faying
forces in the connectors between individual shapes, surfaces.
KL/r is replaced by (KL/r)m determined as follows:
a. For intermediate connectors that are snug-tight User Note: It is acceptable to design a bolted end
bolted: connection of a built-up compression member for the full
compressive load with bolts in shear and bolt values based
KL KL
2
a
2 on bearing values; however, the bolts must be pretensioned.
(505.6-1) The requirement for Class A or B faying surfaces is not
r m r o ri
intended for the resistance of the axial force in the built-up
member, but rather to prevent relative movement between
b. For intermediate connectors that are welded or the components at the end as the built-up member takes a
pretensioned bolted: curved shape.
2
KL KL
2 2
a At the ends of built-up compression members bearing on
0 .82 2 base plates or milled surfaces, all components in contact
r m r o 1 rib
with one another shall be connected by a weld having a
(505.6-2) length not less than the maximum width of the member or
by bolts spaced longitudinally not more than four diameters
apart for a distance equal to 11/2 times the maximum width
where of the member.

Along the length of built-up compression members between Intermediate tie plates shall have a length not less than
the end connections required above, longitudinal spacing one-half of this distance. The thickness of tie plates shall
for intermittent welds or bolts shall be adequate to be not less than one-fiftieth of the distance between lines
provide for the transfer of the required forces. For of welds or fasteners connecting them to the segments of the
limitations on the longitudinal spacing of fasteners members. In welded construction, the welding on each line
between elements in continuous contact consisting of a connecting a tie plate shall total not less than one-third the
plate and a shape or two plates, see Section 510.3.5. length of the plate. In bolted construction, the spacing in
Where a component of a built-up compression member the direction of stress in tie plates shall be not more than
consists of an outside plate, the maximum spacing shall six diameters and the tie plates shall be connected to each
not exceed the thickness of the thinner outside plate segment by at least three fasteners.
times 0.75 E F y , nor 305 mm, when intermittent
Lacing, including flat bars, angles, channels, or other
welds are provided along the edges of the components shapes employed as lacing, shall be so spaced that the L/r
or when fasteners are provided on all gage lines at each ratio of the flange included between their connections
section. When fasteners are staggered, the maximum shall not exceed three-fourths times the governing
spacing on each gage line shall not exceed the thickness slenderness ratio for the member as a whole. Lacing shall
of the thinner outside plate times 1.12 E F y nor 460 be proportioned to provide a shearing strength normal to
the axis of the member equal to 2 percent of the available
mm. compressive strength of the member. The L/r ratio for
lacing bars arranged in single systems shall not exceed
Open sides of compression members built up from plates 140. For double lacing this ratio shall not exceed 200.
or shapes shall be provided with continuous cover plates Double lacing bars shall be joined at the intersections. For
perforated with a succession of access holes. The lacing bars in compression, l is permitted to be taken as the
unsupported width of such plates at access holes, as unsupported length of the lacing bar between welds or
defined in Section 502.4, is assumed to contribute to the fasteners connecting it to the components of the built-up
available strength provided the following requirements member for single lacing, and 70 percent of that distance
are met: for double lacing.
1. The width-thickness ratio shall conform to the
limitations of Section 502.4. User Note: The inclination of lacing bars to the axis of the
member shall preferably be not less than 60 for single
User Note: It is conservative to use the limiting lacing and 45 for double lacing. When the distance
width/thickness ratio for Case 14 in Table 502.4.1 between the lines of welds or fasteners in the flanges is
with the width, b, taken as the transverse distance more than 380 mm, the lacing shall preferably be
between the nearest lines of fasteners. The net area of double or be made of angles.
the plate is taken at the widest hole. In lieu of this
approach, the limiting width thickness ratio may be For additional spacing requirements, see section 510.3.5.
determined through analysis
505.7 Members with Slender Elements
2. The ratio of length (in direction of stress) to width of This section applies to compression members with slender
hole shall not exceed two. sections, as defined in Section 502.4 for uniformly
compressed elements.
3. The clear distance between holes in the direction of
stress shall be not less than the transverse distance The nominal compressive strength, Pn, shall be determined
between nearest lines of connecting fasteners or based on the limit states of flexural, torsional and flexural-
welds. torsional buckling.
Pn = Fcr Ag (505.7-1)
4. The periphery of the holes at all points shall have a
minimum radius of 38 mm.
KL E
As an alternative to perforated cover plates, lacing with a. when 4.71 (or Fe 0.44QFy )
r QFy
tie plates is permitted at each end and at intermediate
points if the lacing is interrupted. Tie plates shall be as
near the ends as practicable. In members providing
QFy
available strength, the end tie plates shall have a length of
Fe
not less than the distance between the lines of fasteners or Fcr Q 0.658 Fy (505.7-2)
welds connecting them to the components of the member.

KL E b Ek c
b. when 4.71 (or Fe 0.44QF y ) a. when 0.64
r QFy t Fy
Fcr 0.877Fe (505.7-3) Qs 1 .0 (505.7-7)
where Ek c Ek c
b. when 0.64 b t 1.17
Fe = elastic critical buckling stress, calculated Fy Fy
using Equations 505.3-4 and 505.4-4 for
doubly symmetric members, Equations 505.3-4 Fy
b
and 505.4-5 for singly symmetric members, Qs 1.415 0.65 (505.7-8)
and Equation 505.4-6 for unsymmetric t Ek c
members, except for single angles where Fe is
calculated using Equation 505.3-4. Ekc
Q = 1.0 for members with compact and c. when b t 1.17
Fy
noncompact sections, as defined in Section
502.4, for uniformly compressed elements 0.90 Ek c
= Qs Qa for members with slender-element Qs 2
(505.7-9)
b
sections, as defined in Section 502.4, for Fy
uniformly compressed elements. t
where
User Note: For cross sections composed of only stiffened
slender elements, Q = Qs ( Qa 1.0 ). For cross sections 4
kc and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor
composed of only stiffened slender elements, Q = Q a (Qs h tw
= 1.0). For cross sections composed of both stiffened greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes
and unstiffened slender elements, Q Qs Qa .
3. For single angles
505.7.1 Slender Unstiffened Elements, Qs
b E
The reduction factor Qs for slender unstiffened elements a. when 0.45
is defined as follows: t Fy
1. For flanges, angles, and plates projecting from rolled Qs 1.0 (505.7-10)
columns or other compression members:
b. when 0.45 E F y b t 0.91 E F y
b E
a. whe n 0.56
t Fy
b Fy
Qs 1.34 0.76 (505.7-11)
Qs = 1.0 (505.7-4) t E
b. when 0.56 E Fy b t 1.03 E Fy c. when b t 0.91 E F y
b Fy 0.53E
Qs 1.415 0.74 (505.7-5) Qs 2
(505.7-12)
t E b
Fy
t
c. when b t 1.03 E F y
w here
0.69 E b = full width of longest angle leg, mm.
Qs 2
(505.7-6)
b
Fy
t 4. For stems of tees
2. For flanges, angles, and plates projecting from built-
up columns or other compression members:

2. For flanges of square and rectangular slender-element

a. when d 0.75 E
t Fy b E
sections of uniform thickness with 1.40 :
t f
Qs 1.0 (505.7-13)
E 0.38 E
E E be 1.92t 1 b (505.7-18)
b. when 0.75 d t 1.03 f bt f
Fy Fy
where
d Fy f = Pn/Aeff
Qs 1.908 1.22 (505.7-14)
t E
E User Note: In Lieu of calculating f Pn Aeff , which

c. when d t 1.03
Fy requires iteration, f may be taken equal to F y . This will
result in a slightly conservative estimate of column
0.69 E
Qs (505.7-15) capacity.
2
d
Fy 3. For axially-loaded circular sections:
t
E D E
where when 0.11 0.45
Fy t Fy
b = width of unstiffened compression element, as
defined in Section 502.4, mm. 0.038E 2
Q Qa (505.7-19)
d = the full nominal depth of tee, mm. Fy D t 3
t = thickness of element, mm.
where
505.7.2. Slender Stiffened Elements, Qa
D = outside diameter, mm.
The reduction factor, Qa for slender stiffened elements is t = wall thickness, mm.
defined as follows:
Aeff
Qa (505.7-16)
A
where
A = total cross-sectional area of member, mm2.
Aeff = summation of the effective areas of the cross
section based on the reduced effective
width, be, mm2.
The reduced effective width, be, is determined as follows:
1. For uniformly compressed slender elements, with

b E
1.49 , except flanges of square and
t f
rectangular sections of uniform thickness:
E 0.34 E
be 1.92t 1 b (505.7-17)
f bt f
where
f is taken as Fcr with Fcr calculated based on Q 1.0.

Chapter 9: Column Analysis and Design
Introduction
Columns are usually considered as vertical structural elements, but they can be
positioned in any orientation (e.g. diagonal and horizontal compression elements in a
truss).
Columns are used as major elements in trusses, building frames, and sub-structure
supports for bridges (e.g. piers).
• Columns support compressive loads from roofs, floors, or bridge decks.
• Columns transmit the vertical forces to the foundations and into the subsoil.
The work of a column is simpler than the work of a beam.

• The loads applied to a column are only axial loads.
• Loads on columns are typically applied at the ends of the member, producing
axial compressive stresses.
• However, on occasion the loads acting on a column can include axial forces,
transverse forces, and bending moments (e.g. beam-columns).
Columns are defined by the length between support ends.

• Short columns (e.g. footing piers).
• Long columns (e.g. bridge and freeway piers).
Virtually every common construction material is used for column construction.

• Steel, timber, concrete (reinforced and pre-stressed), and masonry (brick,
block, and stone).
The selection of a particular material may be made based on the following.

• Strength (material) properties (e.g. steel vs. wood).
• Appearance (circular, square, or I-beam).
• Accommodate the connection of other members.
• Local production capabilities (i.e. the shape of the cross section).
Columns are major structural components that significantly affect the building’s
overall performance and stability.
• Columns are designed with larger safety factors than other structural
components.
9.1
• Failure of a joist or beam may be localized and may not severely affect the
building’s integrity (e.g. there is redundancy with girders and beams, but not
with columns).
• Failure of a strategic column may be catastrophic for a large area of the
structure.
• Failure may be due to overstressed, loss of section (deterioration),
accident/sabotage (terrorism).
Safety factors for columns are used to account for the following.
• Material irregularities (e.g. out of straightness).
• Support fixity at the column ends.
• Construction inaccuracies (e.g. out of plumbness).
• Workmanship.
• Unavoidable eccentric (off-axis) loading.
9.1 Short and Long Columns – Modes of Failure

Column slenderness and length greatly influence a column’s ability to carry load.
• Very short, stout columns fail by crushing due to material failure.
- Failure occurs once the stress exceeds the elastic (yield point) limit of the
material.
• Long, slender columns fail by buckling – a function of the column’s dimensions
and its modulus of elasticity.
- Buckling is the sudden uncontrolled lateral displacement of a column at which
point no additional load can be supported.
- Failure occurs at a lower stress level than the column’s material strength
due to buckling (i.e. lateral instability).
Short columns
Short columns fail by crushing at very high stress levels that are above the elastic
limit of the column material.
Compressive stress for short columns is based on the basic stress equation
developed at the beginning of Chapter 5.
• If the load and column size (i.e. cross-sectional area) are known, the
compressive stress may be computed as
fa = Pactual/A ≤ Fa
9.2
where
fa = actual compressive stress (psi or ksi)
A = cross-sectional area of the column (in2)
Pactual = actual load on the column (pounds or kips)
Fa = allowable compressive stress per code (psi or ksi)
• This stress equation can be rewritten into a design form to determine the
required short column size when the load and allowable material strength are
known.
Arequired = Pactual/Fa
where
Arequired = minimum cross-sectional area of the column
Long Columns – Euler Buckling

Long columns fail by buckling at stress levels that are below the elastic limit of the
column material.
• Very short column lengths require extremely large loads to cause the member
to buckle.
• Large loads result in high stresses that cause crushing rather than buckling.
Buckling in long, slender columns is due to the following.

• Eccentricities in loading.
• Irregularities in the column material.
Buckling can be avoided (theoretically) if the loads were applied absolutely axially,
the column material was totally homogeneous with no imperfections, and
construction was true and plumb.
A Swiss mathematician named Leonhard Euler (1707 – 1783) was the first to
investigate the buckling behavior of slender columns within the elastic limit of the
column’s material.
• Euler’s equation shows the relationship between the load that causes buckling of
a (pinned end) column and the material and stiffness properties of the column.
9.3
The critical buckling load can be determined by the following equation.
Pcritical = π2EImin/L2
where
Pcritical = critical axial load that causes buckling in the column (pounds or kips)
E = modulus of elasticity of the column material (psi or ksi)
Imin = smallest moment of inertia of the column cross-section (in2)
(Most sections have Ix and Iy; angles have Ix, Iy and Iz.)
L = column length between pinned ends (inches)
• As the column length increases, the critical load rapidly decreases (since it is
proportional to L2), approaching zero as a limit.
• The critical load at buckling is referred to as Euler’s critical buckling load.
Euler’s equation is valid only for long, slender columns that fail due to buckling.
• Euler’s equation contains no safety factors.
• Euler’s equation results in compressive stresses developed in columns that are
well below the elastic limit of the material.
Slenderness Ratios
The radius of gyration is a geometric property of a cross section that was first
introduced in Chapter 6.
I = Ar2 and r = (I/A) 1/2
where
r = radius of gyration of the column cross section (in)
I = least (minimum) moment of inertia (in4)
A = cross-sectional area of the column (in2)
The radius of gyration is geometric property that is used in the analysis and design
of columns.
Using the radius of gyration, the critical stress developed in a long column at
buckling can be expressed by the following equation.
fcritical = Pcritical/A = π2EImin/AL2 = π2E(Ar2)/AL2 = π2E/(L/r)2
9.4
The term “L/r” is known as the slenderness ratio.
• A higher slenderness ratio means a lower critical stress that will cause buckling.
• Conversely, a lower slenderness ratio results in a higher critical stress (but still
within the elastic range of the material).
Column sections with large r-values are more resistant to buckling.

• Compare the difference in rmin values and slenderness ratios for the three
column cross sections shown below.
- All three cross sections have relatively equal cross-sectional areas but very
different radii of gyration about the critical buckling axis.
- All three columns are assumed to be 15 feet in length and pin-connected at
both ends.
Comparison of steel cross sections with equivalent areas
The most efficient column sections for axial loads are those with almost equal r x
and ry values.
• Circular pipe sections and square tubes are the most effective shapes since the
radii of gyration about both axes are the same (rx = ry).
• Circular pipe sections and square tubes are often used as columns for light to
moderate loads.
9.5
Wide-flange shapes may be preferred despite the structural advantages of closed
cross-sectional shapes (like tubes and pipes).
• The practical considerations of wide-flange shapes include the following.
- Wide-flange sections support heavy loads.
- Wide-flange sections accommodate beam connections.
Special wide-flange sections are specifically manufactured to provide relatively

symmetrical columns (rx/ry ratios approaching 1.0) with large load-carrying
capability.
• Most of these column sections (generally W8, W10, W12, and W14) have depth
and flange widths approximately equal (i.e. a “boxy” configuration).
9.2 End Support Conditions and Lateral Bracing

Previously, each column was assumed to have pinned ends in which the member ends
were free to rotate (but not translate) in any direction at their ends.
• When the column buckles, it will do so in one smooth curve.
• The length of this curve is referred to as the effective length.
In practice, a column may not be pinned at the ends.

• The column length free to buckle is greatly influenced by its end support
conditions.
• The load-carrying capacity of a column is affected by the end support
conditions.
- Restraining the ends of a column with a fixed support increases the load-
carrying capacity of a column.
- Allowing translation as well as rotation (i.e. free end) at one end of a column
generally reduces its load-carrying capacity.
Column design formulas generally assume a condition in which both ends are pinned.
• When other conditions exist, the load-carrying capacity is increased or
decreased and the allowable compressive stress is increased or decreased.
• A factor K is used as a multiplier for converting the actual column length to an
effective buckling length based on end conditions.
The American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) provides recommended

effective length factors when ideal conditions are approximated.
• The six cases are presented as follows.
9.6
Case A: Both ends are pinned.
The structure is adequately braced against lateral forces (e.g. wind and earthquake
forces).
Theoretical K-value: K = 1.0
Effective length: Le = L
Examples: Timber column nailed top and bottom;

steel column with simple clip angle connection
top and bottom.
Case B: Both ends are fixed.

forces).
Theoretical K-value: K= 0.5
Effective length: Le = 0.5 L
Pcritical = π2EImin/(0.5L)2 = 4π2EImin/L2
Examples: Concrete column rigidly

(monolithically cast) connected to large beams
top and bottom; steel column rigidly connected
(welded) to large steel beams top and bottom.
Case C: One end is pinned and one end is fixed.

forces).
Pcritical = π2EImin/(0.707L)2 = 2π2EImin/L2
Examples: Concrete column rigidly connected to

concrete slab at the base and attached to light-
gauge roofing at the top.
9.7
Case D: One end is free and one end is fixed.
Lateral translation is possible.
• An eccentric column load is developed.
Pcritical = π2EImin/(2L)2 = π2EImin/4L2
Examples: Water tank mounted on a simple pipe

column; flagpole.
Case E: Both ends are fixed with some lateral translation.

Examples: Flexible column attached to a rigid

beam and supported by a fixed base.
Case F: The base is pinned and the top is fixed with some lateral translation.
Pcritical = π2EImin/(2L)2 = π2EImin/4L2
Examples: Steel column with a rigid connection

to a beam above and a simple pin connection at
the base.
9.8
Intermediate Bracing
End connections affect the buckling capacity of a column.
• Fixed connections are an obvious solution to minimizing column sizes; however,
the cost associated with achieving rigid connections is high and such
connections are difficult to make.
• Timber columns are generally assumed as pinned-connected because the
material strength generally precludes the construction of true rigid joints.
Lateral bracing about the weak axis can increase the strength and stability of a
column by reducing the effective length of the column.
• Examples of such lateral bracing include the following.
- Infill wall panels.
- Window and door headers.
- Supports for curtain walls.
Bracing provided in one plane does not provide resistance to buckling in the
perpendicular plane.
• Columns must be checked in both directions to determine the critical
slenderness ratio to be used in the analysis or design.
9.9
Example Problems - Short and Long Columns – Modes of Failure
Problem 9.2 (p. 455)
Given: Two 3-1/2” standard steel pipe

sections are strapped together to form a
pin-connected column.
L = 24’
E = 29, 000 ksi
Find: The critical axial load when buckling occurs.
Solution
Moment of inertia for 3-1/2” standard pipe

(ref. Table A5 of the textbook)
I = 4.79 in4
Applicable equation: Pcritical = π2EImin/L2

Ix = Imin = 2 (4.79) = 9.58 in4
L = 24’
= π2 (29,000)(9.58)/(24 x 12”/’)2
Pcritical = 33.1 kips
9.10
Given: An 8” diameter timber pole fixed in a

large concrete footing at grade and
pinned at the top.
E = 1.0 x 106 psi
Find: Maximum height of the pole to support

a 25 kip load.
Solution
Applicable equation: Pcritical = 2π2EImin/L2

• Case C: One end pinned and one end fixed.
K = 0.7
Le = 0.707 L
Pcritical = π2EImin/(0.707 L)2 = 2π2EImin/L2

I = πd4/64 = π (8)4/64 = 201.1 in4
Pcritical = 25 kips (25,000 lb)
25,000 = 2π2 (1.0 x 106)(201.1 in4)/L2

L2 = 2π2 (1,000,000)(201.1)/25,000 = 158,780 in2
L = 398.5” (33.2’)
9.11
9.3 Axially Loaded Steel Columns
The discussion so far has been limited to short columns that crush and long slender
columns that buckle.
• Somewhere in between these two extremes lies a zone where a “short” column
transitions into a “long” column.
Short columns: Steel (A36) columns with slenderness ratios ℓ/r ≤ 40 are defined as
“short columns”.
• The mode of failure is crushing.
Long columns: Steel columns with a slenderness ratio of 120 ≤ Kℓ/r ≤ 200 are
defined as “long columns.”
• The mode of failure is buckling.
• For structural steel columns: Kℓ/r ≤ 200
Intermediate columns: Steel columns with a slenderness ratio of 40 ≤ Kℓ/r ≤ 120

are defined as “intermediate columns.”
• The mode of failure is a combination of crushing (yielding) and buckling.
Column classification is based on slenderness.

• Figure 9.14 (Column classification based on slenderness, p. 456 of the textbook)
compares Euler’s equation with the American Institute of Steel Construction
(AISC) equations.
- The initially flat portion of the curve (in the short-column range, that is,
Kℓ/r < 40) indicates material yielding with no buckling taking place.
- On the far right end of the curve (Kℓ/r > 120), the compressive stresses are
relatively low and buckling is the mode of failure.
- In the intermediate-column range (40 < Kℓ/r < 120), failure has aspects of
both yielding and buckling.
The load-carrying ability of intermediate-length columns is influenced by both

the strength and elastic properties of the column material.
• Empirical design formulas, based on extensive testing and research, have
been developed to cover the design of columns within the limits of each
column category.
Sine 1961, the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) has adopted a set
of column design formulas that incorporate the use of a variable factor of safety,
depending on slenderness, for determining allowable compressive stress.
9.12
• The AISC formulas recognize only two slenderness categories:
short/intermediate and long (ref. Figure 9.15, p. 457 of the textbook).
- Long steel (A36) columns are defined as those having a Kℓ/r exceeding a
value called Cc = 126.1.
- Long steel columns for high strength steel (Fy = 50 ksi) are defined as those
having a Kℓ/r exceeding a value called Cc = 107.0.
The Cc value represents the theoretical demarcation line between inelastic (i.e.
short/intermediate columns) and elastic (i.e. long columns) behavior.
• Cc = (2π2E/Fy)1/2
Allowable compressive stress (AISC)

• Short/intermediate columns: The AISC allowable compressive stress (Fa) for
short/intermediate columns (Kℓ/r < Cc) is computed using AISC Eq. E2-1 (ref.
p. 458 of the textbook).
• Long columns: When axially loaded compression members have a slenderness
ratio Kℓ/r > Cc, the allowable compressive stress is computed using AISC
Eq. E2-2 (ref. p. 458 of the textbook).
where (for both equations)
Kℓ/r = the largest effective slenderness ratio of any unbraced length of
column
Fa = allowable compressive stress (psi or ksi)
The two preceding equations represent actual design equations that can be used to
analyze or design steel columns.
• These equations appear rather intimidating, especially equation E2-1.
• The AISC Manual of Steel Construction has developed a table for Kℓ/r from 1
to 200 with the representative allowable stress Fa.
• No computations using E2-1 and E2-2 are necessary since the equations have
been used in generating these tables (Tables 9.1 and 9.2, pp. 461 – 462 of the
textbook).
Pinned end supports are often assumed for design purposes and provide a
conservative result.
• Pinned ends are assumed even if the ends of steel columns are typically
restrained to some degree at the bottom by being welded to a base plate, which
in turn is anchor-bolted to a concrete footing.
9.13
• Steel pipe columns generally have plates welded at each end, and then bolted to
other parts of the structure.
- Such restraints vary greatly and are difficult to evaluate.
• Designers rarely take advantage of the restraint to increase the allowable
stress, which therefore adds to the factor of safety of the design.
On the other hand, tests have indicated that, in the case of fixed-end conditions,
the “theoretical” K = 0.5 values are somewhat non-conservative when designing
steel columns.
• Since true joint fixity is rarely possible, the AISC recommends the use of
recommended K-values (listed in Figure 9.16, p. 459 of the textbook).
Following are examples of recommended design values for K when ideal conditions
are approximated (ref. Figure 9.16, p. 459 of the textbook).
Condition Theoretical K value Recommended K value
Pinned-pinned 1.0 1.0
Fixed-fixed 0.5 0.65
Fixed-pinned 0.7 0.8
Analysis of Steel Columns

Column analysis means finding the allowable compressive stress Fa on a given column
or its allowable load capacity P.
• A simple analysis procedure is outlined below.
Given: Column length, support conditions, grade of steel (F y), applied load,
and column size.
Required: Check the load capacity of the column.
(In other words, is Pactual < Pallowable ?)
Procedure:
a. Calculate the slenderness ratio Kℓ/rmin; the largest Kℓ/r governs.
b. Enter the appropriate AISC Table
(Table 9.1 for Fy = 36 ksi or Table 9.2 for Fy = 50 ksi)
c. Pick out the respective Fa
d. Compute Pallowable : Pallowable = Fa x A
where
A = cross sectional area of the column (in2)
Fa = allowable compressive stress (ksi)
9.14
e. Check the column adequacy.
If Pactual < Pallowable then the column is OK.
If Pactual > Pallowable then the column is overstressed.
9.15
Example Problems - Axially Loaded Steel Columns
Given: Two C12 x 20.7 channel sections

welded together to form a closed box
section.
Fy = 36 ksi
L = 20’
Top and bottom are pinned.
Find: Allowable axial load Pa.
Solution
Find the following geometric properties for the channel

section (C12 x 20.7) from Table A4 (p. 573 of the textbook).
A = 6.09 in2, bf = 2.942”, Ix = 129 in4, rx = 4.61”
Iy = 3.88 in4, ry = 0.799”, x = 0.698”
Calculate the moment of inertia and radius of gyration for each axis.
A = 2 (6.09) = 12.18 in2
Ix = 2 (129) = 258 in4
rx = (Ix/A)1/2 = (258/12.18)1/2 = 4.61” (same as rx for a single channel)
Iy = 2 [3.88 + (6.09)(2.942 – 0.698)2] = 2 (34.55) = 69.10 in4
ry = (Iy/A)1/2 = (69.10/12.18)1/2 = 2.38”
Calculate the slenderness ratios (K = 1.0).

KL/rx = (1.0) 20 (12”/’)/4.61 = 52.1
KL/ry = (1.0) 20 (12”/’)/2.38 = 100.8 Governs
9.16
Find Fa (i.e. the allowable compressive stress).
• Use a slenderness ratio KL/ry = 100.8 (ref, Table 9.1, p. 461 of the textbook).
Fa = 12.88 ksi (by interpolation)
Calculate the allowable axial load.

Pallow = Fa (A) = 12.88 (12.18) = 156.9 k
Pallow = 156.9 k
Compare Pallow with Pcritical calculated

using the Euler equation.
• Recall that Pcritical has no factor of safety.
Iy = Imin = 69.10 in4
E = 29,000 ksi
Pcritical = π2 (29,000)(69.10)/(20 x 12”/’)2 = 343.2 kips
Pcritical = 343.2 kips
9.17
Problem 9.10 (p. 466)
Given: 5” dia standard steel pipe column (A36

steel) with an applied load of 60 kips. Top is
pinned and the base is fixed.
Find: Maximum allowable height of column.
Solution
From Table A5 (p. 607 of the textbook) find the

following geometric properties for the 5” dia.
standard steel pipe section.
A = 4.30 in2, r = 1.88”
Calculate the compressive stress in the column.

Fa = Pa/A = 60/4.30 = 13.95 ksi
Determine the slenderness ratio (ref.

Table 9.1, p. 486 of the textbook).
KL/r = 92.15 for Fa = 13.95 ksi
(by interpolating)
Select the recommended design value K.

• K = 0.80 Case (b): Pinned-fixed
(ref. Figure 9.16, p. 459 of the
textbook).
KL/r = 0.8 (L)/1.88 = 92.15
L = 92.15 (1.88)/0.8 = 216.6” (18.0’)
Thus, maximum height is L = 18.0’
9.18
Design of Steel Columns
The design of axially loaded steel columns involves the selection of an appropriate
column size.
• Accomplished by using specialized column tables such as those contained in the
American Institute of Steel Construction’s Manual of Steel Construction –
Allowable Stress Design, Ninth Edition.
• Structural design varies from analysis in that there are several possible
answers to a problem (e.g. different sizes, different shapes).
The selection of a column size is dependent on the following.

1. Strength and safety requirements.
2. Architectural issues (e.g. shape, appearance) and construction issues (e.g. beam
connections) may influence the final selection.
Since the AISC Column Design Tables are not available (that would require the
purchase of the AISC manual), steel column design will involve an iterative trial-
and-error process.
A few guidelines for selecting a column cross section follow.

• Efficient column cross sections for axial loads often use circular or “boxier”
wide-flange members.
• Along with spatial and construction concerns, relative maximum or minimum
sizes may be specified by the architect, thus limiting the choices.
• Smaller scale steel structures may use 8” and 10” nominal size wide-flange
columns, while larger buildings with heavier loads will often use 12” and 14”
nominal sizes.
- These sections are the “boxier” or square sizes, with the depth and flange
width of the cross section being approximately equal.
The trial-and-error procedure may be outlined as follows.
Given: Column length, support conditions, grade of steel (Fy), applied load
(Pactual).
Required: Column size to safely support the load.
9.19
Procedure:
a. Guess at a size.
• For a smaller scale building, maybe try a square W8 or W10 in the middle of
the weight grouping.
• A similar trial using larger sections is appropriate for heavier loads.
b. Once the trial size has been selected, cross-sectional properties are known.
• Compute the critical slenderness ratio, taking into account the end
conditions and intermediate bracing.
c. Using the larger Kℓ/r value, enter Table 9.1 (for Fy = 36 ksi, p. 461 of the
textbook) or Table 9.2 (for Fy = 50 ksi, p. 462 of the textbook) and obtain the
respective Fa (i.e. the allowable compressive stress).
d. Calculate the Pallowable = Fa x A of the trial section.
e. Compare Pactual to Pallowable.
• If Pactual > Pallowable, then the column is overstressed and a larger section
should be selected next.
• If the trial section is too strong (i.e. Pactual much less than Pallowable), try again
with a smaller column size.
One way to check the relative efficiency of the cross section is to examine its
percent of stress level.
Percent of stress = Pactual/Pallowable X 100%
A percent of stress in the 90 - 100 percent level is very efficient.
f. Repeat this process until an adequate but efficient section is obtained.
Note: Steps (b) through (e) are essentially the procedure used previously in the
analysis of steel columns.
Alternative trial and error procedures:

1. Assume a design stress (Fa).
• Divide the column load by the compression stress for an estimated column
area (i.e. A = P/Fa).
• Select a trial column section with approximately that area.
• Then, continue the procedure following steps b through f, as outlined above.
9.20
2. Assume a slenderness ratio KL/r.
• Determine the corresponding allowable compressive stress Fa from Table 9.1
(for Fy = 36 ksi, p. 461 of the textbook) or Table 9.2 (for Fy = 50 ksi, p. 462
of the textbook).
• Divide the column load by the compressive stress for an estimated column
area (i.e. A = P/Fa).
• Select a trial column section with approximately that area.
• Then, continue the procedure following steps b through f, as outlined above.
The following suggestions allow an inexperienced designer to make good initial

assumptions for the slenderness ratio KL/r.
• The slenderness ratio KL/r for an average column of 10 to 15-feet length will
generally fall between 40 and 60.
• If the column is longer than 15 feet, assume the slenderness ratio to be a
little higher than 40 to 60.
• If the column carries a very heavy load (e.g. 750 – 1000 kips), a larger
column will be required and the designer may estimate a smaller value for
the slenderness ratio.
• For lightly loaded bracing members, the designer may estimate high
slenderness ratios of 100 or more.
9.21
Example Problem - Design of Steel Columns
Problem 9.15 (p. 473)
Given: Six-story building.

Tributary floor area = 20’ x 25’
= 500 SF
Roof load: 80 psf (dead load)
40 psf (snow load)
Floor load: 125 psf (live load)
100 psf (dead load)
Lfirst floor = 20’
Lthird floor = 16’
Fy = 36 ksi
Find: Design a typical interior third-floor column and first-floor column using the
most economical W12* section at each level.
(*Note: There are several possible solutions using W10 and W14; specifying a W12 limits the number
of solutions.)
Solution
Third floor column

Determine load on third-floor column.
Pactual = Proof + Pfloors (4th, 5th, and 6th floor loadings)
Pactual = 500 SF (80 psf + 40 psf) + 3 [500 SF (125 psf + 100 psf)]
= 60,000 + 3 (112,500) = 397,500 pounds
Pactual = 397.5 k (third floor column)
First try
a. Select W12 section for third floor column.
Try W12 x 40 (A = 11.8 in2, d = 11.94”, rx = 5.13”, ry = 1.93”)
b. Compute the critical slenderness ratio (K = 1.0).

KL/rmin = 1.0 (16)(12”/’)/1.93 = 99.5
9.22
c. Using Table 9.1 (p. 461 of the textbook), find Fa (i.e. the allowable compressive
stress) using KL/rmin = 99.5.
Fa = 13.04 ksi (by interpolating)
d. Calculate the allowable axial load.

Pallowable = Fa (A) = 13.04 (11.8) = 153.87 k

Pallowable = 153.87 k < 397.5 k NG
Second try
Try W12 x 96 (A = 28.2 in2, d = 12.71”, rx = 5.44”, ry = 3.09”)

KL/rmin = 1.0 (16)(12”/’)/3.09 = 62.1

Pallowable = Fa (A) = 17.23 (28.2) = 485.9 k

Pallowable = 485.9 k > 397.5 k OK (but over-designed)
Third try
Try W12 x 72 (A = 21.1 in2, d = 12.25”, rx = 5.31”, ry = 3.04”)

KL/rmin = 1.0 (16)(12”/’)/3.04 = 63.2
9.23

Pallowable = Fa (A) = 17.12 (21.1) = 361.2 k

Fourth try
Try W12 x 79 (A = 23.2 in2, d = 12.38”, rx = 5.34”, ry = 3.05”)

KL/rmin = 1.0 (16)(12”/’)/3.05 = 62.95

Pallowable = Fa (A) = 17.14 (23.2) = 397.6 k

Pallowable = 397.6 k > 397.5 k OK
f. Check efficiency.
Efficiency = Pactual/Pallowable X 100% = 397.5/397.6 X 100% = 99.97%
Select: W12 x 79
9.24
First floor column
Determine load on first-floor column.
Pactual = Proof + Pfloors (2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th floor loadings)
Pactual = 500 SF (80 psf + 40 psf) + 5 [500 SF (125 psf + 100 psf)]
= 60,000 + 5(112,500) = 622,500 pounds
Pactual = 622.5 k (first floor column)
Recall from previous work: W12 x 96 Pa = 485.9 for 16’ column. So a heavier
column will be needed for a longer column – 20’ – carrying a greater Pactual.
First try
a. Select W12 section for first floor column.
Try W12 x 120 (A = 35.3 in2, d = 13.12”, rx = 5.51”, ry = 3.13”)

KL/rmin = 1.0 (20)(12”/’)/3.13 = 76.7

Pallowable = Fa (A) = 15.72 (35.3) = 554.9 k

Second try
Try W12 x 152 (A = 44.7 in2, rx = 5.66”, ry = 3.19”)

KL/rmin = 1.0 (20)(12”/’)/3.19 = 75.2
9.25

Pallowable = Fa (A) = 15.88 (44.7) = 709.8 k

Pallowable = 709.8 k > 622.5 k OK (but over-designed)
Third try
Try W12 x 136 (A = 39.9 in2, d = 13.41”, rx = 5.58”, ry = 3.16”) – only section
remaining between the W12 x 120 and W12 x 152.

KL/rmin = 1.0 (20)(12”/’)/3.16 = 75.9

Pallowable = Fa (A) = 15.80 (39.9) = 630.4 k

Pallowable = 630.4 k > 622.5 k OK
f. Check efficiency.
Efficiency = Pactual/Pallowable X 100% = 622.5/630.4 X 100% = 98.75%
Select: W12 x 136
9.26
9.4 Axially Loaded Wood Columns
Wood columns support beams and girders that, in turn, support tributary areas of
roof and floor loads.
Other structural members that are in compression are designed using the same
methods that are utilized for the design of building columns.
• Bridge piers
• Compression chords of a truss
• Studs in a load-bearing wall
Modes of failure
• Long columns tend to buckle under critical load.
• Short columns fail by the crushing of the wood fibers.
Slenderness ratio
• For wood columns, the ratio of the column
length to its width is just as important as the
slenderness ratio is for steel columns.
• In wood columns, the slenderness ratio is
defined as the laterally unsupported length in
inches divided by the least (minimum) dimension
of the column.
Slenderness ratio = L/dmin = L/d1
where d1 < d2
• Wood columns are restricted to a maximum slenderness ratio of ℓe/d ≤ 50.
- This slenderness ratio is analogous to the limiting slenderness ratio of
KL/rmin ≤ 200 used for steel columns.
Effective length
• The effective length of steel columns was determined by applying a K factor to
the unsupported length of the column to adjust for the end support.
• Similar effective length factors, called Ke in wood columns, are used to adjust
for the various end conditions.
• Recommended Ke values (ref. Figure 9.20, p. 474 of the textbook) are identical
to those of steel columns.
9.27
Typical Ke values
Most wood construction is detailed such that translation (sidesway) is restrained
but the ends of the column are free to rotate (i.e. pin connection).
• The Ke value is generally taken as 1.0, and the effective length is equal to the
actual unsupported length.
• Even if some fixity exists in the top or bottom connection, it is difficult to
evaluate the degree of fixity to assume in design.
• Ke = 1.0 is an acceptable assumption that is usually a bit conservative in some
connection conditions.
Wood columns
• Wood columns can be solid members or rectangular, round, or other shapes, or
spaced columns built up from two or more individual solid members separated by
blocking.
• The majority of all wood columns in buildings are solid rectangular sections. The
analysis and design methods examined in this section will be limited to these
types.
The National Design Specification for Wood Construction (NDS-91) approved a new
standard in 1992.
• The new standard incorporated a new method and new equations for the design
of wood elements and connections.
• Previous categorizing of wood columns into the short-, intermediate-, or long-
column range resulted in three different equations for each respective
slenderness range.
• The NDS-91 now utilizes a single equation, providing a continuous curve over the
entire range of slenderness ratios.
The compressive stress for an axially loaded wood column of known size is
expressed as follows.
fc = P/A ≤ Fc’
where
fc = actual compressive stress parallel to grain
P = axial compressive force in the member
A = cross-sectional area of the column
Fc’ = allowable compressive stress parallel to grain
9.28
The allowable load for an axially loaded wood column is expressed as follows.
Pallow = Fc’ A and Pactual ≤ Pallow
To obtain the allowable compressive stress Fc’, many adjustments to the tabulated
base (reference) compressive stress (Fc) are necessary.
The NDS-91 defines the Fc’ as follows.

Fc’ = Fc (CD) (CM) (Ct) (CF) (Cp)
where
Fc’ = allowable compressive stress parallel to grain
Fc = reference compressive stress parallel to grain (found in building code
tables, NDS tables, and wood design handbooks, such as Table 5.2, p. 278
of the textbook)
CD = load duration factor (ref. Figure 9.23, p. 477 of the textbook)
CM = wet service factor (accounts for moisture content in the wood)
= 1.0 for dry service conditions as in most covered structures, dry
service condition defined as follows:
Moisture content ≤ 19% for sawn lumber
Moisture content ≤ 16% for glu-lams
Ct = temperature factor (usually taken as 1.0 for normal temperature
conditions)
CF = size factor (an adjustment based on member sizes used)
Cp = column stability factor (accounts for buckling and is directly affected
by the slenderness ratio)
The objective of this course is to analyze and design structural elements in a

preliminary way (rather than the full complement of equations and checks
performed by a structural engineer).
• Accordingly, the preceding allowable compressive stress equation is simplified
as follows.
Fc’ = Fc* Cp
where
Fc* = Fc (CD) (CM) (Ct) (CF) ≈ FcCD (for preliminary column design)
Cp = column stability factor (ref. Table 9.3)
9.29
Fc = tabulated compressive stress parallel to grain (found in building code
tables, NDS tables, and wood design handbooks, such as Table 5.2, p. 278
of the textbook)
CD = load duration factor
CM, Ct, and CF are all assumed to be equal to 1.0, which is generally the case
for a majority of wood columns.
Load duration factor CD (ref. Figure 9.23, p. 477 of the textbook)

• Wood has a unique structural property in which it can support higher stresses if
the applied loads are for a short period of time.
• All tabulated stress values contained in building codes, NDS, or wood design
manuals apply to “normal” load duration and dry service conditions.
• The CD value adjusts tabulated stresses to allowable values based on the
duration (time) of loading.
a) “Normal” duration is taken as 10 years and CD = 1.0.
b) For permanent dead load, CD = 0.9.
c) Short-duration loading from wind, earthquake, snow, or impact allows CD
values higher than 1.0 but less than 2.0.
The column stability factor Cp multiplied by Fc essentially defines the column curve
(equation).
• This equation, originally developed by Ylinen, explains the behavior of wood
columns as the interaction of the two modes of failure: buckling and crushing.
• An equation for computing Cp is provided on page 477 of the textbook.
- Terms in the equation for Cp include the following.
FcE = Euler critical buckling stress for columns
FcE = KcE E’ ≈ KcE E
(ℓe/d)2 (ℓe/d)2
Fc* ≈ Fc CD
c = buckling and crushing interaction factor for columns
= 0.8 for sawn lumber columns
= 0.9 for glu-lam columns
- Terms used in calculating FcE include the following.
KcE = 0.30 for sawn lumber
= 0.418 for glu-lams
9.30
E’ = adjusted modulus of elasticity associated with the axis of buckling
E’ = E (CM) (Ct) (Ci) for sawn lumber
E’ = E (CM) (Ct) for glu-lam columns
E = reference modulus of elasticity associated with the axis of buckling
Table 9.3 (p. 478 of the textbook) is provided to simplify the computations for
preliminary column analysis/design.
• This table (similar to Tables 9.1 and 9.2 for steel) was developed by inputting
slenderness ratios between 1 and 50 to determine FcE values for sawn and glu-
lam members.
• By dividing FcE values by Fc* and generating ratios of a (FcE/Fc*), corresponding
Cp values can be taken from the table.
• Table 9.3 eliminates the necessity of laborious computations for Cp using the
equation developed by Ylinen.
Analysis of Wood Columns

A simple procedure can be adopted for checking the adequacy or capacity of
wooden columns.
• This methodology is for approximate analysis and assumes the simplifications
discussed previously.
Given: Column size, column length, grade

and species of lumber, and end
conditions.
Required: The allowable capacity of a column

or the adequacy of a given column.
Procedure:
a. Calculate the (ℓe/dmin).
b. Compute FcE (i.e. Euler’s critical buckling stress).

FcE = KcE E
(ℓe/d)2
KcE = 0.3 for sawn lumber
KcE = 0.418 for glu-lams
E = reference modulus of elasticity (ref. Table 5.2, p. 278 of the textbook)
9.31
c. Compute Fc* ≈ Fc CD
Fc = reference compressive stress parallel to grain (found in building code
tables, NDS tables, and wood design handbooks, such as Table 5.2, p. 278 of
the textbook)
CD = load duration factor (ref. p. 477 of the textbook)
d. Calculate the ratio: FcE/Fc*
e. Enter Table 9.3 (p. 478); obtain respective Cp.
f. Calculate the allowable compressive stress Fc’.

Fc’ = Fc* Cp
g. Calculate the allowable load and compare the allowable load with the actual load.
Pallowable = Fc’ x A ≤ Pactual
where
A = cross-sectional area of column
9.32
Example Problem - Analysis of Wood Columns
Problem 9.16 (p. 485)
Given: 6x6 S4S Southern Pine Dense No. 1 column.

Assume 7-day duration roof live load.
Pin connections top and bottom.
L = 14’ – 0”
Fc = 975 psi (Table 5.2, p. 278 of the textbook)
E = 1.6 x 106 psi (Table 5.2, p. 278 of the textbook)
Find: Capacity of column.
Solution
Section properties for the 6 x 6 S4S column.

Actual dimensions: 5.5” x 5.5”
A = 30.25 in2 (Table A1-b, p. 567 of the textbook)
a. Calculate the slenderness ratio ℓe/dmin.

ℓe/dmin = 14(12”/’)/5.5 = 30.55
b. Compute FcE (i.e. Euler’s critical buckling stress) .

FcE = KcE E/(ℓe/d)2 = 0.30(1.6 x 106)/(30.55)2 = 514.3
where KcE = 0.30 for visually graded lumber (p. 502)
c. Compute Fc* ≈ Fc CD (CM, Ct, CF = 1.0)

Fc* = 975 (1.25) = 1,218.75
where CD = 1.25 for 7-day roof live load (Figure 9.23, p. 477)
d. Calculate the ratio FcE/Fc*

FcE/ Fc* = 514.3/1,218.75 = 0.422
e. Enter Table 9.3 (p. 478) and obtain Cp.

Cp = 0.377 (for sawn lumber, by interpolating)
9.33
Fc’ = Fc* Cp = 1,218.75 (0.377)
Fc’ = 459.5 psi
g. Calculate the allowable load (i.e. the capacity of the column).

Pallowable = Fc’ x A = 459.5 (30.25) = 13,900 lb
Pallowable = 13.9 k
9.34
Problem 9.18 (p. 485)
Given: 6-3/4” x 10-1/2” glu-lam column

Lateral bracing about the weak axis at mid height.
Pin connections top and bottom.
A = 70.88 in2
Fc = 1,650 psi (Table 5.2, p. 278 of the textbook)
E = 1.8 x 106 psi (Table 5.2, p. 278 of the textbook)
Find: Load capacity of the column.
Solution
a. Calculate the slenderness ratios ℓe/d for each axis of

bending and determine the critical value.
(ℓe/d)x = 22(12”/’)/10.5 = 25.14 Governs
(ℓe/d)y = 11(12”/’)/6.75 = 19.56
b. Compute FcE (i.e. Euler’s critical buckling stress) .

FcE = KcE E/(ℓe/d)2 = 0.418(1.8 x 106)/(25.14)2 = 1,190.5
where KcE = 0.418 for glu-lams (p. 477)
c. Compute Fc* ≈ Fc CD (CM, Ct, CF = 1.0)

Fc* = 1,650 (1.00) = 1,650
where CD = 1.00 for 10-year design (Figure 9.23, p. 477)
d. Calculate the ratio FcE/Fc*

FcE/ Fc* = 1,190.5/1,650 = 0.722
e. Enter Table 9.3 (p. 478) and obtain Cp.

Cp = 0.620 (for glu-lam, by interpolating)

Fc’ = Fc* Cp = 1,650 (0.620)
Fc’ = 1,023.0 psi
9.35
g. Calculate the allowable load (i.e. the capacity of the column).
Pallowable = Fc’ x A = 1,023.0 (70.88) = 72,510 lb
Pallowable = 72.5 k
9.36
Design of Wood Columns
Column design in wood is a trial-and-error process.
• Start by making an estimate on size (try out your intuition) and check out the
adequacy or inadequacy by following the analysis procedure given in the previous
section.
• Axially loaded wood columns without mid height bracing are generally square in
cross section, or in some cases just slightly rectangular.
• Fortunately, there are fewer possible wood sections to choose from compared
with the wide array of sizes available in steel.
One design procedure using the trial-and-error method could be:
Given: Column length, column load, grade and species of lumber to be used, and
end conditions.
Required: An economical column size.
Procedure:
a. Guess at a trial size.
• Try and select a square or almost square cross section unless the column’s weak
axis is braced.
b. Follow the same steps used in the analysis procedure in the previous section.
c. If Pallowable ≥ Pactual, then OK.
d. If Pallowable ≤ Pactual, pick a larger size and cycle through the analysis procedure
again.
9.37
9.5 Columns Subjected to Combined Loading or Eccentricity
Previous sections have assumed that the compression members are subjected to
concentric loading (loads acting through the centroid of the column section).
• In practice, however, concentric loading is rarely the case.
Many columns are subjected to bending in combination with axial compression loads.
• A load may not act through the centroid of a column cross section due to
- Non-uniform bearing.
- Misalignment of the framing.
- The crookedness of a member.
• Compression members carrying bending moment due to eccentricity or side
loading in addition to compression are referred to as beam columns.
Axially loaded columns have a relatively

uniform distribution of stress over the
cross-sectional area.
Bending stress, which involves tension and compression stresses, must be added
algebraically to the compressive stress due to the axial load.
• Small eccentricities (e.g. flexible beam
connected to a rigid column) alter the stress
distribution.
- The cross section remains in compression,
although non-uniform as shown at the right.
9.38
• If large eccentricities (e.g. rigid beam
connected to a less rigid column) exist, tensile
stresses may develop over part of the cross
section, as shown in the figure at the right.
Tensile stress
• The tension stresses that developed in
masonry construction of the past were
formerly of great concern.
• Tension stresses are of little significance
for the building systems and materials
used today in contemporary buildings.
• Timber, steel, pre-stressed concrete,
and reinforced concrete all possess good
tension capability.
Beam columns are evaluated using an interaction equation that incorporates the
bending stress with the compressive stress.
• The general interaction equation is expressed mathematically as follows.
fa/Fa + fb/Fb ≤ 1.0
where
fa = P/A (the actual compressive – axial - stress)
Fa = allowable compressive stress (based on Kℓ/r for steel or ℓ e/d for
timber)
fb = Mc/I = M/S (actual bending stress)
M = P x e for eccentrically loaded members
M = bending moment due to side load or rigid frame action
e = eccentricity
Fb = allowable bending stress
If a member is subjected to axial compression and bending about both the x- and
y-axes, the interaction formula is adapted to incorporate the biaxial bending.
• Therefore, the most generalized form of the equation is expressed
mathematically as follows.
fa/Fa + fbx/Fbx + fby/Fby ≤ 1.0 (for biaxial bending)
9.39
where
fbx = M/Sx = actual bending stress about the x-axis
fby = M/Sy = actual bending stress about the y-axis
An interaction curve, shown as Figure 9.33 (p. 490 of the textbook), illustrates the
theoretical combining of the axial compressive and bending stresses.
P–Δ effect
Bending moments in columns may result from the following.
• Lateral forces
• Applied moments
• Eccentricity of the end loads
These bending moments can cause a member

to deflect laterally, resulting in additional
bending moment due to the P – Δ effect.
• The lateral displacement generates an
eccentricity for the load P.
• The eccentricity results in the creation
of additional moment at the mid-height
of the column equal to P x Δ (known as a
second-order bending moment).
• Slender columns are particularly sensitive
to this P–Δ effect and must be accounted
for in the interaction equation.
The AISC (steel) and NDS (timber) manuals have introduced a magnification factor
to incorporate the P–Δ effect.
• A generalized interaction equation for both steel and wood is expressed
mathematically as follows.
fa/Fa + [fb x (Magnification Factor)]/Fb ≤ 1.0
• The actual analysis/design equations for steel and wood are noted in the
textbook (pp. 490 - 491).
Analyzing and designing beam columns using the AISC and NDS equations are more
appropriately done in follow-up courses dealing specifically with steel and wood
design.
9.40

Nominal Bending Strength of Compact Shapes: Egja S X S I C X

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Nominal Bending Strength of Compact Shapes: Egja S X S I C X

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Nominal Bending Strength of Compact Shapes: Egja S X S I C X

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

53:134 Structural Design II

Iy moment of inertia about the minor y-axis (in.4)

ry radius of gyration about the minor y-axis (in.4)

Nominal Bending Strength of Compact Shapes

buckling) and WLB (web local buckling).

M n = M p ≤ 1.5M y AISC Eq. (F1-1)

If L p < Lb ≤ Lr , inelastic LTB:

If Lb > Lr (slender member), elastic LTB:

M n = M cr ≤ M p AISC Eq. (F1-12)

J.S Arora/Q. Wang 10 BeamDesign.doc

Note that Mcr is a nonlinear function of Lb

distribution over an unbraced length Lb

M A absolute value of moment at quarter point of the unbraced

J.S Arora/Q. Wang 11 BeamDesign.doc

Nominal Bending Strength of Noncompact Shapes

or both, the nominal moment strength will be the smallest of the

M n = M p ≤ 1.5M y AISC Eq. (F1-1)

If L p < Lb ≤ Lr , inelastic LTB:

J.S Arora/Q. Wang 12 BeamDesign.doc

Note that Mn is a linear function of Lb

M n = M cr ≤ M p AISC Eq. (F1-12)

Note that Mcr is a nonlinear function of Lb

If λ p < λ ≤ λr , the flange is noncompact:

Note that Mn is a linear function of λ

If λ p < λ ≤ λr , the web is noncompact:

Note that Mn is a linear function of λ

M cr critical (buckling) moment

J.S Arora/Q. Wang 13 BeamDesign.doc

2. Design for shear (LRFD SPEC F2)

φv resistance factor for shear (0.9)

Vu controlling combination of factored shear

Vn nominal shear strength

Fyw yield stress of the web (ksi)

Aw web area, the overall depth d times the web thickness tw

The design shear strength of unstiffened web is φvVn , where

These are Eqs. (F2-1), (F2-2) and (F2-3) in Chapter F of LRFD

provision of Appendix F2 must be consulted. Note that shear is rarely

J.S Arora/Q. Wang 14 BeamDesign.doc

a problem in rolled steel beams; the usually practice is to design a

beam for flexural and check for shear.

3. Design for serviceability

• Compute the factored load moment M u (required moment

J.S Arora/Q. Wang 15 BeamDesign.doc

b 0.90 LRFD b 1.67 ASD

National Structural Code of the Philippines 6th Edition Volume 1

Table User Note 506.1.1

506.3 NC, S C LTB, FLB

506.4 C, NC, S C, NC Y, LTB, FLB, TFY

506.5 C, NC, S S Y, LTB, FLB, TFY

506.6 C, NC, S N/A Y, FLB

506.7 C, NC, S C, NC Y, FLB, WLB

506.8 N/A N/A Y, LB

506.9 C, NC, S N/A Y, LTB, FLB

506.10 N/A N/A Y, LTB, LLB

506.11 N/A N/A Y, LTB

506.12 Unsymmetrical shapes N/A N/A All limit states

Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines

The nominal flexural strength, M n , shall be the lower E Jc 0.7Fy Sxho

value obtained according to the limit states of yielding Lr 1.95rts 1 1 6.76