Career Development International

Embeddedness and turnover intentions in extra roles: a mixed-methods analysis of the United States
Marine Corp Reserve
Marco DiRenzo, Kathryn Aten, Blythe Rosikiewicz, Jason Barnes, Caroline Brown, Adam Shapiro, Benny Volkmann,
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Marco DiRenzo, Kathryn Aten, Blythe Rosikiewicz, Jason Barnes, Caroline Brown, Adam Shapiro, Benny Volkmann,
(2017) "Embeddedness and turnover intentions in extra roles: a mixed-methods analysis of the United States Marine Corp
Reserve", Career Development International, Vol. 22 Issue: 3, doi: 10.1108/CDI-09-2016-0152
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 Embeddedness in the USMCR

Embeddedness and Turnover Intentions in Extra Roles: A Mixed-Methods Analysis

of the United States Marine Corp Reserve

Abstract

Purpose – This study investigated the drivers of turnover intention in extra roles.

Design/Approach –This mixed-methods study began with a qualitative analysis of interviews of

U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) reservists, which identified drivers of turnover and suggested a

predictive model and hypotheses, tested with a subsequent quantitative analysis.

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Findings – The results show that relations, meaning, and role conflict predict embeddedness in

the USMC Reserve (USMCR), which is negatively related to turnover intentions. Sub-

dimensions of the three drivers are clarified.

Research limitations/implications – The research contributes to understanding the antecedents

of embeddedness and turnover in extra roles. It also highlights extra roles as a source of role

conflict. This study was limited to the USMCR, one extra role. All participants in the qualitative

phase of the study were male officers. Although the quantitative study included enlisted and

officers, men were still more strongly represented. The results should be replicated across

different types of extra roles and should include different job types and personal characteristics.

Originality/value - This study develops and tests a predictive model of embeddedness and

turnover in the understudied context of salient extra-roles. It clarifies antecedents of

embeddedness in an extra role context and indicates that salient extra roles may be an additional

source of role conflict in people's lives.

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 Embeddedness in the USMCR

Embeddedness and Turnover Intentions in Extra Roles: A Mixed-Methods Analysis

of the United States Marine Corp Reserve

Much is known about what drives turnover in organizations. However, organizational

behavior research has generally focused on primary work or home roles and has neglected other

roles in which individuals engage such as volunteer work, second jobs, and community,

religious, and leisure activities. Role scholars acknowledge that most individuals hold three or

more salient roles at any given time (Roccas & Brewer, 2002) and participation in extra roles
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may impact important life decisions (Ashforth, Kreiner, & Fugate, 2000). Further, many

organizations rely on members or employees contributing in an extra role capacity (Kim,

Chelladurai & Trail, 2007). These extra roles may be an additional source of role conflict

affecting individual and organizational well-being (Hambrick, Simmons, Mahoney, 2013;

Simmons, Mahoney & Hambrick, 2016). Extra roles thus deserve greater attention (Kossek,

Ruderman, Braddy, & Hannum 2012). This study extends the literature by examining drivers of

turnover in extra roles through a mixed-methods investigation of turnover intention in the U.S.

Marine Corps Reserve.

A role is the set of activities performed in relation to others in a social group such as a

work organization or a family (Katz & Kahn, 1978). Kahn and colleagues’ (1964) study of the

effect of role ambiguity and conflict on job satisfaction was among the first to explore the

influence of roles in organizational life. Boundary scholars drew from Oldenburg and Brissett’s

(1982) notion of the ‘third place’ to conceptualize roles that exist outside of the primary work

and home domains, highlighting the importance of understanding extra roles (Ashforth et al.,

2000). A salient extra role is a role that is integral to how an individual defines him or herself,

creates social ties with others within the role, and specifies a set of role-related activities, tasks,

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 Embeddedness in the USMCR

and/or duties (Callero, 1985), in which the activities, tasks, and duties are external and additional

to one’s primary work and home roles.

Extra roles are important to organizations and individuals. Many organizations rely on

contributors acting in extra roles. For example reservists make up 38% of the total U.S. military

force (www.marines.com, accessed March, 2017) and 5% of charitable non-profits have no paid

staff, relying on volunteers (https://www.councilofnonprofits.org, accessed December, 2016). At

a personal level, over 7 million Americans hold at least two jobs (Bureau of Labor Statistics,
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2015a). Another 62.5 million Americans engage in volunteer work each year (Bureau of Labor

Statistics, 2015b). According to a 2014 study, 26% of respondents participate in small-group

religious activities on at least a weekly basis (Pew Research, 2014). Finally, many people devote

tremendous time and energy to the pursuit of athletic goals. Over 9 million Americans report

being frequent runners, with over 550,000 individuals dedicating hours of training to complete a

marathon (Running USA, 2014). Similarly, roughly 1 million Americans participate in triathlons

each year, with over three-quarters of these triathletes spending between six and twelve hours per

week training year round (USA Triathlon, 2009).

Although many individuals are engaged in extra roles, organizational behavior research

has largely neglected extra roles (Kossek et al., 2012). There are various types of extra roles

(e.g., volunteer work, second jobs, and leisure and religious activities), which may differ across

characteristics (e.g., paid vs. volunteer, work vs. leisure, etc.). The fact that extra roles are

‘extra,’ however, suggests some similarities. While it is beyond the scope of this study to create a

typology of extra roles, Stebbins’ work on ‘serious leisure’ (1982; 1992) differentiated between

amateurism, hobbyist pursuits, and career volunteering. Although Stebbins did not provide a

comprehensive delineation of extra roles, neglecting for example, second jobs and religious

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 Embeddedness in the USMCR

activities, his studies did show extensive overlap among the motivations for joining and

participating in several types of extra roles. The most prominent of these were rooted in either

self-interest (e.g., personal development or financial gain) and/or public-interest (e.g., altruism,

helping). This suggests there are similarities between the motivations for participating in various

types of extra roles and also between the reasons for exiting. To date though, little research has

specifically focused on the causes of turnover in salient extra roles (Alfes, Shantz & Saksida,

2015; Kim et al., 2007).

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This research examines turnover intentions in the U. S. Marine Corp Reserve (USMCR)

and contributes to the turnover literature in at least three ways. First, this study contributes to

research on turnover by identifying drivers that explain turnover in extra roles. Our analysis

highlights three key categories that appear to drive turnover cognitions in extra roles: relations,

meaning, and role conflict. Additionally, our findings suggest that the embeddedness framework

is particularly relevant to the study of extra roles, which expands understanding of embeddedness

beyond the primary work context and demonstrates the utility of the embeddedness construct for

research on extra roles. Finally, this study contributes to the literature on role theory by showing

that a salient extra role can be an additional source of role conflict that the literature has yet to

fully explain.

This paper is organized following the two phases of the mixed-methods design. After

reviewing the literature and presenting the research design, we describe the methods, analysis,

and findings of the Phase 1 qualitative analysis. Next, we integrate the Phase 1 findings with the

embeddedness construct (Mitchell, Holtom, Lee, Sablynski, & Erez 2001), which was suggested

by the qualitative analysis. Then, we present the predictive model, hypotheses, methods,

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 Embeddedness in the USMCR

analysis, and findings of the Phase 2 quantitative analysis. We conclude with a discussion of the

implications, limitations, and recommendations for further research.

Study Setting

The setting for this study was the USMCR. There are approximately 100,000 dedicated

Marine reservists (https://www.usmcu.edu/historydivision, accessed September, 2016). Marines

can serve as obligors, those who have signed a commitment for a specific period of service, or as

non–obligors, those who serve at their own discretion (Armed Forces Reserve Act, 1952). The
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USMCR includes three categories, Retired Reserve, Standby Reserve, and Ready Reserve. The

Ready Reserve is further divided into the Selected Reserve and the Individual Ready Reserve.

Members of the Selected Reserve are obligated to attend training drills, usually one weekend a

month and two weeks each summer (Department of the Navy, DON, 2009). Participants were

non-obligors from the Selected Reserve (SMCR). These reservists were required to attend

training drills but could end their affiliation with the Marines at their discretion.

Along with reservists, the Marine Reserve includes active duty Marines assigned to the

Reserve to facilitate annual training and mobilization in the role of Inspector and Instructor

(I&I). I&I are responsible for site support, reservist training, and community relations. Reservists

in the SMCR interact frequently with active duty Marines in the I&I role.

The USMCR provided an excellent setting for studying turnover in extra roles. The

motivations for participating in the Reserve are varied (see Volkmann, Shapiro & Barnes, 2014).

Because reservists are paid, some join for financial benefits (e.g., financial gain). Some join to

contribute to the greater good (e.g., altruism) or to gain a sense of fulfillment (e.g., personal

development). Some join because of a sense of calling (e.g., helping). Finally, some reservists

join for the sense of enjoyment that comes from military training (e.g., satisfaction). The

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 Embeddedness in the USMCR

motivations of USMC reservists are representative of the motivations that Stebbins (1982; 1992)

identified for engaging in extra roles. Although Stebbins did not address turnover, reasons for

joining and exiting are likely related, suggesting that the turnover intentions of reservists are

representative of those across other roles.

Research Design

This study utilized a mixed-methods, exploratory-sequential design (Creswell & Clark,

2011; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). The research team included civilian faculty, a PhD student,
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and both Reserve and active duty military officers. In Phase 1 (qualitative analysis), we

employed an inductive approach (Charmaz, 2006; Corbin & Strauss, 2008). We analyzed

interview data to identify drivers of turnover among USMC reservists. Consistent with an

adapted grounded theory approach (Lofland & Lofland, 1995), we then iterated between the data,

emerging themes and existing literature (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). In the final stage of Phase 1,

we compared our findings to extant literature (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Eisenhardt, 1989). We

concluded that there is a strong conceptual fit between our findings and the job embeddedness

construct and integrated our findings with this construct to develop and test a predictive model.

Phase 1—Qualitative Study

Although, with few exceptions (e.g. Alfes et al., 2015; Allen & Meuller, 2013), research

has not given much attention to turnover in extra roles, turnover in primary work roles has held

the attention of scholars for decades (Hom, Lee, Shaw, Hausknecht, in press). This literature

provided sensitizing concepts (Charmaz, 2006; Bowen, 2006), which guided our qualitative

analysis and provided a foundation for comparison of the Phase 1 findings with extant research

(Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Eisenhardt, 1989).

Sensitizing concepts were provided by the most frequently studied theories of attitude-

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 Embeddedness in the USMCR

driven turnover: job satisfaction, organizational commitment, person-organization fit, and job

embeddedness (see Holtom, Smith, Lindsay & Burton, 2014; Hom et al., in press). Job

satisfaction is the extent to which one likes or is content with his/her job (Spector, 1997).

Organizational commitment represents identification with and involvement in an organization

(Porter, Steers, Mowday & Bolian, 1974). Person-organization fit is the compatibility between

person and organization that occurs when entities provide what the other needs and/or the two

share similar fundamental characteristics (Kristof, 1996). Job embeddedness represents “the
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diverse influences that connect a person to a job so that he or she has strong reasons to remain in

that job” (Holtom et al., 2014, p. 398). Additionally, and particularly relevant to this study given

the focus on extra roles, research has also shown that role conflict between work and home roles

may contribute to turnover as well (Amstad, Meier, Fasel, Elfering, & Semmer, 2011).

Data Collection

We analyzed interviews of 30 participants. The interview team included two active duty

military officers and one civilian researcher. We initially conducted six semi-structured

telephone interviews with two current and four former USMC reservists. Because we were

interested in drivers of turnover, we purposefully selected (Lincoln & Guba, 1989) reservists that

had exited the Reserve, identifying them through a snowball sample (Yin, 2011). Initial

participants included one non-commissioned officer1 and five officers ranging from mid to

commanding levels. All participants were men, had served in the Reserve for between 3 and 22

years, and ranged in age from 24 to 45. We asked reservists to describe how they came to join

the Reserve, how their experience in the Reserve met or did not meet their expectations, how

being in the Reserve affected finances and other roles (i.e., home and civilian job), and how they

1 NCOs include Corporals and Sergeants and, while not commissioned (i.e. holding an officer rank), hold leadership positions in the Marine

Corps.

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 Embeddedness in the USMCR

came to leave the Reserve. We followed a written semi-structured interview guide with broad

open-ended questions, but allowed participants to drive the interview. Interviews lasted from 45

to 90 minutes and were recorded and transcribed, resulting in a total of 49 pages of transcribed

text.

We began analyzing the data as we conducted the interviews. The original six

participants contrasted their perspectives with those of their colleagues who were still in the

Reserve, leading us to focus subsequent interviews on current reservists in order to collect data
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on motivations for staying and leaving. Two civilian researchers attended a Reserve training drill

where they interviewed an additional 24 participants. These reservists ranged from low-level to

commanding level officers. All participants were men, had been in the Reserve for 2 to 25 years,

and ranged in age from 24 to 47.

The second round of interviews occurred in quiet spaces during breaks and was focused

on the key themes identified from the initial interviews. These more focused interviews lasted

approximately 30 minutes. Because we interviewed in an active training environment we could

not make recordings. One researcher focused on guiding the interview while the other took

detailed notes. Following each interview, the researchers compared their individual recollections

and reviewed the notes for accuracy. These interviews resulted in 105 pages of typed text.

Data Analysis Approach

We employed a grounded, comparative approach to analyze the data (Corbin & Straus,

2008; Eisenhardt, 1989) using Excel to support our analysis (see Meyer and Avery, 2009). The

researchers who conducted the initial interviews did the initial coding of each of the first six

transcripts beginning with instance-by-instance coding (Charmaz, 2006) using reservists’ own

words as codes and meeting with other team members to review the transcripts and emerging

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 Embeddedness in the USMCR

codes. Following this, we began focused coding, refining the codes through successive passes,

comparing pairs of coded transcripts to each other and our emerging insights, and adding to,

combining, and eliminating codes. This resulted in 79 segments of text from one to ten lines

long, grouped into eight categories (intra-unit relationships, inter-unit relationships, identity,

military activities, impact on career, impact on family, monetary incentives, and education). At

this point, we conducted additional interviews at the training event.

We coded the additional interview notes beginning with the previously identified eight
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categories. We discussed discrepancies until we reached agreement that the codes accounted for

the data and also that no new concepts were emerging. We continued cycling through the data

and discussing our impressions. Through constant comparison of the coded passages to each

other and to the emerging themes, we reduced the eight categories to three final themes.

Exploratory Analysis

Our analysis suggested three key drivers of turnover decisions among reservists:

relationships, meaning, and role conflict. We identified a fourth theme, compensation, which was

not associated with turnover intentions. Positive relationships contributed to desires to stay in the

Reserve, while the absence or reduction of such relationships contributed to desires to turnover.

A sense of meaning contributed to desires to stay, while the absence or reduction of meaning

contributed to intentions to turnover. Finally, perceptions that the Reserve role enhanced one’s

civilian career contributed to desires to stay in the Reserve, but perceptions of conflict between

civilian and Reserve roles and home and Reserve roles contributed to expectations of leaving the

Reserve. Table 1 shows the themes with examples.

--------------------------------

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 Embeddedness in the USMCR

<<Insert Table 1 about here>>

--------------------------------

Relationships. Our analysis suggested that intra-unit and inter-unit relationships

influenced reservists’ turnover intentions. We use intra-unit relationships to reflect the

relationships among fellow members of a reserve unit. In contrast, inter-unit relations represent

relationships between reservists and members of other organizational units, principally the I&I
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staff. As mentioned previously, the I&I staff are active duty support personnel responsible for

assisting and instructing Reserve units.

Intra-unit relationships negatively influenced reservists’ desire to turnover. All

participants mentioned the draw of relationships with their colleagues. One explained, “One of

the coolest things about it is you were able to get to know guys and their families and hang out

with them, go to drill.” Another noted, “You know, the best part about being in the Reserve …

was the dudes that I met there and the times we spent in the field.” Further supporting the

importance of relationships, reservists noted that as colleagues left, their own desires to remain

with the Reserve decreased and the lack of these important relationships contributed to turnover.

As one explained, “Well, I’m with a group of my buddies today, I’ll stick around, but if it’s all

fresh faces, I don’t know if I’ll stay around with them.”

Inter-unit relationships were most frequently a source of frustration. This frustration

seemed to increase as reservists advanced in the USMCR. As one explained, “You know, I don’t

know how many times I reached out to commanders or to some of the staff NCOs [Non-

Commissioned Officers] at various locations and asked them to do something for me, just to

hear, ‘Hey, sir, I’m swamped.’” All reservists who had left the Reserve noted feeling less

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 Embeddedness in the USMCR

respected, or perceived as lesser Marines than those on active duty. As one concluded, “If I had

felt like I got the respect that I rated as a staff sergeant in the Marines, the experience that I had

and everything, I’d probably keep going.”

Meaning. Our analysis suggested that a sense of meaning, derived from identification

with the Marines and opportunities to participate in military work and training, contributed to

desires to stay. Most of the interviewees noted that individuals stay in the Marines because “they

liked being Marines” or “like the idea of being part of the Marine Corps.” As one explained,
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“There’s also…the pride, the honor that goes with service.” Those who had left the Reserve

attributed the decisions of their colleagues who stayed in the Reserve to the importance of being

a Marine to those individuals.

Reservists also derived a sense of meaning from opportunities to be engaged in military

work and training. For example, one reservist explained, “I wanted to do something that was

meaningful.” Another noted, “I knew there was going to be a war and I didn’t want to miss it, so

I joined the Reserve.”

Reduced opportunities for military work and training contributed to intentions to

turnover. One reservist noted reduced opportunity for military work, “No one’s deploying or

anything. I mean, that’s the game and that’s ... kind of [what you] want to go experience.” And,

“[the war] just shuts off and it’s like, ‘My motivation’s gone. What am I doing here?’” Reservists

described military training as personally rewarding and fun and, similarly, noted that reduced

opportunities for military training contributed to turnover, “I kind of see guys that want to go do

things and then we’re lacking the money for it, so they’re not getting what they expected.” This

frustration reduced reservists’ perceptions of their ability to be engaged in purposeful work and

their sense of meaning.

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 Embeddedness in the USMCR

Role Conflict. Our analysis suggested that difficulties balancing the demands of the

Reserve with civilian jobs and family responsibilities also contributed to turnover. Although

some reservists perceived benefits to their civilian careers from their Reserve duties, benefits

seemed to diminish as reservists advanced in their Reserve and civilian careers. For example, one

noted benefits, “I was able to kind of find out what I wanted to do basically for the rest of my

life.” But, “If I was in right now, there’s no way I could do it. My civilian job is different and

I’m just too busy. … It wouldn’t work.”

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The reservists we interviewed described difficulties balancing their Reserve and civilian

duties. For example, many reservists received military-related phone calls and emails throughout

the day while at their civilian jobs. As one explained, “You get emails and phone calls

throughout the day at your civilian job saying, ‘Hey, you need to do this stuff today for the

Marine Corps.’” Another noted, “It [the Reserve] definitely affected my civilian career. I feel

like I spent too much time making my Marine Corps career the focus of my efforts in my life in

general … and I regret it.”

Reservists similarly explained that Reserve demands created conflict at home. One

expressed his frustration, “There’s always something. You know, your family wants to do

something or your kid has something, it’s always on a drill weekend and it just gets old.” All of

the reservists noted that work outside of the drill weekend was required and took time away from

family. Additionally, reservists noted that drills made it difficult to attend family activities such

birthdays and other special occasions. As one explained, “It was like pulling teeth for them to let

me go to my own wedding.”

Monetary Incentives. Reservists did not consider monetary incentives to have a

substantial influence on their decisions to stay in or leave the Reserve. As one explained, “It’s

12
 Embeddedness in the USMCR

definitely not a financial thing. I mean, to stay in the Reserve you’ve just really got to want to be

there.”

Discussion of Phase 1 findings

Through the course of our analysis, we compared our evolving understanding with extant

literature. Ultimately, we found that the three themes we identified: relationships, meaning, and

role conflict, were most congruent with the underlying logic and components of the

embeddedness construct. We briefly summarize this comparative analysis below.

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There was minimal alignment with job satisfaction as many reservists noted enjoying

their work in the Reserve, but nevertheless intended to leave. There was at best moderate

alignment with organizational commitment as reservists expressed some degree of affective

commitment in terms of a sense of pride from being a Marine and normative commitment in the

form of obligation to their peers, but none expressed feeling any obligation to the Marine Corp as

a whole and continuance commitment was irrelevant as reservists explicitly noted that the loss of

financial rewards was inconsequential to their decisions and no other feelings of loss were

discussed. Similarly person-organization fit provided an insufficient framework as it is primarily

concerned with on-the-job fit, whereas issues with off-the-fit were far more salient. Finally, role

conflict was indeed very relevant, but as we elaborate further below, we came to conceptualize

role conflict as a manifestation of off-the-job fit (or lack thereof) and thus integrated it into the

more holistic conceptualization of fit that the embeddedness framework provides.

Phase 2: Hypotheses Development

Mitchell et al. (2001) introduced job embeddedness, which shifted attention from why

people leave organizations to why people stay. Job embeddedness is composed of (1) the fit

between a person’s job and other important facets of life, (2) the links or ties an individual has

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 Embeddedness in the USMCR

with coworkers and institutions, and (3) the personal sacrifice that would need to be made if an

individual were to leave his or her position. The greater the fit, links, and sacrifices associated

with one’s position, the more embedded an individual is in his or her organization. One of the

primary contributions of embeddedness theory has been to recognize the influence of both work

and non-work influences on turnover (e.g., on-the-job fit and off-the-job fit). Hence, job

embeddedness represents a broad constellation of influences that act “like a net or a web in

which an individual can become stuck” (Mitchell et al., 2001, p.1104), which reduces the
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likelihood of voluntary turnover (Crossley, Bennett, Jex, & Burnfield, 2007; Lee, Mitchell,

Sablynski, Burton, & Holtom, 2004) and has been shown to explain unique variance in turnover

beyond traditional determinants such as job attitudes and job alternatives (Jiang, Liu, McKay,

Lee, & Mitchell, 2012; Lee, Burch, & Mitchell, 2014). In line with previous findings in more

traditional contexts, we expect that embeddedness decreases turnover intentions in the Reserve.

Hypothesis 1: Embeddedness is negatively related to turnover intentions in the

Reserve.

The Phase 1 findings suggest that role conflict may contribute to individuals’ decisions to

leave the Reserve. Role conflict occurs when the pressures and expectations of one role are

incompatible with the pressures and expectations of another role (Kahn et al., 1964; Katz &

Kahn, 1978). Inter-role conflict is a specific form of role conflict that arises from membership

and participation in different roles. While the vast majority of research on inter-role conflict has

addressed only the work and home roles, e.g., work-to-home conflict and home-to-work conflict

(Byron, 2005; Casper, Eby, Bourdeaux, Lockwood, & Lambert, 2007) scholars have long noted

that individuals hold multiple other roles concurrently (Burr, 1972; Marks, 1977; Kossek et al.,

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 Embeddedness in the USMCR

2012). Hence, investigations of role conflict across the work–home interface have failed to fully

consider the influence of salient extra roles as an additional source of inter-role conflict.

For instance, individuals serving in the USMCR are confronted with the added

difficulties of functioning effectively in a third, yet very salient, life role (i.e., the Marine

Reserve role). As such, traditional perspectives of work–home conflict, in which time and job

stressors stemming from one’s primary occupation impede functioning and effectiveness at

home, are incomplete representations of the issues reservists encounter when trying to juggle the
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competing demands of their lives. Rather, our exploratory findings suggest that the demands of

the Marine role can often spill over into both the primary (civilian) work role and the home role

to negatively impact the reservist’s ability to meet the demands of these roles and become a

significant source of strain in their lives (Kahn et al., 1964; Maslach, 1982). As such, we propose

two distinct forms of inter-role conflict that arise from this specific extra role - Marine-to-home

conflict (MHC) and Marine-to-civilian work conflict (MWC) - and expect that the extent to

which reservists experience these types of inter-role conflict will have strong influence on their

turnover decisions. More specifically, because experiences of MWC and MHC indicate the

extent to which the Marine role is incompatible with reservists’ other life roles, we suggest that

MWC and MHC represent a lack of fit within this context and will diminish embeddedness in the

Reserve.

Hypothesis 2: Role conflict is negatively related to embeddedness in the Reserve.

Links represents the second component of embeddedness and consists of the formal and

informal connections between the individual and other people and institutions. Within the

Reserve context, our preliminary findings suggest that links may be determined by intra-unit

relations (with other reservists in the unit) and inter-unit relations (with active duty Marine Corps

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 Embeddedness in the USMCR

staff). Active duty staff members serve as representatives of the organization as a whole.

Previous research has noted the influence that perceptions of organizational support have on

motivation and turnover decisions (Maertz, Griffeth, Campbell, & Allen, 2007; Rhoades &

Eisenberger, 2002). Moreover, in much the same way that quality relationships with leaders

(e.g., leader–member exchange) may influence commitment to an organization and

organizational goals (Bauer, Erdogan, Liden, & Wayne, 2006), we can expect the quality of the

relationship between reservists and the active duty staff to be a prominent factor in the degree to
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which individuals feel psychologically tied to the organization.

Our Phase 1 findings also suggest that relationships with fellow reservists play an even

more integral role. The positive effects of constructive relations with co-workers and perceptions

of co-worker support have been well-documented. The expansive literature on teams and team

functioning has repeatedly noted that positive relations among team members can engender

greater commitment, citizenship behavior, and overall satisfaction (Chen, Sharma, Edinger,

Shapiro, & Farh, 2011). Furthermore, fellow reservists serve as a support network and a form of

social and professional capital that can provide career-related and psychosocial support. Our

exploratory findings indicate that reservists often feel a genuine sense of camaraderie and enjoy

not only professional relationships, but extensive personal relationships with one another as well.

These relationships create bonds between unit members and both their fellow reservists and the

USMCR. As such, the strength of these connections increases the psychological links one has

with the organization and further embeds individuals in the USMCR.

Hypothesis 3: Relationships is positively related to embeddedness in the Reserve.

Our Phase 1 analysis also suggests that a sense of meaning is a primary reason that

reservists not only join, but remain tied to the organization. Many reservists derive a great deal of

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 Embeddedness in the USMCR

pride in serving in the USMCR and those reservists who strongly identify with the Marine role

are very committed to the organization. For these reservists, leaving the USMCR would cause

psychological strain as it would entail giving up, or abandoning, a major element of their self-

identity. Relatedly, many reservists also find working for the Marine Corps to be very personally

fulfilling and meaningful. In this way, we suggest that leaving the Reserve for these individuals

would entail great personal sacrifice, the third component of embeddedness.

Sacrifice entails the loss of psychological or material benefits. Although our qualitative
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analysis indicated that material benefits (e.g., financial incentives) play a limited role, retention

decisions appear to hinge on the psychological benefits that individuals attain by serving in the

Reserve. A vast array of research has noted the overwhelming benefits of psychologically

meaningful work on individual motivation and work-based outcomes, including engagement

with one’s work and commitment to the organization (e.g., Dik, Duffy, & Eldridge, 2009;

Halbesleben & Wheeler, 2008; Mowday & Spencer, 1981). Within the context of the Marine

Reserve, our preliminary analysis found that opportunities for meaningful military activities

fostered feelings of purpose and significance for reservists. Hence, leaving the Reserve would

deprive individuals of these unique and meaningful opportunities that they cannot experience

elsewhere.

Moreover, research has also shown that identification with one’s work creates a

psychological attachment to the organization and therefore plays an integral role in career

decisions and one’s desire to remain with his/her organization (e.g., Bothma & Roodt, 2012;

Kraimer, Shaffer, Harrison, & Ren, 2012). Therefore, as previously discussed, leaving the

Reserve would force reservists to break this strong psychological attachment and cost them the

means in which they enact a primary source of their identity. Conversely, if/when reservists are

17
 Embeddedness in the USMCR

not provided sufficient opportunities to engage in meaningful exercises or reservists no longer

identify strongly with the Marine role, the psychological benefits derived from serving in the

USMCR are minimal, and leaving the Reserve entails limited sacrifice.

Hypothesis 4: Meaning is positively related to embeddedness in the Reserve.

Phase 2—Quantitative Analysis

Data and Method

Sample. Emails were sent to all SMCR unit members inviting them to complete an
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online survey. Of the 27,195 sent, 1,758 completed surveys were returned, providing a response

rate of 6.4%. We then restricted the sample to only those reservists for whom turnover decisions

were salient, timely, and plausible. As such, only “non-obligor” reservists were included in the

final sample (N = 570) because non-obligors are no longer required to drill and are afforded the

legal opportunity to voluntarily leave the Reserve in the near term.

We compared participants’ demographic information to the SMCR (Office of the Deputy

Assistant Secretary of Defense, 2014), finding the sample to be representative: 88% male, mean

age and tenure were 36 and 9 years respectively, with approximately 74% married or living with

a spouse/partner. Officers comprised 37.9% and enlisted ranks 62.1% of the sample.

Measures. With the exception of military training opportunities and intra/inter-unit

relations, all constructs were measured using existing scales, adapted to reflect the Marine role

(e.g., replacing “my organization” with “the USMCR”). Scales for military training opportunities

and intra/inter-unit relations were created for this study with the help of subject matter experts

(officers from the Marine, Marine Reserve, Navy SEAL, Navy Surface Warfare, and Navy

Supply Corp communities) and pilot tested on both active duty and Reserve officers in the

United States Navy and Marine Corp. All items were assessed on five-point Likert-type scales.

18
 Embeddedness in the USMCR

Meaning was assessed across two dimensions: Marine identity salience and military

training opportunities. Role identity salience is the subjective importance that an individual

attaches to each of multiple role identities (Stryker, 1987; Thoits, 1992). We adapted three items

from Kanungo (1982) to measure Marine role salience. A sample item includes “To me, the

Marine Reserve is only a small part of who I am” (reverse scored). Three items were created for

this study to assess military training opportunities based. A sample item includes “I currently get

to do many enjoyable training exercises in the USMCR”.

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Relationships was assessed across two dimensions representing “inter-unit” relations with

the active duty Marine Corps staff (I&I) and “intra-unit” relations with fellow reservists in their

unit. Three items were created to address each dimension. Sample items include inter-unit: “The

I&I staff interacts with me in a professional manner”, intra-unit: “There is a genuine sense of

camaraderie among the reservists in my unit”.

Role conflict was assessed across two dimensions to represent interference/conflict

stemming from the Marine Reserve role into the home and civilian-work roles, respectively.

Eight items (four per dimension) were adapted from scales developed by Netemeyer, Boles, and

McMurrian (1996). Sample items include marine-to-home conflict (MHC): “The demands of my

Marine Reserve role interfere with my home and family life”, marine-to-work conflict (MWC):

“The demands of my Marine Reserve role interfere with work-related activities”.

Embeddedness was measured with the seven-item global embeddedness scale (Crossley

et al., 2007), adapted to reference the USMCR. A sample item reads “I am tightly connected to

the USMCR”.

Turnover Intention was measured with two items created for this study, “How likely are

you to leave the SMCR at the end of your current obligation” and “How likely are you to re-

19
 Embeddedness in the USMCR

affiliate in the SMCR once your current contract expires?” (reverse scored). ‘Affiliate’ is military

terminology for signing a new contract (i.e., re-enlisting) in the Reserve.

Control variables. We controlled for rank, age, sex, and marital status due to their

potential impact on the independent and dependent variables.

Analysis and Results

Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics and intercorrelations. We used structural equation

modeling (SEM) with AMOS 23. Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) (Browne
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& Cudeck, 1993), comparative fit index (CFI) (Bentler, 1980), and standardized root mean

square residual (SRMR) (Hu & Bentler, 1999) were used to assess model fit. Despite concerns

over the usefulness of the chi-square goodness of fit statistic (Hu & Bentler, 1999; MacKenzie,

Podsakoff, & Podsakoff, 2011), we nevertheless also report chi-square values as they are

conventionally used to provide a statistical basis for comparison of competing models (c.f.

Mathieu & Taylor, 2006).

--------------------------------------------

<<Insert Tables 2 & 3 about here>>

------------------------------------------

Measurement model. We conducted CFA to assess the structure of the measures. Higher

order latent constructs were created for meaning, relationships, and role conflict. This five-factor

model fit the data relatively well, with fit indices indicating both acceptable and excellent fit

(χ²(334) = 1056.7, p < .001, CFI = .93, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .07) (c.f., MacKenzie et al.,

2011; Mathieu & Taylor, 2006). Results of chi-square difference tests indicated that the five-

factor model exhibited significantly better fit than a four-factor model with the embeddedness

and turnover intention (reverse scored) items loaded onto one latent construct (∆χ²(4) = 167.7, p

20
 Embeddedness in the USMCR

< .001) and a three-factor model with all items for the independent variables loaded onto a single

latent construct (∆χ² (7) = 365.5, p < .001).

Convergent and discriminant validity

All items loaded above the conventional cut-off value of .60 (Chin, 1998) indicating

adequate item reliability. Table 3 shows the construct (composite) reliabilities, average variance

extracted (AVE; Fornell & Lacker, 1981), and the square root of the AVE, with values indicating

adequate convergent and discriminant validity (Chin, 1998; Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Taken
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together, the analysis of measurement model fit and the convergent and discriminant validity

tests provide strong support for retaining the five-factor model for further analysis.

Structural model. Results of the structural model are summarized in Figure 1. The

structural model fit the data relatively well (χ²(403) = 1103.4, CFI = .94, RMSEA = .05, SRMR

= .06). Additionally, because this model is supported by existing theory pertaining to

embeddedness and the findings reported in Phase 1, it was retained for hypothesis testing.

Hypothesis 1 was supported as embeddedness was negatively related to intentions to leave the

Selected Marine Corps Reserve (β = -.48, p < .001). Hypotheses 2–4 were also supported as role

conflict (β = -.16, p < .01), relationships (β = .12, p < .05), and meaning (β = .56, p < .001) were

all significantly related to embeddedness. These findings support our conceptualization that

conflict, relationships, and meaning comprise a profile of embeddedness in the USMCR and play

integral roles in reservists’ turnover decisions.

--------------------------------------------

<<Insert Figure 1 about here>>

------------------------------------------

Discussion

21
 Embeddedness in the USMCR

This study makes several contributions to the literature. It identifies drivers that explain

turnover in extra roles, while also expanding our understanding of embeddedness beyond the

primary work context. Further, it shows that salient extra roles can be an additional source of role

conflict that impact functioning in people’s lives.

Empirical evidence has shown the predictive validity of embeddedness across many

contexts, including the military (Holtom et al., 2014; Ramesh & Gelfand, 2010; Smith, Holtom,

& Mitchell, 2011), yet to our knowledge no studies have investigated embeddedness within the
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context of extra roles, or more specifically the Reserve. Scholars continue to call for research on

embeddedness in new and emerging contexts in order to develop profiles for the criteria that

comprise embeddedness’ sub-dimensions (i.e., fit, links, and sacrifice) across varying contexts

(Lee et al., 2014). Despite a burgeoning literature with regard to the outcomes associated with

embeddedness, comparatively few studies have concerned its antecedents. Hence, the qualitative

study conducted in Phase 1 presented preliminary findings into the Reserve-context profile, with

the ensuing hypotheses and quantitative analysis confirming these relationships.

As such, this study also provides a useful starting point from which to cultivate continued

research on extra roles. Specifically, the profile of embeddedness presented in this study offers a

suitable framework to apply across other types of extra roles. Research should address the extent

to which this profile (conflict, relationships, meaning) generalizes across other extra role

contexts, while further refining understanding of the influence of extra roles on turnover and also

on people’s functioning in primary work and home roles.

Similarly, while most studies of embeddedness address the on-the-job component, only a

few investigate the off-the-job component (Lee et al., 2014). Ng and Feldman (2007, 2012)

extended embeddedness to careers and the work-life interface by incorporating both

22
 Embeddedness in the USMCR

organizational and community aspects of embeddedness, suggesting the need to better

understand embeddedness’ association with negative predictors and consequences (e.g., role

conflict). Our study not only attends to this need, but has implications for the development of

role theory as well. This study has demonstrated that extra roles may be an additional source of

conflict and strain in people’s lives. Hence, it has introduced extra role-to-work and extra role-to-

home as forms of inter-role conflict (and presumably enrichment) on which future research may

build in a number of ways. First, scholars might investigate role conflict with regard to other
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salient roles, such as second jobs and various extramural organizations, in a similar fashion as

discussed above regarding embeddedness. Or, research might incoporate salient extra roles into

the emerging research on boundary management (e.g., Ashforth et al., 2000; Hecht & Allen,

2009; Powell & Greenhaus, 2010). Promising research has begun regarding the extent to which

individuals segment or integrate work and home roles (Kossek et al., 2012). The inclusion of

extra roles into this branch of role theory offers a more holistic, and decidedly more complex,

avenue for continued research on how individuals manage and negotiate the boundaries of

competing roles across the whole-life space.

This study has a number of practical implications as well. Our findings suggest that

organizations relying on contributors acting in extra roles should focus on how to better embed

these contributors in their organizations. Our research suggests that monetary rewards are fairly

inconsequential to extra role contributors and that generating meaningful experiences and

relationships are paramount to their retention. Hence, organizations should facilitate meaningful

contributions from those in extra roles and provide opportunities for social interactions and

personal development. Further, organizations with both individuals participating in extra and

primary roles should take steps to minimize conflicts between these groups. Human resources

23
 Embeddedness in the USMCR

managers in organizations that rely on both primary and extra role contributors should consider

how the tasks and status of each group differ and should work to create an organizational culture

that recognizes and encourages the contributions of each. Finally, organizations that rely on

those in extra roles should acknowledge the impact participation in extra roles may have on other

roles, particularly the home role, and take steps to actively help individuals manage their role

boundaries effectively.

Limitations
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Although this study makes a number of valuable contributions, several limitations should

be noted. As is typical of exploratory studies, we interviewed a limited number of participants in

the first phase of the study and only officers and men. It is possible that enlisted personnel and

women might experience, in particular, role conflict differently than did the male officers we

interviewed. Although the second phase of the study included both women and enlisted

personnel, both phases were limited to a single context. While this tight scope limited potential

noise, further research should identify and differentiate between types of extra roles. The

findings of this study should be replicated in different extra role contexts and with more diverse

populations.

Additionally, despite the strong sample size, the quantitative analysis was conducted on

cross-sectional, self-report data which limits our ability to make causal inferences regarding the

proposed relationships and presents some concerns over common method. Future research

should attempt to use either longitudinal designs and/or objective measures of turnover to

replicate our findings with added validity. Additionally, this study did not distinguish effects

across the three different dimensions of embededdness. Although we deemed this appropriate

due to the exploratory nature of this study, future research should build from this work to

24
 Embeddedness in the USMCR

develop either context-specific measures or a measure that is more applicable to the extra role

context and can be easily adapted across specific types of extra roles.

Finally, future research should seek to delineate among the varying characteristics and

types of extra roles. We suggest that a particular strength of this study is that motivations for

joining the Marine Reserve are representative of many of the motivations for participating in

other types of extra roles (e.g., self-interest vs. public-interest, work vs. play, financial reward vs.

satisfaction). Because reservists’ motivations for serving represent each of these competing
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drivers, this research provides a fairly generalizable foundation from which research can be

enhanced. But, the proliferation of research will be greatly aided by in-depth comparative

analyses, which can be used to establish a typology of extra role types. This study offers a step in

that direction. Future work specifically focused on delineating characteristics among varying

extra role types will facilitate the exploration of extra roles and the interpretation of future

findings.

Conclusion

This study shed light on the value and applicability of the embeddedness framework to

organizations other than one’s primary job. Perhaps one of the greatest attributes of the

embeddedness framework lies in its capacity to provide a useful framework with which to study

turnover in multiple contexts. There is tremendous potential for future research to expand the

embeddedness framework by applying it to a variety of extra role organizations and pursuits such

as volunteer work, community organizations, religious/spiritual affiliations, and/or hobbies. This

study adds to this literature by developing a profile of embeddedness in the USMCR context, but

we echo the call of Lee et al. (2014) to continue exploration and refinement of the specific

contributors to embeddedness across contexts.

25
 Embeddedness in the USMCR

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Table 1: Influencers of Retention Decisions

Present/positive Absent/negative
One of the coolest things about it is you were able It gets to the point where once your buddies leavethen the
to get to know guys and their families and hang out new guys start coming in and then you start picking up a stripe
with them, go to drill here and there, it kind of loses the fun factor.
Intra-unit relationships You know, the best part about being in the One of the factors that might have kept me in was if a lot of
reserveswas the dudes that I met there. those other guys would have stayed in too

Well, if I’m with my buddies, I’ll stick around but if it’s all fresh faces, I don’t know if I’ll stay. Relationships
“if I had felt like I got the respect that I rated as a staff
sergeant in the Marines, the experience that I had and
Inter-unit relationships everything, I’d probably keep going.”
I just felt like we weren’t shown the respect that was due for the
experience level that our Marines had.”
There’s also, of course, the intangible side, the
pride, the honor that goes with service.
Identity guys that stayed just liked being Marines.
They [that stay] like the idea of being part of the
Marine Corps.
“I didn't have a career in mind but I wanted to do I think they are still joining with the possibility of going to war
something that was meaningful.” and then, you know, they get three years into it and then it just
shuts off and it’s like, “My motivation’s gone. What am I doing
here?” Meaning
I knew there was going to be a war and I didn’t want No one’s deploying or anything. I mean, that’s the game and
to miss it that’s...[you] want to go experience that.”
As long as it’s fun I’ll stay there. I wasn’t having a whole lot of fun anymore.
Military activities
I got to do what I wanted to do with the Marines and You guys are giving us new gear, but you’re not giving us any
get that training training on how to use it, so it’s pressuring when you tell me,
hey, set up the, you know, high performance [wave phone]
network. Well, I don’t know how to use the damn radio that
uses it, so how do you expect me to use that?
Guyswant to go do things and then we’re lacking the money
for it, so they’re not getting what they expected.

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Table 1: Influencers of Retention Decisions, cont.

Positive Negative
I was able to kind of find out what I wanted to do It definitely affected my civilian career. I feel like I spent too
basically for the rest of my life. much time making my Marine Corps career the focus of my
efforts in my life in general and I regret it.
Well, with the reserves and what really attracted me If I was in right now, there’s no way I could do it. My civilian
about it was you’re not tied down to it, if you will, to job is different and I’m just too busy. I really couldn’t be in
the extent that you can go to school and you can right now. It wouldn’t work.
Impact on civilian career have another career and you can really find your
niche in the world.
Those guys have, in general, you know, in The other thing is that I had a full–time job and I, you know,
aggregate, have a lot higher level of practical life moved into a management position in 2011, so my job
experience and education. became a lot more demanding.
I didn't want to travel, because that was the biggest thing for
me was for me to be here for my family and my career.” Role Conflict
There’s always something. You know, you’re family wants to
do something or your kid has something, it’s always on a drill
weekend and it just gets old.
Drill becomes so much of a burden at that point, you know,
that when family stuff is coming up and everything, you finally
Impact on family go, “Okay, I can—I’ve done my time. I can be done with it,
you know.”
It was like pulling teeth for them to let me go to my own
wedding.
I had a daughter in March and so a lot of focus was on the
family, that helped seal the deal of influencing me to get out.”
Neutral/no effect
I don’t think I’ve ever really heard any of them tell me that they’ve done it just for the money or some other benefit.
He just really loves being there, so reenlisting for him, I think he even got a little bit of a bonus, but reenlisting for him
was a no–brainer.
Monetary incentives
So it’s definitely not a financial thing. I mean, to stay in the reserves you’ve just really got to want to be there, and
Compensation
that’s the bottom line, because there’s really no financial benefits or health care benefits. There’s really nothing other
than just wanting to be there.
Guys graduating from college finish up their contract and, I mean, they’ve got their full–time jobs, you know, laid out,
Education
so they just leave the Marine Corps Reserves behind.

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Table 2
Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations
Variable M SD 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
1. Rank 10.97 5.92

2. Age 35.36 7.52 .58**

3. Sex 1.06 .23 .01 -.03

4. Marital Status 1.22 .42 -.20** -.24** .04

5. Turnover Intention 2.21 1.35 -.01 .03 .04 -.07

6. Embeddedness 3.29 1.09 -.11** .03 -.07 .01 -.38**

7. Inter-unit Relations 3.54 .88 .15** .14** .03 -.07 -.19** .17**

8. Intra-unit Relations 4.21 .75 .12** .18** -.06 -.04 -.18** .35** .25**

9. Military Activities 3.25 1.03 .25** .23** .02 -.04 -.21** .31** .34** .34**

10. Marine Identity 2.61 1.00 -.14** -.03 -.03 .11* -.22** .54** .12** .26** .29**

11. MHC 3.37 .95 .19** .17** -.07 -.16** .22** -.20** -.23** -.04 -.12** -.21**

12. MWC 3.07 .97 .14** .09* -.03 -.01 .16** -.20** -.26** -.11* -.13** -.23** .67**

N=570.
*p < .05; **p < .01.
Note: sex: (male = 1, female = 2), marital status: 1 = not married/living with partner, 2 = married/living with partner.

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Table 3
Convergent and Discriminant Validity

Average Variance Internal Square Root

Extracted Consistency of AVE
Turnover Intention 0.69 0.8 0.83
Embeddedness 0.59 0.89 0.75
Relations 0.56 0.71 0.75
Intra-unit Relations 0.70 0.87 0.84
Inter-unit Relations 0.62 0.82 0.79
Mean 0.63 0.77 0.79
Military Activities 0.71 0.83 0.84
Marine Identity 0.58 0.73 0.76
Role Conflict 0.73 0.84 0.92
MHC 0.70 0.92 0.84
MWC 0.68 0.91 0.82

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 Figure 1. Structural Model
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Inter
unit .58**

Relations
Intra .70**
unit .12*

Marine .96**
Identity .56** -.48** T
Meaning Embeddedness
I
Military .65**
Activities

-.16**
MHC .98**
Role
Conflict
.71**
MWC

*Note. Control variables and the item indicators for the six dimensions not shown.