Bayu Getachew

CONCRETE BRIDGE MAINTENANCE
Bayu Getachew Azmera
A Thesis Submitted to School of Graduate Studies of Addis Ababa University presented in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science (School of Civil And Environmental Engineering)
Addis Ababa University
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
May 2013
By Bayu Getachew Page I

Addis Ababa University
School of Graduate studies

This is to certify that the thesis prepared by Bayu Getachew, entitled: Concrete Bridge maintenance
and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Degree of Master of Science
(School of Civil And Environmental Engineering) complies with the regulations of the University and
meets the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality.
Signed by the Examining Committee:
Dr. Bikela Teklu
Chairman, Department Signature Date
Dr. Asnake Adamu
Advisor Signature Date
Dr. Ing. Adil Zekaria
Internal Examiner Signature Date
Dr. Ing. Girma Zerayohannes
External Examiner Signature Date
By Bayu Getachew Page II

DECLARATION
I, the undersigned, hereby declare that this thesis titled “concrete bridge maintenance” is my original
work carried out under the supervision of Dr. Asnake Adamu. It has not been presented as a thesis in
any other university and all source of material used for this thesis are duly acknowledged.
Bayu Getachew
Candidate Signature Date
This is to certify that the above declaration made by the candidate is correct to the best of my
knowledge.
Dr. Asnake Adamu
Advisor Signature Date
By Bayu Getachew Page III

Acknowledgement
The completion of this research be impossible without generous help and unstoppable advice from the
following remarkable people.
First, I am very much grateful to my advisor Dr. Asnake Adamu, lecturer of AAiT; who played a decisive role
in my academic and professional development. His continues advice, guidance, and valuable suggestion as well
as his unreserved encouragement in providing the directions to work hard broaden my views and expanded my
interests.
And also I would like to extend my heart gratitude and sincere appreciation to Ato Girma Worku, head of
bridge department in Ethiopian road authority for his continuous assistance, suggestions, and follow up to
complete my thesis work.
Tank you!
Bayu Getachew
May, 2013
By Bayu Getachew Page I

ABSTRACT
So far, the usual practice in Ethiopia to maintain concrete structures is simply plastering and masking
the defects (ugly looking) without considering the structural aspect of the structure. But such activities
should not be called maintenance unless the overall condition of the concrete structure is regained
through the task accomplished. When the defects or a failure of the concrete structure is a bit
exaggerated, demolishing and reconstruction was the best option and was practiced so far.
In concrete bridge failures, reconstruction of the structure instead of rehabilitation for every defect or
failure is very difficult in terms of money and construction. That is the amount of money involved for
reconstruction of bridge is much and very expensive. In addition closing of the road may interrupt
traffic flow, which has significant impact on the economy of the country especially when the bridge is
on the federal road. So rehabilitation or maintenance of concrete bridges become very crucial and
mandatory to stop failure of bridges before reaching their design period and to avoid unnecessary
expense to construct a new bridge instead of maintaining and lengthen the service life of the bridge.
Proper design and construction does not mean that the bridge will serve about its design life. Because
lack of inspection and controlling with minor rehabilitation may make the bridge to fail before serving
to its maximum capacity. So monitoring, inspection, and maintenance of every concrete bridge have to
be done starting from construction day before failure, which leads to erection or construction of a very
expensive new bridge.
Unlike the practice we used to do before, concrete bridge rehabilitation techniques, materials and
procedures are burning and crucial issue now a day, being many of the bridges are reaching about their
design life and need rehabilitation before failure. Considering the urgency of the issue, the universities
in particular and the country in general with the respective parties have to think of the problem and
participate on provision of possible solutions. Although not satisfactory or to the requirement of the
country, Ethiopian Road Authority (ERA) in collaboration with Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA) has maintained some bridges within the last five to eight years.
Concrete bridge maintenance is not an easy task, because regaining the overall condition especially the
structural strength of concrete bridge by simple plastering is difficult. So the use of different
admixtures (modifying agents), additives (fine mineral powers) and epoxies is mandatory following the
procedures and specifications given by the suppliers. At this time there are many suppliers for the construction
company involved in maintenance or construction.
Considering the importance of concrete bridge rehabilitation on a national base currently, this study has done to
address the basic defects, causes of defects, materials for maintenance and possible techniques and procedures
of rehabilitation. It has also given some idea about rehabilitation, so that the respective sectors and researchers
can have an assignment on the issue for further investigation and work.
By Bayu Getachew Page II

Table of contents Page

Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………… I
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………. II
Table of contents……………………………………………………………………………III
1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………..1
1.1 Background…………………………………………………………………………….. 1
1.2 Objective of the study…………………………………………………………………. 2
1.3 Scope of the thesis…………………………………………………………………….. 3
1.4 What is in the thesis………………………………………………………………….... 3
2 REVIEW OF BRIDGE DEFECTS AND THEIR CAUSES………………………….4

2.1 Inventory of Bridges…………………………………………………………………….….4
2.1.1 Inventory of bridges……………………………………………………………….. 4
2.1.2 Defect inspection………………………………………………………………….. 6
2.1.2.1 General…………………………………………………………………………….. 6
2.1.2.2 Standard Procedures of Inspection………………………………………………… 9
2.1.2.3 Defects and damage……………………………………………………………….. 10
2.1.2.4 Super structure…………………………………………………………………….. 11
2.1.2.5 Sub structure………………………………………………………………………. 11
2.1.2.6 Miscellaneous structural elements………………………………………………… 11
2.1.2.7 Channel, inlet and outlet…………………………………………………………… 11
2.1.3 Defects rating system……………………………………………………………….11
2.2 Defects of Concrete Structures……………………………………………………. 12
2.2.1 Cracking………………………………………………………………………….... 13
2.2.2 Peel off, Delaminating & Void……………………………………………………. 14
2.2.3 Honey Comb……………………………………………………………………….. 15
2.2.4 Spoiling, Scaling & Wearing………………………………………………………. 16
2.3 Causes of Concrete Defects………………………………………………………….16
2.3.1 General…………………………………………………………………………….. 16
2.3.2 Concrete Cracking…………………………………………………………………. 18
2.3.3 Concrete Peel off, Delaminating & Void…………………………………………. 18
2.3.4 Concrete Honey Comb…………………………………………………………….. 19
2.3.5 Concrete Spoiling, Scaling & Wear……………………………………………….. 20
2.4 Other Defects and their Causes……………………………………………………. 21
2.4.1 Scouring and Erosion ………………………………………………………….….. 21
2.4.1.1 Erosion and Scour- Impacts on Foundations ……………………………………… 23
2.4.1.2 Causes for Scouring……………………………………………………………………… 24
By Bayu Getachew Page III

2.4.2 Water Leakage and Deteriorations ……………………………………………….. 25

2.4.2.1 Causes of Water Leakage and Deteriorations ………………………………………….25
2.4.3 Concrete Deck – Slab and Pier Columns Deterioration and Repair Methods …………… 26
2.4.3.1 Causes of Deterioration …………………………………………………………….. 26
2.4.4 Rust Treatment of Concrete Reinforcing Bar ….…………………………………...... 26
2.4.4.1 Causes of Rust ……………………………………………………….…………….. 26
3 MATERIALS FOR REPAIR……………………………………………………………….... 28

3.1 General…………………………………………………………………………………………...28
3.2 What is Concrete Structure……………………………………………………………………...28
3.3 Concrete Repairing Materials…………………………………………………………………...29
3.4 The Trend or Practice in Ethiopia………………………………………………………………29
3.5 Materials for Repairing of Large Defects or Cracks……………………………………………29
3.6 Materials for Repairing of Small Defects or Cracks………………………………………….... .29
3.7 Crack Sealing Materials for Injection…………………………………………………………... 30
3.8 Materials for bonding……………………………………………………………………………31
4 METHODS OF REPAIR AND REHABILITATION………………………………33

4.1 General……………………………………………………………………………………... 33
4.1.1 Removal of Concrete……………………………………………………………… 33
4.1.2 Surface Cleaning………………………………………………………………….. 33
4.1.3 Substrate Preparation……………………………………………………………… 33
4.1.4 Repairing Material Application…………………………………………………… 33
4.2 Repairing Methods for Concrete Structures Cracks……………………………………… 33
4.2.1 General……………………………………………………………………………………...33
4.2.2 Stitching with reinforcement steel pins bonded with epoxy resin………………………. 37
4.2.3 Injection with flexible filler……………………………………………………………… 38
4.2.4 Injection with rigid epoxy filler…………………………………………………………… 39
4.2.5 Caulking using cements grout or epoxy filler…………………………………………….. 40
4.3 Repairing Method for Concrete Peel off, Delaminating and Void……………………….. 41
4.3.1 Concrete Void filling by dry-pack mortar…………………………………………………. 43
4.3.2 Concrete Void repair by port land cement………………………………………………… 44
4.4 Repair method for concrete structure honey comb……………………………………….. 46
4.5 Repair method for concrete spoiling, scaling and wear…………………………………… 47
4.6 Other defects repair methods…………………………………………………………..……49
4.6.1 Scouring and erosion…………………………………………………………………….….49
4.6.1.1 Repair Methods for Scouring……………………………………………………………….49
4.6.2 Water leakage and deteriorations…………………………………………………………...53
4.6.2.1 Repair by coating using Acrylic polymer………………………………………………….. 53
4.6.2.2 Repair by grouting using portal cement…………………………………………………..54
4.6.3 Concrete deck-slab and pier column deterioration and repair method……………………. 55
4.6.3.1 Repair of concrete deck-slab by removing and casting of concrete……………………….. 55
By Bayu Getachew Page IV

4.6.4 Repair of pier columns-Encasing…………………………………………………………...55

4.6.5 Practical example of deck repair on Awash River Bridge…………………………….……56
4.6.6 Concrete reinforcing steel rust treatment…………………………………………...………57
4.6.7 Repair of rust re-bars…………………………………………...............................……… 57
4.6.8 Mortar mix and plastering works………………………...............................……………. 59
4.6.9 General…………………………………………………...............................……………. 59
4.6.10 Plastering work for concrete defect repair……………………………………..........……. 60
4.6.11 Surface defects repair……………………………………........................................……. 60
4.6.11.1.1 Patching repair…………………………………………………………….………..…..61
4.6.11.1.2 Gunite (shotcrete) repair……………………………………………..…………………63
5 CURRENT DEFECT REPAIR PRACTICE IN ETHIOPIA…………………67

5.1 Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………..67
5.2 Sodo District, Kulfo Bridge Rehabilitation work…………………………………………. 69
5.2.1 Materials used for repair………………………………………………………….. 70
5.2.2 Honey comb repair work………………………………………………………….. 73
5.2.3 Repair work of hole on deck slab…………………………………………………. 74
5.2.4 Cracks Repair Work………………………………………………………………. 77
5.3 Debre Markos District, Kulech Wonz Bridge Repair…………………………………..… 79
5.3.1 Materials used for repair…………………………………………………………… 79
5.3.2 Timberbada bridge peel off, rebar exposure maintenance………………………… 81
5.3.3 Kulich wonz bridge RC. Deck girder crack……………………………………….. 83
6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION…………………………………………….84

6.1 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………………….84
6.2 Recommendations………………………………………………………………………….…..85
References…………………………………………………………………………………………..86
By Bayu Getachew Page V

1 INTRODUCTION
This study addresses the increasing needs of skill upgrading trainings on bridge maintenance which is
not available in universities or higher technical institutions learning in the country. Conducting this
research study is found necessary in order to make simple application of the methods considering the
local condition by incorporating international maintenance methods and materials that can be available
in the country. In addition, it is intended to make it friendly applicable and usable for contractors,
consultants, and other interested users.
This research outlines simple guide and procedure (including identification and selection of materials
available) for practicing engineers involving in the repair and maintenance of concrete bridges, and
could be useful reference document for researchers and students interested in the subject.
The study shall focus on maintenance of concrete bridges which is dominant defect type occurring in
constructed concrete works.
Since bridge structures suffer various kinds of deterioration and defects, many kinds of rehabilitation
and strengthening methods have been considered.
In the light of the above, this thesis shall address the following,
 Defects of concrete structure

 Causes of defects
 Material selection and Repairing
methods
1.1 Background
In 60 years of Ethiopian Roads Authority history, never before as today the need for bridge asset
management and maintenance has acquired attention. This calls for careful assessments of the long
stayed problems and provision of an urgent action to establishing bridge database, updating, and
inspection, prioritization for rehabilitation or maintenance.
Many bridges in Ethiopia have attained about design period, as most are constructed 40-70 years ago.
Others have suffered abuse by unscrupulous (ignorant) transporters who overload or move over-height
containers. As a result, the structures exhibit cracks and deterioration leaving the steel rebar in most
cases exposed to aggressive climatic conditions.
Exposed rebar consequently rust and this could easily result in premature failure of the structure. Even
in cases where failure does not occur, the safe use of the structure cannot be guaranteed.
By Bayu Getachew Page 1

Often under these circumstances, the first and the simplest option is to demolish and reconstruct the
structure. However demolition and replacing is very expensive. Besides, there is great inconvenience
to road users due to closure of the road while undertaking new construction.
Thus, maintaining and rehabilitation of existing bridges is a better option provided the relevant
strength requirements are satisfied. In this aspect tackling the problems, a number of construction
chemicals suppliers advertise wide variety of concrete repair products to meet the needs of all kinds of
repair situations, indicating availability for use.
A concrete structure is expected to retain the required levels of its functions during the intended
service life. Thus, concrete structure shall retain structural performance over the required levels with
adequate reliability during the design service life. Consequently, in order to keep the performance
always above and to its required level, the adequate maintenance should be indispensable or necessary
for most concrete structures.
The basic policies of the bridge maintenance consist of the following concepts. [1]
1) The maintenance procedure

consists of initial inspection, deterioration prediction, inspection evaluation, judgment,
remedial measures, and recording.
2) Maintenance in the structure’s
service life need be considered from planning/design to the end of service life
3) Performance based concept is
introduced in accordance with the international trend of Codes.
4) Categories of maintenance are
defined, with considering engineers activities, which includes various repair option with
respect to durability, cost effective, and causes minimum disruption to traffic, in addition to
complying with the increasingly stringent environmental regulation.
Bridge rehabilitation can be much more involving than designing and constructing a new bridge. Due
to the fact that lack of experience in bridge maintenance works, many professionals tend to
recommend bridge replacement. This option calls usually for tremendous amount of budget and
interruption of traffic flow and should be the last option.
Currently as an output of BMS bridge prioritization, significant numbers of bridges are proposed for
improvement after conducting a detailed investigation. Following this effort, ERA, has allocated
considerable amount of budget dedicated to bridge improvement works.
1.2 Objective of The Study

The objective of this research is:
 To identify the basic and most
common defects of concrete structures, in general and our country in particular.

 To identify the causes of their

defects.
 To propose methods of selecting
suitable material and recommendations of maintenance procedure.
1.3 Scope of The Thesis

The thesis encompasses concrete bridges from failure to maintenance. But the special attention of the
thesis is towards the materials and procedures for maintenance.
In this thesis you will find
 Different parts of concrete bridges
 Defects of different parts and causes of defects
 Maintenance techniques or procedures of defect maintenance.
 Materials involved for maintenance
So, this thesis attempts to address procedures of concrete bridge maintenance with materials involved
on national bases.
1.4 What is In This Thesis

The thesis has five chapters, which each section representing distinct phase of an overall bridge
maintenance program.
 Chapter one addresses introductory and background information on the maintenance of bridges
as well as the scope and objective of the thesis.
 Inventory procedure and corresponding inspections for defects are very important for
maintenance; in this regard inventory, inspection and causes of defects are dealt in chapter two.
 The materials involved for maintenance are addressed in chapter three.
 The basic concern of this thesis is to give ideas about maintenance and rehabilitation of
concrete bridges, which is discussed in chapter four.
 Finally conclusions and possible recommendations are covered in chapter five.

2 REVIEW OF BRIDGE DEFECTS AND THEIR CAUSES

2.1 Inventory of Bridges
2.1.1 Inventory of Bridges
Bridge inventory is a procedure where data and general information about a bridge is gathered which
is essentially not subjected to change unless a mistake exist in the first data entry. As a minimum the
following information are recorded for each bridge. [4]
1) Structure number: The official number assigned to the structure by the bridge owner
2) Name: The full name of the bridge. Other common names by which it is known may be placed
in parenthesis following the official names
3a) Year built: Year of original construction
3b) Year of reconstruction: The years during which major reconstruction or widening occurred
4) Highway system: State whether or not the bridge is located on Federal Aid System. Describe
the types of Federal Aid System and show the route number where applicable.
5) Location: Location of the bridge must be sufficiently described so that it can be readily
spotted on a map or found in the field. Normally the bridge should be located by route number,
county and log mile.
6) Description of structure: Briefly give all relevant data concerning the type of structure.
Include the type of super structure for both main and approach spans, the type of piers and type
of abutment along with their foundations. If the bridge is on piles, the type of piles should be
stated. If data is available, indicate type soil up on which footings are founded, maximum
bearing pressures, and pile capacities.
7) Skew: The skew angle is the angle between the center line of a pier and a line normal to the
road way center line. Normally the skew angle will be taken from the plans and it is to be
recorded to the nearest degree. If no plans are available, the angle should be measured,
computed or estimated. If the skew angle is zero degree, it should so stated.
8) Spans: The number of spans and the span lengths are to be listed. These shall be listed in the
same direction as the log mile. Spans crossing state highways will be normal listed from left to
right looking in the same direction as the log mile for the route under the bridge. Span length
should be recorded and be noted whether the measurement is center to center(c/c) or clear open

distance (clr.) between piers, bents or abutments. Measurements should be along the center
line of the bridge.
9) Structure length: This should be the overall length and shall be the length of road way which
is supported on the bridge structure. This normally be the length from paving notch to paving
notch or between back faces of back walls measured along the center line
10) Bridge road way width: This shall be most restrictive of the clear width(s) between curbs
railings, or other restrictions for the road way on the bridge. On divided road ways, the road
way width will be taken as the traveled way between shoulder, but, also, the shoulder and
median width will be given.
11) Deck width: The out to out width of bridge to be nearest tenth of meter.
12) Clearances: A vertical and horizontal clearance diagram should be made for each structure
which restricts the vertical clearance over the highway, such as over crossings underpasses,
and through truss bridge.
The minimum number of vertical measurements shown on the diagram will be at each edge of
the traveled way and the minimum vertical clearance within the traveled way.
The report will state the minimum road way clearance. This will included each road way on
divided highway.
13) Wearing surface and deck protective system: The type and thickness of wearing surface and
the type of deck protective system should be noted.
14) Curb or sidewalk widths: The width of left and right curb or sidewalks to the nearest tenth of
meter. If only one is present, the side walk should be noted thus “[email protected](east).” Sidewalks
on both sides are noted thus “[email protected]”. If there are no sidewalks note “None”.
15) Railing and parapets: List the type and material of the railing and /or parapet .the dimensions
of the railing and/or parapet should also be recorded.
16) Bridge Approach Alignment: Note whether the bridge is tangent or on a curve. If the bridge
is on a curve, state the radius of the curve if plans are available for this information. On the
older roads and bridges, a comparison of the alignment with the general alignment of the road
should be made. Note if there are any posted speed restriction.
17) Lanes on and under the structure: State the number of the traffic lanes carried by structure
and begin crossed by the structure.
18) Average daily traffic and average daily truck traffic: State the ADT and ADTT, if known
along with the date of record. This information should be updated at intervals of approximately
5 years.
19) Design load: The live loading for which the bridge was designed should be stated if it is
known. A structure widened or otherwise altered so that different portions have different live
load designs is to have each live loading specified. If the design live loading is not known, this
should be so indicated.
20) Feature intersected: List facilities over which the structure crosses in addition to the main
obstacle. For example a bridge with the name “wet-water river” Obviously carries traffic over
the river; it may also cross over a rail road or other roads, etc.

21) Plane and dimension: State what planes are available, where they are filed and, if they are as
built when plane are available, dimensions and size of structural components should be
checked. When plane are not on file, sufficient drawings should be prepared during field
investigations to permit an adequate structural analysis of the entire structure, where practical.
22)Critical features: Special structural details or situations, such as scour critical location, fracture
critical members, fatigue-prone details, pins and hangers, cathode protection and weathering
steel should be emphasized and highlighted for special attention during field inspections.
2.1.1.1 Revised Inventory Data

When a bridge is significantly altered by widening lengthening, or by some other manner which
extensively modifies the structure, the bridge inventory data should be updated to reflect the change
made to be bridge. The bridge inventory data should also be updated to reflect change in wearing
surface, railings and others similar items.
2.1.2 Defect Inspection

2.1.2.1 General
(A). Purpose of Inspection
Bridge inspection is an action to assess correctly the bridge conditions in a standardized manner and is the most
important element in the Bridge Management Cycle that is the systematic maintenance process of inspection,
assessment, selection of measures, prioritization and repair to keep bridges in satisfactory levels. The purpose of
bridge inspection is not simply to collect the latest information about the present bridge conditions but, more
importantly, it should be understood that the inspection is to provide essential information for Bridge
Management Cycle. The road administration sometimes must take the critical decisions such as closure and re
construction of the bridge based on the inspection results.
Bridges can’t keep good conditions forever. Bridges start deteriorating soon after their completion because of
the actions of weather, traffic and other various causes. If the bridge inspections are not carried out at all lots,
bridges would collapse frequently across the country and would invite social and political troubles without
doubt. One bridge collapse can cause casualties and require considerable amount of money and time to
reconstruct the new bridge. It is important to understand that a bridge consists of lots of members and elements
that have different durability in nature due to the difference of materials, locations, and sensitivities against
weather and loads. This indicates that in order to keep the appropriate functions of bridges expected in design,
appropriate maintenance is essential in response to the actual deteriorations. Service life of a bridge is usually
expected as long as fifty years and longer.
To do bridge inspection in the standardized manner can provide:

 Basic information to assess the safety of bridges
 Data and information to all the activities of Bridge Management Cycle
 Information on any potential trouble spots
 Information on a consistent maintenance strategy

 Information on the effect of any changes in traffic loads

 Information on the behavior of repair and new strengthening techniques
 Hard facts on the results of new constructions and measures
Therefore, bridge inspections should be conducted correctly by qualified inspectors who have good knowledge
about bridge design, construction and maintenance.
(B). Work Flow of Inspection Start
Annual Plan
Regular Inspection/ Emergency Inspection/

Major Inspection Special Inspection
Inspection
YES
Emergency Measure? Emergency
Measures
NO
Rating/Coding
NO
No
Further Inspection?
YES
NO
Urgent Repair?
NO
YES
NO
Repair?
NO
YES
NO
No
Update Database
NO Repair Plan
Inspection Report
End
No
NO
Figure 2.1.3(b): Work flow chart for inspection
(C). Classification of Inspection
Bridge inspections are classified into three types in terms of purposes and frequencies as shown in the
following table.
Classification Type Purpose Frequency Method Inspector
Regular Periodic Assessing traffic safety and Once a Visual from Road
Inspection Superficial structural safety. Finding major year ground level. inspector,
defects Report on check or bridge
list inspector
Major Periodic Assessing conditions of all Once in Visual with Bridge
Inspections Detail structural components. three equipment. inspector or
years Detailed report bridge
with damage engineer.
ratings.
Emergency Non Assessing traffic safety and When Visual Bridge
Inspections Periodic structural safety. needed inspector or
(during an bridge
emergency) engineer.
 Regular Inspection
The regular inspection is a planned, periodic and superficial inspection to confirm the structural safety and safe
traffic condition as frequently as possible. It is also expected that the regular inspections can detect the
major/serious defects and damages as soon as possible. The inspections are to be carried out by not only bridge
inspection staff but also road inspection personnel.
Inspectors must develop the annual plan for the regular inspection work to cover all bridges in the District to
meet the frequency requirement of once a year.
 Major Inspection
The major inspection is a planned, periodic inspection to be conducted once in every three years by close
visual inspection method. The results of the major inspection are core information of the Bridge Management
System and bridge inspectors of the District must conduct the major inspections.
Inspectors must develop the annual plan for the major inspection work to cover one third of the bridges in the
District to meet the frequency requirement of the bridge once every three years.
 Emergency Inspection
The emergency inspection shall b e conducted when needed. After natural disasters and severe traffic accidents
the emergency inspection may be needed. The purpose of this inspection is to provide information on structural

safety and safe traffic condition. If needed, bridge inspectors must do the emergency inspection without delay
so as to judge necessity of emergency measures.
2.1.2.2 Standard Procedures of Inspection

Sometimes inspectors may follow the different procedures due to actual traffic conditions and seasonal
conditions. Before going out for inspection, the inspector shall check the availability of past inspection records
using BMS and obtain the necessary information on the target bridges. Inspectors shall bring the necessary
equipment to manage the appropriate inspections. Thus, a standard inspection procedure is as shown below.
1. Arrive at the target bridge
2. Park at the safe space with necessary traffic safety measures
3. Check the location data and name of the bridge using the required BMS data
4. Check the GPS indication
5. Examine the entire carriageway condition form the abutment side(s)
6. Examine the approach road section
7. Examine the expansion joint
8. Examine the pavement
9. Examine the parapet and railing
10. Examine the drainage inlets
11. Examine the surrounding land condition
12. Move down to underneath the bridge (channel, opening)
13. Examine the abutments
14. Examine the bearing(s) at the abutment(s)
15. Examine the piers
16. Examine the bearing(s) at the piers
17. Examine the high water level
18. Examine the river condition (river bank, sedimentation)
19. Examine the girder(s)
20. Examine the deck
21. Take the pictures of defects/damages
22. Check all the inspection records are correctly filled in the standard form
23. Leave the bridge

2.1.2.3 Defects and Damage

The table below shows the typical defects/ damages frequently observed in bridges in Ethiopia
Bridge Component Defects/Damages Principal Causes

Type
Girder Flexural Crack Excessive Load
Shear Crack Excessive Load, Poor Design

Spalling, Delamination Insufficient Cover, Excessive Load
Re-bar Exposure Insufficient cover, Re-bar Corrosion, Concrete Deterioration
Material Deterioration Poor Construction
Honeycomb Poor Construction
Water Leakage Excessive Load, Poor Design
Deck Slab Flexural Crack Excessive Load, Poor Design
Spalling, Delamination Insufficient Cover, Excessive Load
Re-bar Exposure Insufficient cover, Re-bar Corrosion, Concrete Deterioration
Honeycomb Poor Construction
Water Leakage Excessive Load, Poor Design
Concrete
Bearing Break Failure Poor Design, Poor Construction, Abrasion
Bridge
Dislocation Poor Design, Poor Construction
Abnormal Restraint Poor Design,
Expansion Joint Abrasion Aging
Distortion Aging
Pier, Abutment Crack Poor Construction
Spalling, Delamination Insufficient Cover
Re-bar Expose Insufficient cover, Re-bar Corrosion, Concrete Deterioration
Settlement, inclination Poor Design, Poor Construction, Earth Pressure
Scouring Poor Design
Abrasion, Pothole Aging
Pavement Rutting Aging, Overloading
Cracking Aging, Overloading
Parapet, Guardrail Deformation Vehicle Collision
Break Failure Vehicle Collision
Clearance Sedimentation Poor Planning, Lack of Maintenance
Break, Failure Excessive Load, Collision
Steel Bridge Girder/Truss Deformation Collision
Crack Fatigue, Excessive Load
Bolt Missing Material Problem, Excessive Load
Corrosion Aging
Wearing Aging
Paint Peel Off Aging
Arch Rib, Barrel Crack Excessive Load, Poor Design
Masonry Spalling, Delamination Concrete Deterioration
Arch Dislocation of Block Excessive Load, Settlement of Foundation
Missing of Stones Poor Construction
Spandrel Deterioration of pointing Aging
Crack Excessive Load, Aging, Settlement of Foundation

Bulging Excessive Load, Aging, Settlement of Foundation

Foundation Scouring Poor Design
Parapet, Guardrail Deformation Vehicle Collision
Break Failure Vehicle Collision
2.1.2.4 Superstructure
Inspectors shall examine the defects/damages of girders, deck slab, and other transverse beams, deterioration
of materials, straightness and flatness of members, abnormal noise and vibration, and deflection of girders.
2.1.2.5 Substructure
Inspectors shall examine the settlement and inclination of substructures, defects/damages of materials,
deterioration of materials, bulging and missing of masonry materials, and scouring.
2.1.2.6 Miscellaneous Structural Elements
A-Ancillary
Inspectors shall examine the defects/damages of pavement, expansion joints, drainage, railings/parapets, and
bearings.
B-Approach
Inspectors shall examine the settlement of backfill behind the abutments, displacement and erosion of
embankment, and surrounding land condition.
2.1.2.7 Channel, Inlet and Outlet

Inspectors shall examine the water level, sedimentation of rocks and sand, other debris, vegetation, rip-raps,
and condition of levee.
2.1.3 Defects Rating System

Every defect and damage found shall be rated based on the following rating system. Because the rating system
reflects the specific conditions and desirable interventions taken into account. Inspectors shall strictly follow
the rating (ranking) description given in the table below [1]
Rating (Ranking) Condition Desirable Intervention
A Serious/major damages, defects, and deterioration causing Urgent repair

reduction of load carrying capacity
B Major Damages, defects, and deterioration affecting durability Repair but not urgent
(reduction in durability)
C Minor/no damages, defects and deterioration Routine maintenance
Damage Rating for Concrete [1]

Damage Rank “A” Rank “B” Rank “C”
Single crack width of more than Single crack width of more than 3mm Single crack width of more

5 mm or multiple cracks width or multiple cracks width of more than 1mm or multiple crack
of more than 3 mm, together than 1mm, together with slight water width of more than 1mm. In
with water leakage. In bearing leakage. In bearing area, single crack bearing area single crack
Cracking area, single crack width of width of more than 1mm and multiple width of less than 1mm with
more than 3mm and multiple crack width of less than 1mm which no water leakage.
crack width of 1mm which causes reduction in durability.
causes reduction in loading
capacity.
Serious peel off which affects Wide range of peel off due to rebar Small range of peel off due to
the safety of third parties due to corrosion, which causes a reduction in external forces which affects
Peel Off a possibility of concrete falling loading capacity. Total area is the durability of the deck
down. Total area is more than between 900 -400 cm2. slab. Total area is between
900 cm2. 400 – 100 cm2.
Serious and wide range of rebar Partial rebar exposure with corrosion Partial rebar exposure
Rebar exposure together with due to expansion or rebar, peel off or without corrosion, which
Exposure corrosion which causes a honeycomb, which causes negative affects the durability of the
reduction in loading capacity. effect on loading capacity. deck slab.
Honeycomb Wide range of honeycomb with Wide range of honeycomb with Wide range of honeycomb,
very serious damage to the seriously corroded rebar, which causes which affects the durability
rebar, which causes the closure a reduction in loading capacity. of the deck slab.
of the bridge
Wide range of voids with Wide range of voids with serious Wide range of voids, which
serious and continuous water water leakage, multiple voids volume affect the durability of the
leakage, multiple voids volume of 600 -1000 cm3, which causes a deck slab. Volume of less
Void of more than 10x10x10Cm, reduction in loading capacity. than 600cm3
which causes the closure of the
bridge
Serious and wide range of Serious and wide range of water Localized or partial water
Water Leakage water leakage through cracks or leakage through cracks or voids which leakage, which has negative
voids which may progress and cause a reduction in the durability, effects on the deck slab.
cause a reduction in loading together with leaching free lime or
capacity, together with leaching salt.
free lime or salt.
Outstanding deformation, Partial deformation on Primary Partial deformation on
Deformation which affects the loading members such as girder or cross- secondary members such as
capacity due to buckling or girder. girder or cross – girder.
partial yielding.
Major corrosion, which affects Partial but wide range corrosion on Partial corrosion secondary
Corrosion the loading capacity by primary member on such as girder or members.
reducing cross sectional area on cross –girder, which affects the
primary member durability.
Major wearing in almost all Wearing in wide range on bridge Wearing in wide range on
Wearing range on bridge components, components, which affects the bridge components, which
which affects the durability of durability of primary members. affects the durability of
primary and secondary secondary members.
members.
Bolt Missing Missing or falling out of bolts Missing or falling out of bolts in more Missing or loosening of bolt
in more than 3 pieces on a than 3 pieces on a secondary member in more than one piece on
primary member joints. joints. joints.
Paint Peel Off Peel off of paint almost all of Peel off of paint less wide range, Peel off paint in wide range,
area, which affects the steel which affects the steel durability, which affects the steel
durability, together with serious together with corrosion. durability, but without
corrosion. corrosion.

2.2 Defects of Concrete Structures

Defects of concrete structures can occur in different stage of life span due to internal or external reasons. Any
type of defect can be classified as undesired occurrence that leads to minor or major problem shortly to
deterioration.
Deterioration is the process that adversely affects the performance of a structure over time due to defects and
damages occurred by naturally occurring chemical, physical or biological actions, repeated actions such as those
causing fatigues, normal or severe environmental influences, and wear due to use, abuse, and others.
Here, the initial defect basically should be repaired at construction stage. The instantaneous damage does not
change much in their degree with time after they arise. Therefore, in general, they may be treated promptly as
emergency treatment. On the other hand, since the rate of performance degradation of structure due to
deterioration would change apparently with time, the deterioration mechanism should be identified as much as
possible and appropriate actions concerning the prediction of deterioration and evaluation/judgment of
performance degradations should be carried out. Therefore, the deterioration should be mainly dealt with as the
target for the maintenance activities.
2.2.1 Cracking
Concrete is by nature a brittle material, so reinforced concrete structures are destined to suffer cracking.
Cracking cannot be prevented completely with present techniques. Not all types of concrete cracking, however,
pose problems; some are detrimental to structures but others are not. Damaging cracking includes those types
that cause water leakage due to cracking throughout the member, excessive deflection, aesthetic concerns and
defect to the durability of structure.
Cracks in concrete may described in a variety of ways. Some of the more common ways are in terms of surface
appearance, depth of cracking, width of cracking, current state of activity, and structural nature of the crack.
Cracking can be an important indicator of deterioration taking place in concrete and possible corrosion of
reinforcement steel depending on the size, extent and location of the cracks.
Cracks of concrete are classified as structural or non-structural cracks.
Phenomenon: - Generally, cracking represents the deterioration of concrete. Surface appearance which is
pattern or map cracks and individual cracks can give the first indications.
Individual cracks indicate tension in the direction perpendicular to the cracking.
Depth cracking is a self explanatory as may be surface, shallow, deep and through type. Active or dormant state
of cracks, width of cracks, and structural nature of crack (Structural or non structural) can be listed as different
types of it.
Cracking after reinforcement corrosion owing to the increase of corrosion of reinforcement and cracking before
reinforcement corrosion that induces the corrosion of reinforcement are different options of crack.
 Structural Cracks: - Are those cracks which result from insufficiency of the section to withstand the
flexural, shear, settlement and other stresses developed in that section due to dead and live loads applied
upon it. Structural cracks are caused by load stress and are divided into flexure and shear cracks.
 Flexural cracks are vertical and start in the maximum tension zone and proceed toward the
compression zone.

Plate 2.2.1a: Flexural crack

 Shear cracks are found near the bearing area. It begins at the bottom of the member and extends
diagonally upward. Structural cracks will usually be substantial in width, and the opening may tend to
increase as a result of continuous loading and creep of the concrete.
Plate 2.2.1b: Shear crack
 Non-structural cracks:-Can be referred as cracks caused by temperature, shrinkage and mass concrete
cracks. These cracks are relatively minor and generally do not affect the load carrying capacity of the
member. They can, however, provide openings for water and contaminants, which can lead to serious
problem.
Non structural cracks are those cracks which result from workmanship Problems, shrinkage of concrete and
other minor causes.
2.2.2 Peel off, Delaminating, Void

Disintegration of concrete differs from spilling in that larger pieces of intact concrete are lost when spilling
occurs.
Two of the most commonly used terms to describe disintegration are Scaling and dusting. Scaling is the gradual
and continuing loss of surface mortar and aggregate over an area. Dusting is the development of a powdered
material at the surface of hardened concrete. Dusting will usually be noted on horizontal concrete surfaces that
receive a great deal of traffic.
Expansion beneath the surface of concrete, for example as a result of reinforcement corrosion, produces tensile
stress, which exceed the concrete strength and areas of the concrete surface break away.
Delamination occurs when layers of concrete separate at the level of outermost layer of reinforcing bars.
Delaminated areas give a hollow sound when tapped with a hammer.
The resulting depression by delaminating is called a spill. A spill is a roughly circular or overall depression in
the concrete resulted from separation and removal of portion of surface concrete. Spilling means the breaking

away of concrete flake. Spilling is defined as the development of fragments, usually in the shape of flakes,
detached form a layer mass. A spill is a roughly or oval depression in the concrete.
This can be protected by providing a well cleaned and painted form work surface.
Plate 2.2.2: Peel off
2.2.3 Honey Comb

Honeycomb refers to voids in concrete due to failure of the mortar to effectively fill the spaces among coarse-
aggregate particles. This may be due to leakage of mortar through formwork joints which is not well prepared.
It usually becomes apparent when the formwork is stripped (exposed), revealing a rough and, ‘stony ‘concrete
surface with air voids between the coarse aggregate. Sometimes, however, a surface skin of mortar masks the
extent of the defect.
Honeycombing may extend some depth into the member. Honeycombing is always an aesthetic problem, and
depending on the depth and extent may reduce both the durability performance and the structural strength of the
member.
Coarse aggregate with air space appear on the surface of concrete. Honeycombing occurs where the spaces
between coarse aggregate particles are inadequately filled, with the result that the hardened concrete has an
open structure. Honeycomb preferably shall be repaired at the construction time, before handing over the
original work, with supervision.
.
Plate 2.2.3: Honey comb
Concrete surface is not smooth as desired. Spots and small voids are visible, accumulation of bigger size
aggregates may also be observed. Due to pour-out of cement paste, bondage of aggregates seems very poor.
To minimize the incidence of honeycombed coarse aggregate:-

 Ensure the mix has sufficient fines to fill the voids between the coarse aggregate
 Use a mix with appropriate workability by repeatedly checking the slump test for the situation in which it is
to be placed
 Ensure the concrete is fully compacted and the placing methods minimize the risk of segregation
 Ensure the reinforcement layout and the section shape will permit the concrete to flow around the
reinforcement and completely fill the forms
 Check that the formwork is rigid and well braced, the joints are watertight and any penetrations through the
formwork e.g. form ties, are properly sealed
2.2.4 Spoiling, Scaling, Wearing

Spoiling is loose of quality appearance due to many external reasons. Wear and abrasion of the concrete surface
are caused by being exposed to traffic and water flow.
Wearing land abrasion is the result of external forces acting on the surface of concrete member like erosive
action of sands in running water over the concrete surface.
Excessive water added at the time of delivery of concrete in order to increase the workability of concrete causes
an increase in the water cement ratio of the concrete leading to a reduction in strength and durability of
concrete, which can be manifested in surface defects like scaling, crazing and dusting.
Improper finishing and curing operations cause surface scaling. The materials for finishing and curing
operation cause the concrete to dusting and scaling. The procedures used to prevent dusting will prevent surface
scaling.
Plate 2.2.4: Surface scaling
2.3 Causes of Concrete Defects

2.3.1 General
Defects that appear on the surface of concrete during construction or within a relatively short time after
completion, are usually caused by poor quality materials, improper mix design, lack of proper placing and
curing procedures, or poor workmanship. The repair of surface defect is both difficult and costly. The best
repair work will not be as good as an original properly finished surface. Every effort should be made both prior
to and during construction to avoid the use of materials or construction practices that can cause surface defects.
Various causes may have contributed to the formation of a particular defect. However every effort should be
made to determine the causes and ensure that the correct repair strategy is adopted. Clear factors like, natural
disasters, fire, flood, vehicular collision; foundation settlement, excessive stress beyond the capacity of the
designer are some of the causes of concrete defects.

Structures may be overstressed by conditions outside the control of the designer and constructor, such as
overloading, change to the flow of a river, failure of adjacent structures and various natural causes.
Settlement of a structure, which was not anticipated and allowed for in design, can result in very severe damage
to concrete structures. Wide cracks and crushing where members come into unintentional contact may indicate
that settlement has occurred.
When settlement is suspected a structure should be carefully monitored to assess whether movement has cease
or is continuing. Excessive settlement can cause complete collapse of a bridge.
Following a vehicular collision with a bridge, careful consideration of the structural effects must be carried out
by an experienced structural engineer. Damage to primary elements can severely weaken a structure, or even
cause collapse.
Similarly the effects of fire damage must be assessed by an experienced structural engineer. Defects such as
cracks, spills, delaminating of the concrete cover, deformation of reinforcing bars and deflection of structural
members can seriously affect the performance of a bridge. Extensive fire damage may necessitate replacement
or strengthening of affected members.
Generally defect in concrete structures may result from many factors such as poor design and detailing,
construction deficiencies, overstress or loss of section resulting from, chemical attack, settlement of the
foundation, changes to the support or loading conditions caused by scour or silting, failure of bearings or
expansion joints, and traffic collision defect.
Deflection due to excessive and repetitive loading is a sign of deck slab deterioration and cracks.
There are two causes of deflection:
1. Deflection induced by external force acting the concrete structure in excess of its design load. Flexural and
shear cracks are generated such a factor, leading to acceleration of steel corrosion and other types of defect.
2. Fatigue is a phenomenon where cracks that have developed in concrete or reinforcement by repetitive loading
lead to cover scaling and steel failure. Fatigue failure may occur if excessive loads are applied repetitively. An
example is the depression of a reinforced concrete slab by repetitive wheel loads on a bridge.
Common types of causes of defects in concrete bridges can be categorized as follow:
 Design Errors: Common design errors which result in defects include:

 Incorrect concept –which includes inappropriate structural planning (arrangement), inappropriate
structural modeling, insufficient knowledge, and incorrect procedure.

Calculation errors -which include Design specification error, inadequate factor of safety; Stress
analysis error, Omission of design consideration, arithmetic error and Failure to allow for the
effects of creep.
 Drawing/detailing errors which include
 Poor reinforcement or pre stressing detail
 Failure to provide all of the required reinforcement
 Inadequate checking of drawings
 Incorrect movement joint spacing and locations
 Poor detailing of expansion joints
 Poor drainage details which result in leakage or clogging
 Insufficient development length
 Insufficient lap length
 Inadequate data in the drawing

 Insufficient provision of sections and details

 Lack of specification of material quality and procedures
 Construction errors: Adequate supervision at the construction stage is essential to ensure that the
works comply with the design. Many defects and problems arise can be covered up during construction by
the resident engineer or responsible person.
Typical construction defects are: Incorrect concrete mix proportions, failure to adequately support the
formwork resulting in movement during concerting, improper reinforcement arrangement, inadequate
cleaning out during preparation for concreting, failure to provide the specified concrete cover to
reinforcement, insufficient compaction of concrete, lack of curing of concrete elements, and failure during
dismantling of the formwork.
 Poor materials – This includes poor quality ingredients of concrete (cement, aggregate, sand and water),
poor quality concrete mix, poor quality reinforcement, and use of incorrect grade of material,
 Poor workmanship - This consists of unsuitable construction method or order of construction,
inexperienced or careless workmen, temporary works failures (formwork and false work),
inadequate supervision and deterioration of material caused by inadequate storage condition,
 External effects – consists of increased traffic levels or overloading, accidental damage (collision, falls,
fire), natural phenomena (flood, subsidence, heave, and earthquake), influences of the bridge approaches,
chemical action (sea water, polluted water, de-icing salt, airborne pollution), and failure of adjacent
structures resulting from different ground conditions.
2.3.2 Concrete Cracking

1. Structural Crack: heavy traffic loads and increment of the load acting frequencies that may occur through
time after the construction of the bridge structures is one of the basic causes for structural cracks on reinforced
concrete members. Insufficient structural design and errors in interpreting the drawings during construction,
large impact forces caused by defect of road surfaces and aging of the concrete are also main causes of the
structural cracks. The structural cracks can further be classified as flexural, shear, torsion, and compression
cracks based on the internal stress which brings about the cracks. The user of this study shall identify the real
cause of cracks, analyze loads and quantify the magnitude of stresses and strains developed in the sections and
finally arrive at amount of reinforcement that shall be applied to repair these types of cracks.
2. Non structural crack: there are several causes of non structural cracks which develop on reinforced concrete
bridge components. Among those causes, the most common ones are shrinkage of concrete due to lack of
proper curing mechanism, defect on concrete surface during formwork removal, absence of proper expansion
joints, and other similar workmanship problems.
General Cause of cracks
- Lack of curing and quick removal of form, etc
- Variation of temperature and moisture
- External forces of bending moment, shearing force and fatigue
- Differential settlement of foundation
- Corrosion of rebar for lack of covering, chloride damage and carbonation, etc.
2.3.3 Concrete Peel off, Delaminating, Void

However thickness of concrete cover is generally indicated in the drawings: the cover could become insufficient
due to inadequate setting of spacer, error of reinforcement bar arrangement and movement of bars during
casting of concrete.
Insufficient cover is hardly detected at the time of casting concrete, however the reinforcement bar will
gradually rust and swell and the concrete cover start to be peeled off.

Plate 2.3.3: Rebar exposure due to peel off and delaminating
Spill can be caused by corroding reinforcement and friction from thermal movement due to which reinforcing
steel is often exposed.
The major cause of delamination is expansion of corroding reinforcing bars. This is commonly caused by
intrusion of chlorides or salt. An inadequate drainage system can severely limit the life span of a concrete deck
due to deterioration by leakage and corrosion of reinforcement bar which produces tensile stress exceeding the
concrete strength, so that area of the concrete surface break away.
Voids formed when the concrete fails to fill area in a form, typically those under large blackouts, in very deep
placements, or forms that are heavily reinforced. Voids are almost always structural defects requiring repair.
Causes of honeycomb and voids include stiff or unworkable concrete, segregation, congested rebar, insufficient
consolidation, and improper placing practices.
2.3.4 Concrete Honey Comb

Honeycomb surfaces are caused by the use of a dry mix that was not properly consolidated. The concrete mix
should be designed to provide a workable mix for the type of consolidation that will be used on the job. When
honeycombing occurs, don’t just add water to the mix to correct the trouble. That will decrease the strength and
durability of the concrete. The mix should be redesigned to provide improved workability or the procedure for
consolidating the concrete should be improved.
Honeycombing is caused either by the compaction not having been adequate to cause the mortar to fill the voids
between the coarse aggregate, or by holes and gaps in the formwork allowing some of the mortar to drain out of
the concrete. In some cases, the member shape and detailing/placement of the reinforcement compounds the
effect of inadequate compaction.
It can be caused by segregation of material during concrete casting, insufficient compaction of concrete and it
can also be caused by the loss of cement grout, leaking of cement paste, where form work is inadequately
sealed.

The defect may be purely cosmetic or, depending on the location and extent of honeycombing, may be
structural and require repair. For instance, honeycombing behind post-tensioning anchors may require repair so
the post-tensioning forces don’t cause compressive failure of concrete in the bearing area.
Preventing honeycomb and voids starts with attention to concrete mix proportions. Proper techniques for
forming, rebar placement, providing enough paste, increasing of slump, controlling setting rate, concrete
placement and proper vibration are important activities to reduce or avoid honeycomb problems
Provide enough paste: Concrete not containing enough cementicious material and fine sand will be prone to
segregation and won’t flow well. Consider adding a blend sand or additional Portland cement or fly ash to
increase the amount of fines. Increasing the ratio of fine-to coarse aggregate will increase workability only if
5% to 10% of the sand passes the No.100 sieve.
Increase slump: Even with the correct amount of paste, a mix can lack workability and won’t flow into place.
To improve flow, increase slump from 15 to 20 centimeters by adding a water reducer or super plasticizer.
Reduce aggregate size: If closely spaced reinforcement or other obstacles hindering concrete flow, consider
reducing coarse aggregate size.
Control setting rate: Slow placement rates and high ambient and concrete temperatures can cause concrete to
stiffen, reducing its flow ability. Adding a retarder may help, but retarders don’t necessarily prevent slump loss.
Care should be taken to protect honeycomb defect in this process.
Forming and rebar placement: Review reinforcement details. Closely spaced rebar, insufficient clearance
between the rebar and forms, and closely spaced lap splices all interfere with concrete flow and vibration. Work
with the steel detailer to minimize these problems. Provide access to forms. Narrow or tall forms prevent
observation and access during concrete placement. You may have to cut placing ports into forms containing
heavily reinforced sections.
Tightly seal form joints, otherwise mortar loss through form joints may cause honeycomb.
Vibrate Properly: Workers must be trained to vibrate concrete correctly to ensure that it flows around
reinforcing steel, embedment, and blackout. Build up a head of concrete on one side of small blackouts, and
vibrate the concrete until it appears on the other side. Large block outs require concrete to flow many meters
laterally, so you may need to use pour pockets beneath these block outs.
Drill holes in the bottom of a block out to allow displaced air to escape.
Avoid delays: If the placement is not going as fast as planned, ready-mix trucks may have to wait before
discharging material and the concrete will start to stiffen. You can reduce stiffening by using retarding
admixtures, but a better approach is to alert the concrete producer when unavoidable placing delays occur.
2.3.5 Concrete Spoiling, Scaling and Wear

Some aggregates used in concrete react chemically with high alkali cements, causing disruption of the concrete.
This form of deterioration or spoil is called alkali aggregate reaction, and results in extensive cracking.
Scaling, i.e., local flaking or peeling away of the near-surface portion of a concrete slab is the most common
type of surface distress, especially in areas exposed to cyclic freezing and thawing, and de-icing chemicals. A
comprehensive evaluation of factors responsible for concrete surface scaling disclosed that, the following may
causes.
(a) Concrete materials, proportions, and properties (air content, air void system, aggregate, cement paste,
aggregate-paste interface, compressive strength, water-cementations materials ratio, degree of saturation of
concrete, and chemical admixtures);

(b) Construction practices (consolidation, finishing, curing, hot and cold weather protections, drainage, and
surface treatments);
(c) Concrete maturity; and
(d) De-icing salts (salt type, concentration, timing of exposure ) on scaling
Therefore,
A) Concrete should be air-entrained for the protection of the paste during freezing. Concrete should have a
good air-void system consisting of numerous fine, discrete spherical and near-spherical air voids of sizes up
to 1 mm, the majority of which should be very fine.
B) Concrete should be made using well-graded, well distributed, and frost-resistant aggregates.
C) Concrete should be properly placed, finished, and cured.
D) Concrete should be matured, i.e., it should undergo a period of air-drying and should attain a compressive
strength of at least 28 MPa (400 psi) prior to the first exposure to freezing and de-icing salts.
2.4 Other Defects and their Causes
2.4.1 Scouring and Erosion
Bridge scour is the removal of sediment such as sand and rocks from around bridge abutments or piers. Scour,
caused by swiftly moving water, can scoop out scour holes, compromising the integrity of the bridge.
Bridge scour is one of the causes of bridge failure. It has been estimated that 60% of all bridge failures result
from scour and other hydraulic related causes. It is the most common cause of highway bridge failure in some
countries like the United States, where 46 of 86 major bridge failures resulted from scour near piers from 1961
to 1976. Scour failures tend to occur suddenly without prior warning and are very difficult to monitor during
flood events.
Water normally flows faster around piers and abutments making them susceptible to local scour. At bridge
openings, contraction scour can occur when water accelerates as it flows through an opening that is narrower
than the channel upstream from the bridge. Degradation scour occurs both upstream and downstream from a
bridge over large areas. Over long periods of time, this can result in lowering of the stream bed.
Bridges that cross water channels require detailed inspection of channel characteristics and the condition of
substructure elements in the channel. The need for a detailed and thorough scour inspection program is a result
of the catastrophic effects which can be caused by excessive scour.
If constriction in the channel is significant, the velocity of the stream can increase such that the substructure
footings and/ or piles become undermined (damaged). Sharp bends or curves in the water channel also increase
velocity which can create cross-currents and turbulence. Scour either occur locally at specific substructure
components or over the entire structure crossing the channel.
The effects of foundation movements upon a structure will vary according to the magnitude of movements, type
of settlement, and type of structure.
Movement of large magnitudes, especially when differential settlement occurs it causes distress in the
structures. Large movements in a bridge will cause:

 deck joints to jam;

 slabs to crack;
 bearings to shift;
 substructures to crack,
 buckle, and possibly, even to collapse
A uniform settlement of all the foundations of a bridge will have little effect upon the structure.
Differential settlement can produce serious distress in any bridge. Where the differential settlement occurs
between different substructure units, the magnitude of the defect depends on the bridge type and span length.
Stream channel instability resulting in river erosion and changing angles-of –attach can contribute to bridge
scour. Debris can also have a substantial impact on bridge scour in several ways. A build- of material can
reduce the size of the waterway under a bridge causing contraction scour in the channel. A build-up of debris on
the abutment can increase the obstruction area and increase local scour. Debris can deflect the water flow,
changing the angle of attack, increasing local scour. Debris might also shift the entire channel around the bridge
causing increased water flow and scour in another location.
During flooding, although the foundations of a bridge might not suffer damage, the fill behind abutments may
scour. This type of damage typically occurs with single span bridges with vertical wall abutments.
 Foundations must transfer all loads imposed on the bridge into the ground. If the foundation is not strong
enough or deep enough to do this, this bridge will be destroyed. If the foundation embedment into the ground is
not sufficient to account for erosion and scour that may occur over the life of the bridge, the bridge is vulnerable
to collapse under design flood and wind conditions.
 Predicting the incidence, locations, and magnitude of coastal erosion and scour is difficult, and present-day
bridge codes and standards do not prescribe clear-cut solutions for designers. Therefore, designers should be
conservative with their foundation designs. This means foundations may need to be stronger, deeper, and higher
than what has historically been used. Lessons learned from Hurricane Ike and other recent coastal storm events
should be incorporated into foundation designs.
Erosion refers to a general lowering of the ground surface over a wide area. Erosion can occur across a wide
range of timeframes where it can be
 gradual, occurring over a long period of time (many years);
 more rapid, occurring over a relatively short period of time (weeks or months); or
 episodic, occurring during a single coastal storm event over a short period of time (hours or days)
Scour refers to a localized loss of soil, often around a foundation element. Scour occurs when floodwater passes
around obstructions in the water column. As the water flows around an object, it must change direction and
accelerate. Soil can be loosened and suspended by this process or by waves striking the object, and be carried
away. Pilings, pile caps, columns, walls, footings, slabs, and other objects found under bridges can lead to
localized scour. Scour effects increase with increasing flow velocity and turbulence, and with increasing soil
erodeability.
Scour effects are generally localized, ranging from small, shallow conical depressions in the sand around
individual piles to larger and deeper depressions around individual piles. In some cases, bridges may settle due

to inadequate pile embedment, coupled with some combination of erosion, scour, and soil liquefactions that
leads to loss of bearing.
There is one other erosion and scour scenario to consider in foundation design- the loss of soil around or under a
bridge as a result of storm surge flow being channeled or directed across a bridge site. This process usually
takes place where storm surge flow is constrained between gaps in shore protection, or when return flow to the
sea follows path of least resistance, such as along canals and roads.
2.4.1.1 Erosion and Scour- Impacts on Foundations

Erosion and scour have several adverse impacts on coastal foundations:
 Erosion and scour reduce the embedment of the foundation into the soil, causing shallow foundations to
collapse and making bridges on deep foundations more susceptible to settlement, lateral movement, or
overturning from lateral loads.
 Erosion and scour increase the unbraced length of pile foundations increase the bending moment to which
they are subjected, and can overstress piles.
 Erosion over a large area between a foundation and a flood scour exposes the foundation to increased lateral
flood loads (I.e., greater still-water depths, possible higher wave heights, and higher flow velocities).
 Local scour around individual piles or a bridge foundation will not generally expose foundations to greater
flood loads, but linear scour across a bridge site may do so.
Bridge examination
The examination process is normally conducted by hydrologists and hydrologic technicians, and involves a
review of historical engineering information about the bridge, followed by a visual inspection. Information is
recorded about the type of rock or sediment carried by the river, and the angle at which the river flows toward
and away from the bridge. The area under the bridge is also inspected for holes and other evidence of scour.
According to Lacey’s formula, the width of a natural channel at bank-full flow is proportional to the root of the
discharge.
To determine scouring depth:
d= 0.473 (Q/f)1/3 where,
Where, d = normal depth of scouring below HFL

Q =d ischarge (in m3/S)
F = Lacey’s silt factor, which is a function of bed material
F = 1.76 x
The effects of scour can change throughout the life of a structure. Accumulations of silt and debris may reduce
the channel of a river or cause it to follow a different course.
Similarly the uncontrolled extraction of gravel or sand form river beds can affect the flow, causing scour at
bridges further along the river. As scour can completely undermine the foundations of a bridge and thereby
cause it to collapse, it is essential that its occurrence is detected at an early stage or preferably prevented.

Sometimes scour causes large holes in river beds or washes large sections of the bank away. Many bridges have
been destroyed by scour. Rivers can easily damaged or destroy bridges. Usually, bridges are damaged when the
river is too big to go through the waterway under the bridge, or when the river changes its path.
There are three reasons why a river may not be able to go through the waterway of a bridge:
1.A river can grow and become too big for the waterway.
2.The waterway under the bridge can be blocked by parts of old bridges, trees, fences and other debris.
3.The waterway under the bridge was not made big enough.
If there is a flood which is too big for the waterway under the bridge, the river may do 3 things:
1.Wash away the bridge.
2.Wash away the road embankment and the road, and go round the bridge.
3.Wash away the fill in front of the abutments, and scour big holes in the river bed.
If the-waterway is too small, another bridge or some culverts may be needed to carry the extra; floodwater,
otherwise the river can change their path slowly or very quickly. Change of path can, after a time, cause damage
to a bridge.
2.4.1.2 Causes for Scouring

Any type of substructure not founded on solid rock may be subject to settlement and lateral movement like
piles, earth retaining structures, such as abutments and retaining walls. Foundation movements may often be
detected by first looking for deviations from the proper geometry of the bridge. Change in direction and flow
type of flood specifically at pier or abutment footing area evidenced by turbulence, erodes materials from under
foundations. General scour occurs over a long period of time and is initiated by an alteration in channel flow
patterns. This mainly caused by a change in the supply of sediments to a large area.
 Poor Design: Waterways should be inspected in order to determine whether any condition exists that could
cause defect to the bridge or the area surrounding the bridge. In addition to inspecting the channel’s present
condition, a record should be made of any significant changes that may have taken place in the channel,
attributable either to natural or artificial causes.
In stream beds susceptible to scour and degradation, a channel profile should be taken periodically,
generally at 30meter intervals, extending to a few hundred meters up-stream and downstream.
The channel change steepens the channel and increase flow velocity. The entire section may degrade.
Events which tend to produce local scour, channel degradation, or bank erosion are of primary importance.
Scour can cause extensive settlement which may also be uneven. Since water will carry off particles of soil
in suspension, a considerable hole can be formed around piers or other similar structural objects. This
condition results in a greater turbulence can be displaced.
Stream bed or banks near the abutments or piers may be eroded due to fast water flow; undermining the
unprotected soil banks. If neglected, settlement will develop and bridges’ foundation and the embankments
will be washed away.
Scour is defined as the removal and transportation of material from the bed and banks of rivers and streams
as a result of the erosive action of running water.

Stream bed degradation is usually due to artificial or natural alteration in the width, alignment, or profile of
the channel. These alterations which may take place at the bridge site or some distance upstream for down-
stream upset the equilibrium, or regime, of the channel.
Stream bed degradation and scour seriously endanger bridges whose foundations are located in an erodible
river-bed-deposit and where the foundation does not extend to a reasonable depth below that of the
anticipated scour.
 Channel Constrictions: Typical situations which tend to lead scour problem are Sediment deposits, Pier
scour, loose riprap, Lined banks, Horizontal or vertical channel constructions that creates a high velocity,
flooding, protruding abutments, debris, and river bends. Most foundation movements are caused by
movement of the supporting soil. Soil deformations are caused by volume changes in the soil or by a shear
failure. Slope slides and bearing failures are good examples of shear failures. Where loads are not large
enough to cause shear failure, Settlements may still occurs as a result of volume change.
Substructures that are supported directly by a cohesive soil may continue to settle through a long period of
time due to consolidation, which usually produces vertical settlement.
Slope failures (embankment slides) are shear failures manifested as lateral movements of hillsides, cut
slopes, or embankments. Footing or embankment loads imposing shear stresses greater than the soil shear
strength are common causes of slides.
Inadequacy of waterway results scour and streambed degradation. The geometry of the channel, the amount
of debris carried during high water periods, and the adequacy of freeboard should be considered in
determining waterway adequacy.
2.4.2 Water Leakage and Deteriorations
2.4.2.1 Causes of Water Leakage
An extended water leakage largely contributes to the deterioration of the bridge part prone to this specific
defect. The repair technique dealt therefore enables to protect the concrete section from being continuously
degraded. Water leakage under concrete may be caused due to cracks, voids, concrete porosity, absence of
impermeable wearing course, defect to joint sealants, or blockage of drains.
Stopping serious and wide range of water leakage that passes through cracks or voids, which may cause a
reduction in loading capacity together with leaching of free lime or salt, is an essential activity.
Wide cracks may be repaired by filling with Portland cement grout. This method is effective in stopping water
leaks, but it will not structurally bond cracked section.
All defects associated with the concrete defects which were dealt previously shall be maintained as per the
techniques specified before.
Bridge drainage is also an important inspection-item, since any trapped or pounded water can cause a great deal
of defect to a bridge and is also a safety hazard. Therefore, an effective system of drainage that carries the water
away as quick as possible is essential to the proper maintenance of the bridge.

Accumulation of debris is a principal cause for surface drainage inlet-clogging. The ponds and puddles of water
that form on the bridge deck pose the problem which constitute a safety hazard and can cause extensive bridge
deterioration.
Downspouts and horizontal pipe-run, which are poorly designed with inadequate slopes and sharp directional
changes at the elbows, are conducive to plugging drains.
Corrosion: - drainage water often carries corrosive element that attack drainage pipes and concrete. Clogging
and slow drainage accelerate deterioration of girder, side beam and internal part of deck slabs as well as rebar
corrosion.
2.4.3 Concrete Deck – Slab and Pier Columns Deterioration and Repair Methods
2.4.3.1 Causes of Deterioration
Concrete desk slab usually deteriorate due to long period water stay or leakage, poor workmanship during the
original construction period or external problems like crush and bomb blasting. Water may leak through deck
slab due to the following causes.
Cracks: - Cracks will occur on girder/beam and deck slab by the repeated and overload wheel load. Then water
can pass through the slab deck and finally some parts of the concrete will peel off.
Porous construction joints honeycomb, cast-in-fittings such as drain pipe, Deterioration of concrete due to
Carbonation, and Alkali reaction, etc. are other causes of leakage of water.
2.4.4 Rust Treatment of Concrete Reinforcing Bar

2.4.4.1 Causes of Rust
Reinforcement shall be free from pit, loose rust, mill scale, paint, oil, grease, adhering earth, ice or any other
materials that may impair the bond between the concrete and the reinforcement or that may cause corrosion of
the reinforcement or disintegration of the concrete.
Reinforcing steel corrodes either where cracking induces the corrosion of reinforcing steel (cracking before
reinforcement corrosion) or where carbonation or salt defect corrodes reinforcing steel, which then causes
cracking after reinforcement corrosion.
The point when corrosion-induced cracking occurs along the reinforcement in the concrete cover is considered
the deterioration limit for the cracking caused by reinforcement corrosion.
When reinforcement corrodes to a certain extent, the surrounding concrete cover tends to crack and split. The
cracks are caused by internal bursting pressures developing in the concrete as a result of a net increase in
volume by the formation of corrosion products. Spalling of the concrete cover will then permit the entry of
water and other corrosion accelerating agents and the rate of corrosion will accelerate.
When corrodes, the prestressing steel becomes vulnerable to fracture because it has been prestressed, and so
the durability of the structure is severely affected. When reinforcement corrodes, it expands causing tensile
stress in the surrounding concrete which results in cracking and spalling.
Reinforcement bars in the permanent structures may be found exposed or uncovered due to concrete peel off
resulting from external impact or concrete aging or formwork removal, lack of sufficient cover during
construction, and concrete void or honeycomb.

If the deterioration of concrete has been caused by corrosion of reinforcement, the products of corrosion must
be removed before placing the new concrete; otherwise the repair will not be effective. If the defect is due to
chloride contamination, all rust shall be removed from the steel as any residual rust will be contaminated with
chlorides that could restart the corrosion later.
Materials used for maintaining the concrete failures which finally attribute the reinforcement bar exposure are
to be dealt with the respective concrete failures repair. Regarding the replacement of the defect reinforcement,
curious investigation shall be made for determination of the defect portion. Based on the design calculations,
the reinforcing of the structure can be made using steel plate bonding or carbon fiber reinforced polymer
methods.
The corrosion of reinforcement may caused by carbonation and chloride attack. Carbonation or chloride attack
involves the contamination (ineffectively) of protective alkaline environment provided by good quality
concrete.
The presence of excessive amounts of chloride ions, originating from the use of the admixture calcium
chloride, will also destroy the passive layer, which prevents corrosion.

3 MATERIAL FOR REPAIR

3.1 General
Concrete is an essential material. With a worldwide estimated consumption of between 21 and 31 billion tones
of concrete in 2006, concrete is the second most consumed substance on Earth after water! A world without
concrete is almost inconceivable [17, 18, and 19]
The principles of producing concrete and understanding the laws of concrete behavior are well enough
established through long experience and extensive research to make it possible to design and erect structures
that meet the recognized requirements of engineering use and safety. There is still a need for continued
research, however. New questions are constantly arising, and new methods and machines for construction
operations are being developed. If concrete is to meet increasingly higher expectations with regard to durability
and structural efficiency, and continue in the forefront as a building material, the new requirements need to be
met by ever-increasing knowledge obtained from research and experience.
Concrete sets, hardens, gains strength, and exhibits reduced permeability with the passage of time, but it is not
the passage of time alone that causes these things to happen. If the concrete is kept very cold, none of this will
happen. If all moisture is removed, none of this will happen.
Many or even most concretes are confronted with potential deteriorative service conditions. If the concrete has
not been provided with immunity against these influences, it may well slowly deteriorate as time passes, but not
simply because time passes. Concrete need not deteriorate.
3.2 What is Concrete Structure?

Concrete is essentially a compressive material. While it has adequate strength for most structural uses, it is best
suited for relatively massive members that transmit compressive loads directly to the founding material.
Although concrete has low tensile strength, reinforcing it with steel bars produces a material that is suitable for
the construction of flexural members such as deck slabs, bridge girders, and the likes, etc.
Concrete is a mixture of sand, gravel and/or other aggregates (the matrix), bound together by a water-based
binder, cement. Admixtures (modifying agents) and additives (fine mineral powers) are sometimes introduced
to improve the characteristics of the fresh concrete, the mixing process and/or the final hardened material.
 Components
Portland Cement- The cement and water form a paste that coats the aggregate and sand in the mix. The paste
hardens and binds the aggregates and sand together.
The invention of cement has been credited to Joseph Aspdin, and English mason. Aspdin patented his product in
1824 and called it “Portland Cement” because it resembled the color of natural limestone found on the Isle of
Portland, a peninsular in the English Channel. Portland cement was first manufactured in the United States in
1872 [14]
Water- Water is needed to react chemically with the cement (hydration) and to provide workability with the
concrete. The amount of water in the mix as compared with the amount of cement is called the water cement
ratio. The lower the water cement (w/c) ratio, the stronger the concrete. (Higher strength, less permeability)
Aggregates- sand is the fine aggregate. Gravel or crushed stone is the coarse aggregate in most mixes.

3.3 Concrete Repairing Material

The different materials used for maintenance can be grouped in to three categories.
(1) Cement type repairing materials: this is simply Portland cement mortar (concrete) or non-
shrinkage mortar (concrete)
(2) Polymer modified cement type : this is cement modified using different polymers and fibers
(3) Resin type repairing materials: this is an epoxy or chemical used for repairing purpose
3.4 The Practice in Ethiopia [ 1 ]

In collaboration with Japan International Cooperation Agency [JICA], ERA has accomplished maintenance
of different bridge defects. The materials used for maintenance are basically categorized in to four. These are:
 Materials used for large defects or cracks (pure cement or polymer modified cement type materials),
 Materials used for small defects or cracks (Resin type repairing materials or crack injection materials),
 Crack sealing materials so that small cracks will be ready for injection, and
 Materials for bonding
All of these are supplied by different companies in the country.
3.5 Materials for Repairing of Large Defects or Cracks (polymer and fiber reinforced repair mortar)
These are materials used to repair large defects, especially those falling in rank “A” and “B”. We have different
materials to restore seriously damaged or injured members, some of them are: [15]
1. (EMACO S88C T)
EMACO S88C T is a cementitious pre-bagged ready-to-use structural repair mortar in powder form. When
mixed with the correct amount of water, it produces a thixotropic, high strength repair mortar, reinforced with
acrylic polymer fibers. It possesses excellent bond characteristics to steel reinforcement and to concrete.
EMACO S88C T is shrinkage compensated which reduced risk of crack due to shrinkage and is formulated for
sprayed or trowelled applications; in thickness up to 50mm in one layer by hand application. Greater
thicknesses can be achieved when spray applied.
2. Renderoc TGXtra + Polypropylene Fiber

Shrinkage controlled polymer modified, vertical and overhead cementitious repair mortar system.
It is suitable for hand application to repairs where light to medium load bearing is required. It is applicable to
general concrete and masonry repairs, voids greater than 10mm deep, repairs to honeycombing.
3. Sika Mono Top-612

Sika Mono Top-612 is wet sprayed/hand placed fiber reinforced repair mortar. It is a cementitious, polymer
modified, low permeability, high strength mortar containing silica fume and synthetic fiber reinforcement.
Excellent workability, adjustable consistency, excellent slump resistance, sprayable by the wet spray method,
good mechanical strength, easily sprayed in layer thickness up to 30mm, and good resistance to water and
chloride penetration are the characteristics of Sika Mono Top-612
3.6 Materials for Repairing of Small Defects or Cracks (crack injection material)
These are materials used to repair small defects especially for cracks having width of crack less than 5mm. It is
also applicable for defects or damages which fall in rank “C”. We have different materials to restore lightly
damaged or injured members, some of them are: [15]
1. CONCRESIVE 1315
CONCRESIVE low-viscosity injection resins are two component crack injection fluids for sealing cracks,
filling cavities and voids in concrete and stopping water ingress. They can be injected in to cracks of varying
sizes (100 microns to 9mm) including cracks too fine to be filled with traditional materials. It is highly

penetrative and cures to form a permanent seal. It is applicable to columns, bridge decks, floors, piers,
abutments, tunnels, basements, beams, and underpasses.
2. Nitofill EPLV
Low viscosity solvent free epoxy resin system used for injecting cracks in concrete or masonry to form
permanent bond or seal. Nitofill EPLV It has two components base and hardener mixed in proportion to form
strong permanent bond. The advantages of Nitofill EPLV are:
 Low viscosity allows penetration in to the finest cracks
 Formulated for hot climates
 Suitable for structural cracks or repairs
 Excellent bond to concrete, brick and masonry
 Minimum creep under sustained load
 Resistant to wide range of chemicals
 Non-shrink, adheres with no loss of bond
Mixing Procedures
1) Stir each components separately to disperse settlement

2) Pour hardener in to base & mix thoroughly
3) Pour the mix in to injection gun
4) Inject in to the pipes installed starting from lower elevations
5) Bend pipe, carefully remove injection gun, tie pipe with wire
6) Wash injection gun with thinner
7) curing for 24hrs
3. Sikadur-52 ZA
A two part solvent free, low viscosity injection liquid based on high strength epoxy resins applicable to civil
engineering buildings, industrial buildings, columns, bridges, and foundations. It has advantage of hardness but
not brittleness, low viscosity, injectability, suitable for both dry and dump conditions, and high mechanical and
adhesive strength.
3.7 Crack Sealing Materials for Injection (Epoxy resin mortar)

Materials for sealing of very small cracks (crack width less than 5mm), so that ready for application of crack
filling or injection (resin type repairing) materials. Materials involved are: [15]
1. CONCRESIVE2200
It is high strength, non-flow, epoxy bedding and repair mortar. It is a two packs, fine aggregate filled, fast
curing material, and ideal for a variety of bedding, gap filling and concrete repair applications.
CONCRESIVE2200 is a stiff but easily workable compound that can be applied by trowel, spatula or knife. It
is impact resistance and mechanical strength is greater than that of concrete. It can be applied as a gap filling
adhesive, fixing slip bricks to concrete, dowel bar anchoring, bedding tiles, repairing concrete posts in-situ,
securing bolts in to walls, and repairing surface defects or to honeycombing concrete in horizontal, vertical or
overhead situations.
2. Nitomortar FC
High strength trowel grades, epoxy resin fairing coat, repair mortar, bedding and adhesive. It is suitable for
filling pinholes prior to over coating with nitocoat or nitoflor products, general reprofiling over large areas, up
to 3mm depth, Sealing of surface cracks in preparation for crack injection, general purpose bedding mortar and
adhesive. Nitomortar FC is a two component thixotropic, solvent free, compound based on epoxy resins,

graded fillers and thixotropic agents. It is applied directly to concrete substrates, without primer, and cures to a
surface ready for over coating. The base component is light gray coloured and the hardener black to ease
identification of uniform mixing.
Generally:
- It is a two component thixotropic compound
-Used for sealing of surface cracks in preparation for injection
-Has strong adhesion to concrete substrate
-1 Lit of nitomortar covers 5m2 with 0.2mm thickness but it’s heavily dependent on the surface condition
(or with 2 mm thickness – 0.5m2)
- Mix proportion ( 1 can base + 1 can hardener)
Mixing Procedures

2) Pour hardener in to base & mix thoroughly until uniform colour grey is obtained (it is very viscous
compound which makes stirring tedious)
3) As soon as we finish mixing apply it on surface prepared using filling knives
4) Clean all equipments used using solvent
Curing
3. Sikadur-31CF Normal
A moisture tolerant, thixotropic, structural two part adhesive and repair mortar, based on a combination of
epoxy resins and special fillers, designed for use at temperature between 10 and 30 degree centigrade. It can be
used as a structural adhesive and mortar for concrete elements, hard natural stone, ceramics, bricks, masonry
steel, iron, and aluminum. Easy to mix and apply, suitability for dry and damp concrete surfaces, very good
adhesion to most construction materials, high strength adhesive, thixotropic (non-sag in vertical and overhead
applications), hardness without shrinkage, different colour components, high initial and ultimate mechanical
strength, good abrasion resistance, and impermeability to liquids and water vapour are some of the advantages
of this epoxy.
3.8 Materials for Bonding [15]
1. CONCRESIVE 1414
Epoxy bonding agent for concrete repairs, bonding concrete to concrete, steel and granolithic toppings. It is a
permanent epoxy adhesive for internal or external bonding and has greater tensile strength as compared to that
of tensile strength of concrete. CONCRESIVE 1414 may be applied to clean, sound and durable surfaces that
is steel, glazed tiles and bricks, ceramics and quarry tiles, terrazzo tiles and floors. high strength, non shrink,
moisture tolerant, durability, and resistant to chemical attack are some of the advantages of this epoxy.
2. Nitobond EP
Epoxy resin concrete bonding agent used to bond fresh wet cementitious material to existing cementitious
surface. It is used for horizontal and vertical surfaces of roads, bridges, pavements, loading bays and factories

both externally and internally. Nitobond EP has two components white base and green hardener mix together
and applied on dry or damp substrates. The advantages of Nitobond EP are: exhibits high mechanical strength,
positive adhesion-exceeds that of the tensile strength of the host concrete, slow cure allows time to erect steel
reinforcement and formwork, and solvent free-can be used in enclosed locations.
Generally:
-It is a two component material (base and hardener)
-It is used for bonding existing concrete surface with the new mortar applied
-Exhibit high bonding (tensile) and mechanical strength
-Working life time – 160min (we have to apply it on the surface before this time)
-Max overlay time – 24hr (we have to apply EMACO before this time)
-1Lit of nitobond covers 3.5 – 4m2
-Mix proportion (1 can base + 1 can hardener)
Mixing Procedures
2) Pour hardener in to base & mix thoroughly until uniform colour is obtained
3) As soon as we finish mixing apply it on surface prepared using brush
4) Clean all equipments used using solvent
3. SikaLatex
Water resistant bonding agent for mortar. It is a high quality, synthetic polymer emulsion for adding to cement
mortars where good adhesion and water resistance are required. It can be applicable for thin layer patching
mortars, renders, floor screeds, concrete repair mortars, abrasion resistant lining, and tile fixing mortars.
Sikalatex has greater elasticity, small shrinkage, better adhesion strength, excellent water resistance, better
chemical resistance, and non-toxic.
4. Sikadur-32 N
Wet to dry epoxy resin bonding agent. It is a two component solvent free, moisture insensitive, medium
viscosity, structural epoxy bonding agent used for bonding fresh concrete to an existing concrete or mortar

substrate. It is suitable for vertical anchor bolt grouting. Sikadur-32 N has different advantages, some of them
are: easy to mix and apply, solvent-free, excellent adhesion to concrete and a wide variety of other substrates,
tensile strength far greater than concrete, and can be applied to damp substrates.
4 METHODS OF REPAIR AND REHABILITATION

4.1 General
The following four procedures are followed in almost all repair works. [1]
 Removal of concrete
 Surface cleaning
 Substrate preparation
 Repair material application
4.1.1 Removal of Concrete

When removal of part of concrete structure is required, use power driven chipping tools or hydro demolishing
equipment to remove all loose or defective concrete. Avoid defect and make sound concrete to remain in place.
Avoid hitting reinforcement steel with the chipping tools. Once the initial concrete is removed, use small
power-driven chipping or hydro demolishing equipment to undercut all exposed reinforcement steel. Expose the
entire perimeter of the steel bars for the full area of the repair provide a minimum clearance of 1cm between the
exposed steel and the surrounding concrete or two times the maximum aggregate size, whichever is greater.
Remove additional concreter as necessary to keep the repair area to reasonably uniform depth. The Contractor
shall obtain approval of the completed concrete removal before proceeding to surface preparation.
4.1.2 Surface Cleaning

The area to be repaired shall be cleaned by abrasive blasting, high pressure water blasting, or other methods
approved by the Engineer. All loose particles, dirt, deteriorated concrete or other substances that would impair
the bond of the repair material shall be removed. Exposed reinforcement steel of concrete, rust and other
contaminants shall be cleaned and this should be followed with a high pressure air blast for final cleaning.
4.1.3 Substrate Preparation

Unless directed or specified, use a bonding agent if cement mortar or concrete is used for the repair material.

Use either a cement scrub or epoxy as the bonding agent. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for
bonding agents if pre-packed repair material is used. Apply a cement scrub coat bonding agent to the saturated
surface-dry substrate by scrubbing, brushing, or other methods approved by the Engineer immediately before
placing the repair material. Apply an epoxy bonding agent in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations. Ensure that any bonding agent used does not set or cure prematurely, creating a bond
breaker.
Where saturated surface-dry (SSD) conditions are needed, pre wet the substrate by pounding water on the
surface for 24 hours before placing the repair materials. If pounding is not possible, achieve SSD conditions by
high-pressure water blasting 15 to 30 min. before placing the repair material. A saturated surface-dry condition
is achieved when the surface remains damp is exposed to sunlight for 15min.
4.1.4 Repair Material Application

Place the repair material in an approved manner ensuring that the repair material is in intimate contact with the
substrate and free of voids. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for pre packed repair materials. Place
the repair materials so that the original lines and surfaces of the structure can be restored.
4.2 Repair Methods for Concrete Structural Cracks

4.2.1 General
It is common practice by contractors to hack/chisel out cracked areas and to have them repaired by application
of ordinary mortar constituted with cement and sand. These kinds of repairs eventually fail due to shrinkage and
lack of proper bonding between the old and the new mortar or concrete.
The purpose of the repair work is to stop progress of cracks and to maintain the original situation. Thus, typical
repair systems for cracks are use of epoxy or cement based materials that can penetrate deep inside the cracked
area and bond the exposed surfaces.
Epoxies are applicable to small, deep cracks. Application can be by gun injection or pouring after appropriate
preparation.
Cement rich mixing systems are used for large, shallow cracks. Application can be conventionally by hand,
troweling or gun-spraying. If the crack is reasonably deep repairs are undertaken through buildup.
Before sealing or injecting any materials, it is important to ascertain why and how the cracks originated and
type of crack whether it is dormant or live; this will significantly affect the selection process of repair materials.
Dormant crack: is the one which stops its progress or no increment of crack width nor its length.
Live crack: is the one which continues its propagation or shows increment of crack in width and length from
day to day.
All cracks should be thoroughly cleaned to ensure a strong bond develops between interfaces.
In reinforced concrete, cracks wider than about 0.3 to 0.4 mm should be sealed and filled by injection. Before
deciding the most appropriate method of / material for repairing/ sealing a crack, a determination should be
attempted on its cause and whether it is active or dormant.
Whether the crack is active, may be determined by periodic observation. A crack resulting from a rare load-
application, and which has ceased to propagate, can be repaired (if it is wider than about 0.3 to 0.4 mm) by
pressure –injection with suitable epoxy- formulation so that the integrity is restored and any adverse influence
on the service life of the structure is eliminated or minimized.

Dormant cracks, in excess of about 0.3 to 0.4 mm wide, must be cleaned, seald and then filled, by epoxy-
injection for widths up to about 1mm, and fine cement grout for wider cracks.
Where live cracks, width exceeds about 0.3 to 0.4 mm, “V-groove’ should be made along the crack, the
groove and the cracks cleaned by a dry air-jet, and then filled to parts of its depth by a flexible filler to prevent
ingress of moisture and other deleterious materials till the cracks become dormant. After the crack has become
dormant, the filler can be removed and the crack cleaned and filled with a rigid (epoxy) filler.
It is possible to repair non structural cracks by filling the gap using high polymer special adhesive material like
epoxy resin; however structural cracks can be effectively maintained if and only if the load carrying capacity of
the section is improved by provision of sufficient reinforcement system. Therefore, this study separately deals
with the above two types of cracks. The user of this study shall conduct a detail structural investigation of the
bridge to categories the observed cracks are structural or non structural before applying any of the maintenance
schemes specified below.
The main purpose of structural crack repair is to restore structural integrity across the rack, to increase load
carrying capacity of the section and to block access of water and other harmful chemicals to the reinforcing
steels.
Injection with:
Crack with Yes Width>1.0 mm: Cement Grout
Structural Width <1.0 mm: Rigid Epoxy, Resin
Implication? Or other repair
No Dormant
Yes
Live Crack or
Risk of
Dormant Crack?
Corrosion?
No Live
Yes Injection with

Leakiness? Flexible Epoxy Resin
Surface Treatment
Or Other Repair
No
No Repair
Figure 4.2.1: Repair method chart for cracks


MATERIALS
PROPAGATION TYPE OF CAUSE OF
OF CRACK CRACK REPAIR
DAMAGE
Elastomeric Sealer
No Repair Cement Grout
Live
Flexure
Cement Mortar
Crakes
Caulking Fast Setting Mortar
Shear CRACK
Structural
WIDTH: B Flexible Epoxy Filler
Injection
Crack Rigid Epoxy Filler
Torsion
B<0.2mm Cement Grout
Jacketing
Cracks Vibration Mortar

0.2<B<0.3mm
Dry-pack
Concrete
0.3mm<B<1.0 Shotcrete/Gu Cement Concrete

mm nite
Cement Mortar
Shrinkage
Non- B>1.0 mm Patching Cement Mortar
Structural
Crack Epoxy Concrete
Temperature
Dormant
Coating Bituminous Coating
Cracks Mass-Concrete
Tar
Grinding and
Latex Modified Concrete
Overlay
Higly Dense Concrete
Stitching
Steel Plate
Figure 4.2: Flow chart for repairing of Concrete Cracks
External Post-tensioning Steel
Prestressing
Reinforcement
By Bayu Getachew Page 37 Reinforcement

4.2.2 Stitching With Reinforcement Steel Pins Bonded With Epoxy Resin
Description
This task involves repair of single live cracks width more than 5 mm or multiple cracks width of more than
3mm, together with water leakage, free lime or salt. In bearing area, single crack width of more than 3 mm and
multiple crack width of 1 mm which cause reduction in loading capacity.
This is applied when tensile strength must be reestablished across major cracks. Stitching a crack tends to
stiffen the structure, and the stiffening may emphasize the overall structural restraint, causing the concrete to
crack elsewhere. Therefore, it may be necessary to strengthen the adjacent section using external reinforcement
embedded in a suitable overlay.
Holes drilled in concrete
Bond put in holes
Put in stitching dog by hammer

Figure 4.2.2 stitching procedure
Stitching” across” the cracks in reinforced concrete members is done either along the cracks or as a series of
bands around the members. Reinforcement is placed across the cracks in suitable grooves which are suitable
gunited or gunite / shot crete. Steel pins are used to stitch across the cracks.
The work covered by this division consist of furnishing all labor, materials and equipment to perform all
operations in connection with the complete installation of the work, which involves drilling holes on both sides
of a crack and grouting in stitching dogs (U-Shaped metal units with short legs) that span the crack according to
defect analyses and /or as specified herein.
Material
 Epoxy adhesives used to rebound the crack should conform to ASTM C881, Type I, Low-viscosity grade.
 High yield strength Reinforcement bar Reinforcing steel AASHTO M31
Procedure
1. Drilling holes on both sides of the crack, cleaning the holes, and anchoring the legs of the dogs in the holes,
with either a non shrink grout or an epoxy-resin-based bonding system. The stitching dogs should be
variable in length and orientation or both, and they should be located so that the tension transmitted across
the crack is not applied to a single plane within the section but is spread over an area.
2. Spacing of the stitching dogs should be reduced at the end of racks. In addition, consideration should be
given to drilling a hole at each end of the crack to blunt it and relieve the concentration of stress.
3. Where possible, both sides of the concrete section should be stitched so that further movement of the
structure will not pry or bend the dogs. In bending members, it is possible to stitch one side of the crack
only. Stitching should be done on the tension face, where movement is occurring. If the member is in a state
of axial tension, then the dogs must be placed symmetrically, even if excavation or demolition is required
to gain access to opposite sides of the section.
4. The dogs are relatively thin and long and cannot take much compressive force accordingly, if there is a
tendency for the crack to close as well as to open, the dogs must be stiffened and strengthened, for example,
by encasement in an overlay.

Note: Stitching will not close a crack but can prevent it from propagating further. Where there is a water
problem, the crack should be made watertight as well as stitched to protect the dogs from corrosion. This
repair should be completed before stitching begins. In the case of active cracks, the flexible sealing method
may be used in conjunction with the stitching techniques.
5. No remedies (repairs) to the newly repaired concrete shall be performed without the prior inspection and
approval of the Employer’s Representative.
6. On Completion of the works, the site shall be cleaned of all surplus materials and waste, and left in clean,
tidy condition.
4.2.3 Injection With Flexible Filler

The task involves repair of single live cracks width of more than 1mm or multiple crack width of more than
1mm. It can also be used in bearing area single crack of less than 1mm with no water leakage in concrete bridge
structures.
This type of repair covers the repair of an active crack by flexible seals against the migration of water into the
crack. This method involves routing out active cracks; cleaning them by sandblasting, air –water jetting, or
both; and filling them with flexible Bonder or other suitable molded flexible sealant. Flexible bonder is used for
active cracks when a bond breaker is placed over the crack.
Clean up concrete surface
Injection nipples bonded on
Crack sealed
Ready for injection
Injection
Nipples removed
Figure 4.2.3: Injection procedure

Cleaned up sealing
Finishing

Material
Flexible sealant or mastic, polyethylene strip/pressure-sensitive tape bond breaker are materials involved for
repair. Non Structural cracks observed on RC or Plain Concrete components of bridges are effectively repaired
with high polymer materials such as Epoxy resin, polyurethane resin, Acrylic and others: either by high
pressure injection(up to 30 N/mm2) or low pressure injection (up to 2 N/mm2) techniques. The main purpose is
to restore structural integrity across the crack and to block access of water and other harmful chemicals to the
reinforcing steels.
Procedure
1. Traffic warning signs shall be established at both ends of the works section.
2. The crack should then be cleaned by sandblasting, air- water jetting, or both.
3. A bond breaker should be provided at the bottom of the slot to allow the sealant to change shape without a
concentration of stress on the bottom.
4. The bond breaker may be a polyethylene strip, pressure-sensitive tape, or other material which will not
bond to the sealant before or during cure.
5. Narrow cracks subject to movement, where esthetics are not important, may be sealed with a flexible
surface seal if the crack width is greater than 5mm.
6. By using a bond breaker over the crack, a flexible joint sealant may be toweled over the bond breaker
providing an adequate bonding area.
7. To maintain hydraulic efficiency in some structures, it may be necessary to cut the concrete surface
adjacent to the crack and to place the retaining cap flush with the original flow lines.
8. The crack should then be cleaned by sandblasting, air –water jetting, or both. The mastic is placed into the
routed crack slot and a retaining cap placed over the mastic to confine it. A simple retainer can be made by
positioning a metal strip across the crack and fastening it to expandable anchors or grouted bolts installed in
the concrete along one side of the crack.
approval the Employer’s Representative.
10. On completion of the works, the site shall be cleaned of all surplus materials and waste, and left in clean,
tidy condition.
4.2.4 Injection With Rigid Epoxy Filler

Description
The task involves repair of single dormant crack width of more than 1 mm or multiple crack width of more
than 1 mm. In bearing area single crack width of less than 1mm with no water leakage in concrete bridge
structures such as deck slab and girder.
Epoxy injection of cracks in concrete is a highly skilled process and its success depends largely on the
efficiency of the operator. Considerable skill and experience are needed for the successful application of epoxy
resin materials. They have to be applied within a very limited time before they harden and have to be handled
cleanly to avoid contamination of both the resin mixture and the people working with them.
Therefore, the Supervisor should make sure that the Contractor’s personnel appointed for this particular job
are a specialist on the matter.
Epoxy injection system can be applied for repair of cracks for rigid sealing, dry, moist or wet cracks in
reinforced concrete members as well. However, unless the crack is dormant (or the cause of cracking is
removed, thereby making the crack dormant), cracking will probably reoccur, and structural repair by injection
should not be used.

This system shall consist of a paste epoxy used to seal the surface cracks and an injection epoxy used under
low pressure 1400 kPa (1.4 N/mm2) max. to penetrate and fill the cracks and bond the crack surfaces together.
Material for each epoxy shall consist of a two-component modified resin bonding system, the base and the
hardner.
Accurate batching and proper mixing of the components is crucial for attaining maximum strength and other
properties of the epoxy materials. Chemical reactions start as soon as the resin components are combined and
the working time shall depend on the system, the temperature and the handling process.
Jacketing method involves fastening of external material over the concrete members to provide the required
performance characteristics and restoring the structural value. The jacketing materials are secured to concrete
by means of bolts and adhesives or by bonding with existing concrete. Fiber-glass reinforced plastics, and
polypropylene can also be used for jacketing.
Clean up damaged part
Bonding
Anchorage bar setting
Form work
Concreting
Figure 4.2.4 Jacketing method
Materials
Epoxy Injection fluid shall confirm the following requirements: The resins for crack injection system shall have
a two part solvent free low viscosity polymer. The flexible, low viscosity, polymer, crack injection resins
mixed in proportions specified by a supplier & injected in to cracks in concrete, the resin shall form a slightly
flexible & impermeable barrier in both dry & damp condition, and thus, shall form permanent seal in cracked
concrete.
4.2.5 Caulking Using Cement Grout (Hydraulic) or Cement Rigid Epoxy Filler
Description: The task involves repair of single dormant crack width of more than 5mm or multiple cracks
width of more than 3mm, together with water leakage, free lime or salt. In bearing area, single crack width of
more than 3mm and multiple crack width of 1mm which causes reduction in loading requires repair. Caulking
method is used for cracks wider than about 0.5mm.
The job consists of cleaning the concrete along the crack, Cutting the concrete following along the crack with a
concrete saw or with hand or pneumatic tools and opening the crack sufficiently in to “V” or “U” shape to
receive the cement grout or mortar installing injection ports (grout nipples) at intervals aside the crack (to

provide a pressure-tight contact with the injection apparatus), sealing the crack between the injection ports,
flushing the crack to clean it and test the seal, and then grouting the crack.
Materials: Mixtures of neat Portland cement, and water. Other additives and admixtures (siliceous residue,
diatomite) may be added on the approval of the Engineer.
The proportions of ordinary Portland cement to sand will depend upon the size of the spaces to be filled and
will vary from a neat grout to about 1:2 mix. Mix containing two parts sand to one part cement can be
successfully pumped if all the sand passes the No. 16 sieve and 15 percent or more passes the No.100 sieve. The
amount of water to be added depends upon the consistency required. Grouts with as little as 16 liters of water
per bag of cement could be handled and it should seldom be necessary to use more than 35 to 40 liters of water
per bag of cement. Where necessary and approved by the engineer, admixtures to Portland cement grout
mixtures may be added for delaying the setting time, increasing flow ability minimizing segregation and
shrinkage. Water shall be fresh, clean, and free form injurious amounts of sewage, oil, acid, alkali, or organic
matter.
.
Figure 4.2 crack arresting method using semicircular pipe during concrete repair
4.3 Repair Methods for Concrete Peel off, Delimitation and Void
Concrete voids are created due to poor vibration of fresh concrete during pouring (unable to vibrate it
sufficiently) of failure to vibrate it before the initial setting time. Concrete voids on the permanent structures
have to be maintained to restore the integral concrete strength of the structure designed to act as a unit, and to
protect reinforcements and the concrete from effect of water leakage or dampness which potentially generates
rusting and deterioration. Removal of the defective concrete and replacement with a suitable material and
workmanship are the major techniques discussed under.

REPAIR METHOD MATERIALS
Mortar
Dry-packing
SIZE OF Concrete
LOCATION DAMAGE
Cement Mortar
DEPTH OF (A: AREA) Patching
DAMAGE Epoxy Concrete
Reinforcem Superstructure Epoxy Concrete

ent Exposed Resurfacing
Polymer Concrete
0.1 m2>A
Delimitation/
Honeycombs
Cement Concrete
Shotcrete/Gunite
Cement Mortar (Fast-
0.1 m2≤ A setting Mortar)
Reinforcem
ent not
Coarse Aggregate
exposed Pre-packing
+
Substructure
Cement Sand Grout
Portland Cement
Concrete
Low-Slump, High
Dense Concrete
Figure 4.3: Flow chart for repairing of Concrete Peel off, Delimitation and Void
High Almina Cement
Concrete Concrete
Replacement Epoxy Mortar Cement
and Concrete
Polymer Concrete
By Bayu Getachew Page 43 Latex-Modified
Concrete
4.3.1 Concrete Void Repair by Using Dry-Pack Mortar
The task involves repair of partial range of honeycomb or de lamination, which affect the durability of concrete
bridge structures. This item shall consist of furnishing the necessary labor, material and equipment to repair
honeycomb and delaminating in concrete bridges with dry-pack methodology, the item includes preparation,
mixing placing, finishing and curing of the dry-pack mortar.
Dry packing is a process of ramming or tamping into a confined area a low water-content mortar. Because of
the low W/c material, there is little shrinkage, and the patch remains tight and is of good quality with respect to
durability, strength, and water tightness. This technique has an advantage in that no special equipment is
required. However, the method does require that the craftsman making the repair be skilled in this particular
type of work.
Clean up damaged part
Form work
Full up the material
Tighting the material
Take care with 7 days
Remove form work
Figure 4.3.1: A dry pack method
Materials: The material needed for maintenance by dry-packing method is a slurry bond and a low water-
content mortar. The cement slurry bond coat consists of equal parts of cement and fine sand and the mortar
consists of one part cement, two and one-half (2 1/2) to three (3) parts sands passing a No. 16 sieve, and only
enough water so that the mortar will stick together when molded into a ball by slight pressure of the hands and
will not exude (give off) water but will leave the hands dry.
If the patch must match the color of the surrounding concrete, a blend of Portland cement and white cement can
be used. About one-third white cement is adequate for blending, but the precise proportions should be
determined by trial.
Dry pack, mortal shall consist of type I or II Portland cement, clean sand that will pass a 1.18mm (No.16) sieve,
and clean water.

Procedures
1. The Employer’s Representative will indicate what part of the existing structure is to be removed and the
required dimension of the new work
2. The area to be repaired should be undercut slightly so that the base width is slightly greater than the surface
width.
3. After the area or slot is thoroughly cleaned and dried, a bond coat should be applied. Placing of the dry-pack
mortar should begin immediately.
4. Dry-pack mortar should be placed in layers having a compacted thickness of about 10 mm (3/8 in.) Each
layer should be compacted by use of a hardwood stick. It is usually necessary to scratch the surface of the
compacted layers to provide bond for the next layer. One layer may be placed immediately after another
unless an appreciable rubbery quality develops; if this occurs, work on the repair should be delayed 30 to 40
minutes.
5. Successive layers of dry pack are placed without interval, unless the material becomes spongy, in which case
there should be a short wait until the surface stiffens. Area should be filled flush and finished by striking a
flat-sided board or the flat of the hard wood stick against the surface.
6. After being finished, the repaired area should be cured. Procedures for curing and protection of dry pack
repair area should be protected and not exposed to freezing temperatures for at least 3 days after application
of the curing compound.
approval the Employer’s Representative.
8. On completion of the works, the site shall be cleaned of all surplus materials and waste, and left in clean,
tidy condition.
4.3.2 Concrete Void Repair by Using Portland Cement/Sand Mix Mortar Blended With Epoxy Resin
The task involves repair of wide range of voids, which affect the durability of concrete bridge structures having
a volume of less than 600 cm3.
The concrete Void will be repaired by a Portland Cement/sand mix mortar blended with Epoxy Resin. The
plastering will be applied either using a pressure grout or conventional hand tools. In areas where formwork
erection and concrete casting is possible, the maintenance operation is done using a Portland Cement Concrete.
The suitable concrete mix shall have a minimum cement content of 340kg/m3 with a maximum aggregate size
of 10mm and slump in the range of 25mm to 75 mm. The same techniques of mixing and paving of the cement
based polymer modified concrete shall be adopted as concrete peel of maintenance.
Materials
The Epoxy Resin and cement based polymer modified concrete shall also fulfill the criteria set above or like the
materials used for concrete void repair by using dry-pack mortar.
Procedures
A. Employer’s Representative will indicate what part of the existing structure is to be removed and the
required dimension of the new work.

B. Determine the extent of defective area by sounding with a hammer or other approved method and mark the
area to be removed. Remove all defective concrete portions marked up to 10 mm below the reinforcement,
if any, using the following techniques.
 Small pneumatic hammer
 Small electric Jackhammer
 Sludge hammer and chisel the concrete may be removed using high – pressure water blasting. In all the
above mentioned techniques, care must be taken to a avoid defect to the surrounding concrete.
C. After properly cleaning the removed part, the old concrete surface shall be primed with Epoxy Resin (avoid
applying too thickly). The concrete Void will be repaired by a Portland cement/ sand mix mortar blended
with Epoxy Resin. The plastering will then be applied either using a pressure grout or conventional hand
tools. In areas where formwork erection and concrete casting is possible, the maintenance operation is done
using a Portland Cement Concrete. The suitable concrete mix shall have a minimum cement content of
340Kg/m3 with a maximum nominal aggregate size of 10mm and a slump in the range of 25mm to 75mm.
The same techniques of mixing and paving of the cement based polymer modified concrete shall be adopted
for concrete peel of maintenance. Forms and scaffolds shall be erected both for the actual construction
purpose and for curing of the fresh mortar or the Portland cement concrete.
D. No remedies (repairs) to the newly repaired concrete shall be performed without the prior inspection and
approval of the employer’s Representative.
E. On completion of the works, the site shall be cleaned of all surplus materials and waste, and left in clean,
tidy condition.
Traffic Control
Except deteriorated concrete
Install formwork
Concreting
Take care few hours-few days

Figure 4.3.2: Patching method

4.4 Repair Methods for Concrete Structure Honey Comb

Honey comp is the voids left in concrete due to failure of the mortar to effectively fill the spaces among coarse
aggregate materials. This is caused by lack of vibration or over vibration, which creates air bubbles. Repairing
of honey comp requires preparatory work and resurfacing.
I. Preparatory work
It is always better to avoid imperfections such as honeycombing in concrete rather than repairing. However, if
honeycombing does occur then it can be repaired using the following techniques.
 The extent and depth of the honeycombed area first needs to be defined. This can be done by chiseling out
the affected area to expose sound concrete or by using non-destructive testing techniques such as impact-
echo.
 If the honeycombed area is small in extent and depth does not significantly jeopardize the quality of the
cover concrete protecting the reinforcement then it can be repaired by patching with mortar of a similar
color to the base concrete. Remove any lightly attached stones before the mortar is worked into the spaces
between the aggregate ensuring that it completely fills the honeycombed area.
 The area should be slightly over filled and screeded off to give a similar texture to the surrounding surface.
The patch should then be cured.
 Consideration needs to be given to the appearance of the repaired surface relative to adjacent untreated
surfaces.
 As a general rule, mortar used for patching should be made from the same materials as the original concrete
except to lighten the color and thus better match the existing surface.
 If the honeycombing is extensive and requires penetration down to the reinforcement or even deeper, it is
necessary to cut out the defective concrete and replace it with sound concrete.
It is essential that the reinforcement be surrounded by sound concrete. The advice of a suitably qualified
engineer should be obtained to check that the load-carrying capacity of the member, as repaired, will be
satisfactory.
II. Resurfacing
Honeycomb can be repaired by using Dry-Pack Patching or Gunite/shotcrete Pre-placed aggregate.
Shotcrete (Pneumatically applied cement-concrete) and Gunite (pneumatically applied cement-mortar) are
suitable for forming the new concrete (i.e. the restoration- concrete) and for strengthening and jacketing of
various structural elements.
Re-surfacing method, here –in after, describing about polymer concrete overly, a polymer concrete overlay
protective system has been used as an experimental project in several countries.
The overlay consists of an application of monomer resin to the desk surface, followed by an application of the
fine aggregate.
The process is repeated until four layers have been placed. The overlay is relatively impermeable and skid
resistant. Generally, the resin is over the deck and fine aggregate is covered over the resin. After
polymerization, the excessive aggregate is removed and the process is repeated for other layers. The four layers
produce a thickness of about 12 to 15 mm. The overlay system consists of the following steps for each layer.
1. Surface Preparation,
2. Mixing and application of monomer resin,
3. Fine aggregate application and compaction
4. Polymerization of monomer and removal of excess aggregate.

Expossed deteriorated concrete
Cement Mortar Mix
Spread mixed cement
Figure 4.4.2a: Shotcrete/Gunite Method
4.5 Repair Methods for Scaling or spalling of Concrete

1. Scaling: Scaling is a form of disintegration. A common cause of scaling is freezing and thawing conditions.
Localized flaking or peeling is normally a form of scaling. Scaling, which can also be referred to as
spalling, is rated based on the depth of the defect. The rating system is as follows:
 Light spalling: is when the loss of surface mortar does not expose any coarse aggregate.
 Medium spalling: occurs when the damage has a depth of up to 10mm.
 Severe spalling: is determined when the depth of the damage ranges from 5mm to 10mm. There is also
some loss of mortar surrounding aggregate particles with a depth range of 10mm to 20mm.
 Very severe spalling: is the loss of coarse aggregate particles, as well as surface mortar and surrounding
aggregate, generally to a depth greater than 20mm.
Scaled concrete surfaces can be repaired by applying a thin resurfacing of concrete properly bonded to the
underlying old concrete. All defective concrete must be removed from the surface, by scarifying or scrubbing
with hydrochloric acid, before applying the new concrete.
A thin layer of neat cement paste should be brushed into the damp surface of old concrete is placed, finished
and cured by normal procedures. Any relief joints present in the old concrete should be carried through the new
resurfacing.

MATERIALS
L Asphalt Cement
REPAIR METHOD
O
C Concrete
A
Overlaying
DEPTH OF T Epoxy/Polymer
DAMAGE I SIZE OF Concrete
CAUSE OF
O DAMAGE
DAMAGE Latex Modified
(A=AREA)
Concrete
Rein
S
By forcement U Resurfacing Epoxy
1.0 M2>A
Vehicle exposed P Concrete
Running Polymer
E
Concrete
W R
E
A S
T Mortar
R Dry-packing
I .
Concrete
N
G
Reinforcem S
tn not U Coarse
By River B
exposed 1.0 M2≤A Pre- packing Aggregate
Flow +
ST
Cement Sand
Grout
Portland
cement
Concrete
Low-Slump,
High Dense
Concrete
Asphalt Concrete
Replacement
Epoxy Mortar
Cement Concrete
Figure4.5 flow chart for repairing of Concrete Scaling or spalling
Polymer concrete
Latex-Modified
Concrete

4.6 Other Defects Repair Methods
4.6.1 Scouring and Erosion
4.6.1.1 Repair Methods for Scouring
Riprap remains the most common countermeasure used to prevent scour at bridge abutments. A number of
physical additions to the abutments of bridges can help prevent scour, such as the installation of gabions and
stone pitching upstream form the foundation. The addition of sheet piles or interlocking prefabricated concrete
blocks can also offer protection.
Trapezoidal-shaped channels through a bridge can significantly decrease local scour depths compared to
vertical wall abutments, as they provide a smoother transition through a bridge opening. This eliminates abrupt
corners that cause turbulent areas. Spur dikes barbs, groins, and vanes are river training structures that change
stream hydraulics to mitigate undesirable erosion or deposits. They are usually used on unstable stream
channels to help redirect stream flow to more desirable locations through the bridge. The insertion of piles or
deeper footings is also used to help strengthen bridges.
If a pier is found to be suffering from adverse scour conditions, the problem can be corrected by changing the
structure (enlarging the footing, strengthening or adding piles, providing a sheet piling barrier around the pier
foundation) or replacing the material which has been washed away (broken stone, concrete rip rap,..)
Hydraulic protection techniques include slope protection, foot protection, river bed protection and river
realignment depending on the extent and nature of the hydraulic problems encountered such as scour, erosion,
and fold flow.
Slope protection is applicable to river banks adjacent to abutments where erosion is observed.
Footing protection is applicable to footing of the slope area in order to prevent slope failure caused by scouring
action on the river bed. River bed protection is applicable to river bed surrounding the river piers where local
scouring or river bed lowering is observed.
River realignment work is applicable to extremely eroded banks of a meandering river located at the vicinity of
a bridge upstream.
Selection of a specific protection technique depends on the stream type, river scale, flood flow velocity,
foundation type and geology of each site.
 Gabion Protection for Scouring: The task involves preventing slope failure caused by scouring action on
the river bed, for small scale river.
Materials used for construction of Gabion walls and mattresses are:
Rock: Rock used for gabion structures shall consist of clean, sound durable stones that are resistant to
weathering and water action. Shale or other soft rock may not be used. The stones shall be angular in shape with
a height and width dimension of at least one third the length.
The gradation of the mixture shall be such that at least 80 percent (by weight) of the stones have a minimum
dimension of at least 125mm. The maximum dimension of a stone shall be the lesser of 300 mm or the gabion
structure thickness.

Gabions: Gabion baskets shall be cubical in shape and shall be assembled from independent rectangular faces
laced or clipped together. They shall comprise galvanized steel wire of the following minimum diameters: mesh
wire 3mm (or Gauge 17), Perimeter/selvage to all edges 3.9mm (or Gauge 19), tying/binding 2.2mm (or Gauge
15). The individual gabions shall not be greater than 2m x 1m x 1m although the contractor may substitute
equivalent multiple of smaller sizes at his own additional cost. They shall be fitted with the manufacture’s
recommendations such that the individual cells do not have a length exceeding the width. Meshes shall be
hexagonal with openings no greater than 100mm x 120mm.
Procedures
1. Traffic warning signs shall be established at both ends of the work section
2. All stumps, roots debris and rocks shall be roved and disposed of as directed by the Consultant, prior to
placing gabions. Excavation to accommodate gabion installation shall be carried out to the lines and
levels as specified on the plans or as directed by the Consultant.
3. Gabion cages shall be assembled by tying the appropriate faces together along the self edges with
binding wire. The binding wire shall be tightly looped around every other mesh opening to form a spiral
with single and double loops alternating.
When assembled, gabion baskets shall be divided by the diaphragms into compartments having a plan
dimension of one meter square. Gabion mattress shall be separated lengthwise by the dividers in to 1m
wide strips. The diaphragms shall further subdivide the mattress into compartments that have a plan
dimension of 1m x 3m. Gabion units, grouped together to form a gabion structure, shall be securely
bound to each other along all contacting self edges in the same manner as the faces are bound in the
assembly of the cages.
4. Extend gabions, on slope, at least 1m below streambed or to non- erodible material. Where it is feasible,
extend gabion out from the toe across the streambed of an erodible channel a horizontal distance of at
least 5 times the thickness of the gabion mattress.
5. Rock for filling gabion boxes and mattresses shall be hard durable stone of low porosity having an
interlocking texture with few discernible defects. Grading Rock filling for the gabion boxes shall comply
with the following grading.
Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing

200 80 -100
150 0 – 40
75 0 -10
9.5 <2
Rocks shall be filled in the assembled cage units either by machine or by hand. When machine is used, minor
rock repositioning shall be done by hand to fill the voids between larger rocks and there by achieve a dense
structure. Rocks along visible faces shall be selected and placed by hand form among the larger sizes with a flat
face toward the exterior to produce a likely of a masonry structure and a neat and work man like appearance.

6. Following the filling of each gabion unit, the lid shall be affixed in position so that the self edges coincide
with the perimeter of the filled gabion unit. The self edges shall then be laced together in the same manner as
described above.
7. Following filling of each gabion unit final level is reached, filling around gabions and sides of excavations
will be accomplished. Backfilling shall comprise compacted gravel or crushed rock, free from organic matter
and clay lumps, conforming to the following grading.
Sieve Size (mm) Percentage passing

200 100
75 80 -100
0.075 0 – 15
Backfilling shall be placed and compacted in layers not exceeding 200 mm thickness. Backfilling shall be
compacted to a density not less than 95% of the maximum dry density ratio determined for the in situ material
using Standard Compaction. Material directly above gabion boxes shall be placed without compaction. On
completion of the works, the site shall be cleaned of all surplus materials and waste, and left in clean, tidy
condition.
 Spur Dike by Stone Masonry: The task involves reducing erosion caused by water flowing along the
upstream side of the embankment. Scour may still occur with spur dikes, but it will be moved upstream and
away from the abutments. Spur dike is applicable for large-scale river. This item shall consist of providing the
necessary labor, materials and equipment to construct spur dike at the vicinity of a bridge upstream including
clearing, excavation, driving wooden log piles, and construction the spur dike as specified by the engineer.
1) Spur Dike by Stone Masonry

2) (Type A)
Procedures
2. Areas on which spur dike is to be constructed shall be cleared, grubbed, and excavated as specified on the
plans or as directed by the Consultant.
3. A box like compartment shall be prepared by driving wooden piles of diameter 150mm at 15cm to 30 cm
center to center. The piles are secured by wooden bracings. The hollow spacing is filled up by boulders.
4. The dike shall be constructed in successive layers of earth about 45cm thick by mechanical compaction. The
layers are thoroughly compacted by rollers of recommended weight and type. When compaction of one layer
is fully achieved, the next layer should be laid and compacted. The designed spur dike section hence shall be
completed layer by layer.
5. These dikes shall consists segments of dikes located river ward from the existing bank with gaps between the
dikes 2 or 2-1/2 times the structure length. The length of the gaps between the dikes hall be about 50 to 60
percent of the length of each vane. The dikes should be placed at a slight angle to the direction of flow, about
10 to 15 degrees, with the downstream end of the dike farther riverward than the upstream end.
The side slopes (upstream and downstream faces) of spur dikes should be maintained on the natural angle of
repose of the earth material used to construct the dikes.

6. Slopes shall be finished to a reasonably smooth and compact surface within a tolerance of 15cm from the
surface lines shown on the plans. Immediately prior to placement of riprap bedding, the prepared base will
be inspected. Riprap or bedding shall not be placed until the prepared base has been approved.
7. The finished slope shall be back filled with gravel and sand which is spreaded uniformly. Compaction of the
bedding material will not be required, but material shall be finished to a reasonably even surface, free form
mounds or depressions.
8. Riprap shall be placed over the backfill material in a manner that will produce a reasonably well-graded
mass of rock with the minimum practicable percentage of voids. Riprap shall be placed to its full course
thickness in one operation and in a manner to avoid displacing underlying material.
Finished riprap shall be free from objectionable pockets of small stones and clusters of larger stones. Hand
placing may be required to the extent necessary to secure the results specified and form uniform slopes.
Rock for grouted Riprap shall be thoroughly moistened and any excess of fines shall be sluiced to the
underside of the stone blanket before grouting. Stones shall weight between 50 and 150 pounds each. At
least 60 percent shall weigh more than 100 pounds, and approximately 10 percent may weigh 50 pounds less.
Care shall be taken during placing to keep earth or sand from filling spaces between stones. After stones are
in place, spaces between them shall be filled with grout from bottom to top and the surface swept with a stiff
broom.
9. Grout shall consist of 1 part hydraulic cement and 3 parts sand, thoroughly mixed with water to produce
grout having a thick, creamy consistency.
Riprap shall not be grouted in freezing weather. In hot, dry weather, the work shall be protected from
sunlight and kept moist for at least 3 days after grouting by the use of saturated burlap.
The grout may be delivered to the place of final deposit by any means that will insure uniformity and prevent
segregation of the grout. If penetration of grout is not obtained by gravity flow into the interstices, the grout
shall spaded or roded to completely fill the voids in the stone blanket. Pressure grouting shall not unseat the
stones; and during placing by this method, the grout shall be spaded or roded into the voids.
Penetration of the grout shall be to the depth specified on the project plans. When a rough surface is
specified, stone shall be brushed until from one-fourth to one-half of the depth of the maximum size stone is
exposed. For a smooth surface, grout shall fill the interstices to within a 1.25cm of the surface.
On completion of the works, the site shall be cleaned of all surplus materials and waste, and left in clean,
tidy condition.
 Dumping Stone
The task involves preventing slope failure caused by scouring action on the river bed, for small to Medium
River and foundation ground is relatively solid.
Materials
The rock material shall be sound and durable, angular in shape, resistant to weathering and water action. The
material should be free of overburden, spoil, shale or organic material, cracks or other structural defects and
shall have a specific gravity of a t least 2.40.
Gradation of the rock shall be weighing not less than 5 kgs and at least 50 percent of the rock shall weight
not less than 50 kgs.

Dumped Stone & Wire Mesh Gabion

Procedures
2. Areas on which footing protection is to be constructed shall be cleared, grubbed, and excavated. A footing
trench shall be provided along the toe of the slope and the trench shall be constructed as detailed in the
plans. The river bed should also be cleared and leveled and backfill the river bed in layers using gravel,
broken stone or quarry waste up to a minimum depth of 0.5 to 1.5 m.
3. Place mass stone with minimum practicable percentage of voids and a minimum thickness of 24 mm. The
scoured area to be filled with rock using stone of 10-30 kg weight, or heavier, and place the smaller size
stone in the lower layer
4. Fill spaces between stones with smaller size stone
5. Continue work layer after layer until final level is reached. The top layer should contain the heaviest stones
and have an even flat surface at river bed level
6. When it is not possible to place stones in regular layers due to water flow, the scour area can be filled by
random filling of the scour depression. Drop stone blocks into scour depression either from the bridge or
from the bank until the depression has been filled.
 Placing of Rip Rap
This methodology is applicable in preventing foundation failure caused by scouring action on the river bed, and
at the base of abutments and piers.
This item shall consist of providing the necessary labor, materials and equipment to repair foundation scouring
including the preparation of the ground surface to receive gabions, the construction of the gabion structures in
place, complete with rock filling at locations specified on the drawings.
1) Stone Masonry (Type A)
Materials
Materials used for rehabilitating scour are stone fulfilling the 2002 ERA standard Technical Bridge Repair
Manual, Division 8400 and 8900.
Procedures
Stakeout the area around the river bed, the pier or abutment wall where scour has occurred
Excavate the scoured area to the lowest eroded level
Place riprap stones in layer in the excavated and prepared scoured hole starting with the smaller size stone in
lowest layer.
Fill space between stones with a cyclopean concrete (1cement: 4 sand: 8 stone by volume).
Continue work layer after layer until normal bed level is reached. The top layer should contain the heaviest
stones and have a flat even surface at river bed level.
4.6.2 Water Leakage and Deteriorations
4.6.2.1 Repair by Coating – Using Acrylic Polymer
The task is applicable for stopping serious and wide range of water leakage through cracks or voids which may
progress and cause a reduction in loading capacity, together with leaching free lime or salt.
Materials: Materials used under crack, voids, and blockage of drains are independently specified on the
respective defect repairs. The material used for coating of concrete surface to prevent water leakage is Acrylic
Polymer Coating.

Procedures
Following the maintenance steps of the concrete, all surfaces to be treated with the acrylic polymer shall be dry
and free from contamination such as oil, grease, loose particles, decayed matters, moss, algal growth, and all
traces of mould release oils and curing compounds. This is best achieved by lightly grit-blasting the surface.
The surface shall be then treated to be pre-soaked with clean water.
The liquid formed from acrylic polymer modified cementitious coating supplied in ready to mix kit shall be
poured into a metal drum and an equal volume of clean fresh water shall be added for brush application
consistency.
Mixing shall be done with a propeller agitator attached to a slow speed drill all as per the supplier’s instruction.
The powder component shall be added gradually to avoid lump formation and mixed for 2 to 4 minutes.
The prepared mix shall then be immediately applied after mixing up to a total dry thickness of not less than
2mm. For further detail, the user shall follow the supplier’s manual.
Coating is a kind of water- proofing “membrane” system (for preventing moisture ingress). The bitumionous
wearing surface with “membrane” has been widely in Europe and United States, and its performance has been
acceptable.
The advantages of a membrane are its easy installation and relatively low cost. The advantages are as follows.
1. Premature deterioration of bituminous overly in area of high volume traffic and inadequate drainage.
2. Blistering, caused by expansion of trapped and water vapor after placement
3. Poor bonding at the protection layers in the area near the expansion joint.
4. Local instabilities due to bleeding and bubbling
5. Replacement of the membrane wherever the surface is removed
It is suggested that the minimum thickness of asphalt wearing surface over the membrane be a minimum of 65
to 80 mm. If placed in two coarse, the lower course should be denser or more impermeable than the upper
course in order to prevent trapping of water in the low course.
4.6.2.2 Repair by Grouting – using Portland cement
The task is applicable for stopping serious and wide range of water leakage through cracks or voids which may
progress and cause a reduction in loading capacity, together with leaching free lime or salt.
Wide cracks may be repaired by filling with Portland cement grout. This method is effective in stopping water
leaks, but it will not structurally bond cracked sections.
Materials: Grout mixtures may contain cement and water or cement plus sand and water, depending on the
width of the crack. However, the water – cement ratio should be kept as low as practical to maximize the
strength and shrinkage.

Procedures
 Traffic warning signs shall be established at both ends of the work section
 Clean the concrete along the crack
 Install built-up seats (grout nipples) at intervals astride the crack to provide a pressure tight connection
with the injection apparatus and seal the crack between the seats with a cement paste.
 Pump grout into the crack through the nipples. Maintain the pressure for several minutes to ensure good
penetration of the grout. The grout should have a water-cement ratio of one part cement to one to five
parts water.
 No remedies (repairs) to the newly repaired concrete shall be performed without the prior inspection
and approval of the Employer’s Representative.
 On completion of the works, the site shall be cleaned of all surplus materials and waste, and left in
clean, tidy condition.
4.6.3 Concrete Deck – Slab and Pier Columns Deterioration and Repair Methods
4.6.3.1 Repair of Concrete Deck – Slab by Removing and Casting new Concrete
 Chiseling, Demolishing and Cleaning
A) All elements of the bridge shall be chiseled and plastered (horizontal, vertical and overhanging) and
all surfaces, as directed by the Engineer.
B) Chisel out and remove all spelled, unsound, damaged, fouled, porous and loose concrete plus
other identified area of unsound concrete. During removal of concrete, the concrete should be removed
to expose the full circumference of steel reinforcement and should extend along the length of the
corroding bar for at least 50 mm beyond point at which corrosion is visible. Exercise care when
chipping out concrete so as not to cause structural damage.
C) All exposed reinforcement should be cleaned/ brushed to remove scale and rust. It must be ensured
that all areas prior to treatment are free from all unsound materials such as dust, oil, grease, corrosion by
products and organic materials.
D) Treat substrate using biowash.
 Placement of a new Rebars and Concrete
A) Prime substrate by bonding primer to obtain maximum adhesion.
B) Apply polymer modified repair mortar using shot concrete or approved method for piers.
C) Place reinforcement. Transverse bars shall be bent up so as not to block the traffic on the other lane
D) Place form work for expansion gap at every end of pan.
E) Pour polymer modified concrete as per the drawing.
F) Cure using curing membrane as per the specification.
G) After seven days coat with water proofing material including the main span.
H) After curing as per the manufacturer specification, place asphalt concrete for the whole span to level
with the main span.
4.6.4 Repair of Pier Columns – Encasing
The repair work shall be conducted for all elements of the pier as indicated in the drawings and as directed by
the Resident Engineer (pier column, pier cap, bracing).

A) Remove existing concrete cover.

B) Brush cleans the existing reinforcement.
C) Place additional reinforcement bars as per the design.
D) Apply polymer modified repair mortar using shot concrete or approved method.
E) Cure using curing membrane as per the specification. After the mortar is cured coat with water proofing
material.
General procedure for Application of materials
A) The areas to be treated must be free from all unsound material that is dust oil, corrosion, byproducts and
organic growth.
B) Smooth surfaces should be roughened; all loose material and surfaces has to be removed and steel cleaned
to bright metal preferably using wet grit or water blasting techniques or equivalent approved methods.
C) The prepared substrate concrete should be thoroughly soaked (preferably 24 hours before) with clean water
until uniformly saturated without any standing water. Highly porous substances may require sealing with
polymer admixture.
D) Mix of priming material shall be as per the specification of the manufacture
E) Placing shall be applied using spray techniques. Make sure air is not entrapped and ensure total protection is
achieved to the satisfaction of the Resident Engineer. Manufacturer specification shall be strictly followed.
F) Application of curing membrane should take place as soon as after any residual surface water form trawling
has evaporated. But generally, manufacturer specification shall be strictly followed. It is important that the
surface of the coating is protected from strong sun light and drying wind with curing membrane.
G) For maximum curing efficiency, if the surface is subject to strong sunlight or drying winds, a second coat
should be applied. This waiting time is generally 15 minutes.
H) Overcoat as per the specification of the manufacturer.
I) To obtain maximum adhesion to coatings and cement based substrates, the surfaces of the reveals should be
primed with bonding primes. Sealant must be applied as per the specification of the manufacturer.
J) Biowash shall be spray applied. It kill active mould, fungal and bacterial spores and chlorophyll containing
organisms such a moss, Lichen and algae, within a maximum of two days, Remain active after its initial
application, guarding against subsequent infection for up to two years.
K) Application should take place after cleaning visible areas of growth by wire brush, scraper or mechanical
means. Apply biowash undiluted by brush, roller or airless spray to areas exhibiting visible contamination,
ensuring that all surfaces are thoroughly wetted. Wash off bleach solution and remove dead growth by hosing
or brushing. Allow to dry before subsequent treatment.
4.6.5 Practical example of deck repair on Awash River Bridge
General repair of Awash Bridge (along Addis - Jimma, A5 route) was conducted under capacity building
program of ERA and JICA cooperation. The repair work focused on resurfacing of highly damaged girders
side, restoration of deteriorated decks and highly exposed Girders.
In repair of Deck slabs the following procedures were followed.

Deck slabs at drainage locations
 Remove deteriorated concrete (use hammer sounding technique)

 Remove the rust of exposed rebar and set a new rebar by welding or wiring considering the required
overlap which is not less than 60 cm,
 Paint anti-rust paint to rebar
 Wet the surface by water to create a surface saturated water condition for bonding
 Prepare and plaster using a specially prepared mortar mix with bonding agent (if necessary use form
work)
 Apply the normal mortar mix shortly before bonding agent dries, use your hands to apply the mortar
hard
 Treat the surface with cement screed
 Then, use water spray to cure for avoiding drying shrinkage crack.
Along with the deck slab repair, drainage repair was made using the following procedures
 Removing the accumulated soil on the top of the deck blocking the drainage
 Removing the old drain pipe and making a hole for the new PVC drain pipe
 Set the new pipe of Dia,50 and 75 mm with enough length for avoiding damage by flushed water
 Fill up a gap between the pipe and the concrete by epoxy resin with sand to avoid water leakage
 Set bars at upper opening for protection against debris and set elbow at bottom of pipe for avoiding
flush of water to girder and deck
 Provide the upper draining area with a tapered surface for easy
 Apply the mortars like the above repairs
 Treat the surface with cement screed
 Then, use water spray and vinyl sheet to cure for avoid drying shrinkage crack
4.6.6 Rust Treatment of Concrete Reinforcing Bar
4.6.6.1 Repair of Rusted Re-bars

The purpose of reinforcement bar repairing is to replace the rusted or chemically affected and severely defect
portion, and to cover the reinforcement for avoiding further strength deterioration. The task involves repair of
partial rebar exposure without corrosion, which affects the durability of the deck slab and beams. For proper
repairing or replacing of rebar exposure, the following steps may be used
Step 1 Concrete removal around the full circumference of the corroded re-bar
Step 2 Removal of rust and other bad material of re-bar
Step 3 Repair or replacement of defect bars or bars with critical section loss.
Step 4 Anti-corrosion coatings may be applied to re-bar protection
If the reinforcing steel has lost more than 25% of its cross section, then repair of rebar is generally required. In
this cause, supplemental bar over affected length has to be provided. New bar may be mechanically spliced to
affected bar or placed parallel to existing bar.
a. Repair Using Water-Abrasive Blasting
Water-abrasive blasting is the most effective method for cleaning the reinforcement. The abrasion shall be
done till it remove all solid rust and water dissolves the chloride away. Enough concrete shall be cut away

on the blind side of reinforcement to allow room for water-abrasive blasting. The space shall be used for
providing cover to reinforcement steel.
b. Repair Using Electro Chemical Extraction
Internal unexposed reinforcement bar corrosion can be cleaned using an electrochemical extract ion of
corrosive chloride method. The chloride extraction shall be carried out by applying a regulated current in
order to create a safe electric field between the reinforcement in the concrete and a temporary, externally
mounted anode mesh. During the treatment, negatively changed chloride ions are driven form the concrete
by an induced positive/negative field effect. Concurrent to the chloride ion removal, electrolysis at the
reinforcement surface produces a high PH environment which repassivates the steel within the effective
treatment zone. “Cathoding method”
Materials for Treatment of Rusted Re-bar

A. Patch with Cement Concrete (Type A): The mixture shall consist of 1 part high-early-strength Portland
cement, 1and ½ Parts fine aggregate and 1-1/2 parts coarse aggregate by volume. Sufficient air-entraining
agent shall be added to maintain an air content of 8 plus or minus 2 percent. The slump shall be the minimum
practical for placing and in no case shall it exceed 50 mm. The materials shall be mixed at the site. Ready-
mixed concrete shall not be permitted. The mix shall be placed in the area to be patched while the bonding
grout is still wet. Hand finishing with a wood float may be required to produce a tight, uniform surface.
B. Patching With Cement Mortar (Type B, or Type C :) Patching material shall be made using Quick
Setting Concrete Mortar, Type 1 or 2, ASTMC 266. The mortar shall be mixed and placed as per manufacture’s
recommendations. Coarse aggregate may be added in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions when the
depth of the patch exceeds 25 mm.
C. Quick Setting Concrete Mortar: Provide prepackage mortar material that requires the addition of water
only. Use materials capable of being extended 50 percent by dry mortar weight with aggregate meeting the
following requirements:
 Do not use materials containing more than 50 parts per million of chloride.
 Do not use any admixture containing more than 50 parts per million of chloride in conjunction with
these materials.
 Provide quick setting concrete mortar packaged in strong moisture resistant paper bags or other suitable
containers capable of withstanding shipping, normal handling, and storage without breakage. The
package shall protect the material form deterioration when stored in a dry condition for a period of 1
year. Each package or container must display information regarding the minimum nominal yield and
instructions for mixing. Calculate volumetric yield determinations using the manufacturers’
recommended water content.
Work procedures
1. The Contractor will indicate what part of the existing structure is to be removed and the required
dimension of the new work.
2. The perimeter of all removal areas shall be sawed to a depth of 25 mm to produce a vertical or slightly
undercut face. Additional saw cuts may be required to facilitate removal. All unsound concrete

including all patches other than sound Portland cement concrete, and all loose and disintegrated
concrete shall be removed. Chipping or hand dressing may remove the unsound concrete. Chipping
hammers shall not be heavier than the nominal 16 kg class and shall be operated at an angle of less than
45 degree measured from the surface of the deck. Concrete shall be removed in a manner that prevents
cutting, elongating or damaging of reinforcing steel. Where the bond between the concrete and a
primary reinforcing bar has been destroyed, or where more than one half of the periphery of such a bar
has been exposed, the adjacent concrete shall be removed to a depth that will provide a minimum of 19
mm clearance around the bar except where other reinforcing bar make this impracticable.
Reinforcement, which has become loose shall be adequately supported and tied back into place. After
completion of the secondary removal operations, the Engineer will re-sound the deck to insure that only
sound concrete remains.
4.7 Mortar Mix and Plastering Works
4.7.1 General
Mortar is a mixture of cement paste and fine aggregate. Grout is a mixture of cementitious material and water,
with or without fine aggregate proportioned to produce a pourable consistency without segregation of the
constituents. [1]
Mortar Sand: cement sand: lime: cement

General building
(Above ground) 5:1 5:1:1
Bridges and general

Building (below ground) 3:1 6:1:1
Internal walls 8:1 9:2:1
Mortar will take months to reach its full strength, however, after about 24 hours it should be fairly hard and
after 4 or 5 days, the strength should be enough to stand up to normal loading condition.
The Various Components Include the Following
Cement: For normal ‘around the house’ types jobs, Ordinary (or Portland) cement is required. This is normally
available in 50kg bags, although smaller 25kg bags are increasingly becoming available to take account of the
UK manual handling regulations. Try not to buy more cement that you need as it cannot be stored for very
long. Some special cements are available (i.e. quick drying) which may be required for special situation.

Lime: Lime is sometimes used in cement and reduces the amount of water drawn into the bricks, thus
preventing the cement from drying out too quick and shrinking.
The main types of lime are:
Hydraulic: - which sets by combining with water
Non- hydraulic: - this hardens by drying out
Semi-hydraulic:- which a half-and-half, it mainly needs to dry out but has some hydraulic properties.
Hydrated hydraulic lime must be used straight from the bag. Semi hydraulic or non-hydraulic are better to use
after soaking in water for 24 hours, i.e - stir it into water and leave it overnight and the lime sinks to the
bottom and excess water can then be poured off. Mix the lime with the sand before adding cement.
Sand: Two type of sand are available but are not interchangeable in all applications, whichever type is being
used, always pass it though a sieve before use to remove any small stones etc.
 Soft sand (or builders’ sand):- a smooth sand, non-gritty, loamy and with cohesive properties, can be
used for bricklaying mortar, for bedding paving slabs, for rendering walls, etc.
 Sharp sand: - this has a gritty feel and is similar to that used to condition soils and potting composts and
can be used for concrete, and for rendering of floors and walls.
4.7.2 Plastering Work for Concrete Defects Repair

Mortar of a consistency suitable for toweling usually does not contain enough cement paste to coat the old
concrete surface or the reinforcement adequately. So a bonding coat of cement grout or polymer admixtures
shall be used.
Bonding coats containing polymer admixtures dry quickly and work shall be organized so that application of
mortar follows the bonding coat within few minutes.
4.7.2.1 Surface Defects Repair (Peel Off/Spalling/Scaling)
Concretes may be peeled off/scaled or spalled due to external impact, aging, or chemical attacks.
Surface defects such as small areas of Peel Off, Spalling, Scaling, honeycombing or cavities produced by form
ties, large isolated blow-holes, broken corner edges, etc, shall be repaired with mortar having a cement and
sand ratio equal to that of the concrete being repaired.
For the repair of large or deep areas of honeycombing and defects, special approved methods and techniques,
such as pneumatically applied mortar, pressure grouting, epoxy bonding agents, etc, may be used.
Where, in the opinion of the Engineer, the extent of the honeycombing or defects is of such a degree that doubt
exists about the effectiveness of repair work, making of a load test is necessary to prove that the structural
safety of the repaired member has not been prejudiced, failing which, the structure shall be rebuilt in part or in
full at the contractor’s cost.

Where the concrete has been damaged by adhesion to the formwork panel, the cracked and loose concrete shall
be removed; or where the fresh concrete has lifted off at construction joints, the crack shall be scraped out
immediately on both sides of the wall to a depth of at least 50 mm. The cavities so formed shall then be
repaired as described above.
Rubbing the surfaces
If the finish of exposed formed surfaces does not comply with the requirements for uniformity of texture,
appearance and color, rubbing down the exposed surfaces of the entire structure or of any part of it is
necessary.
The surface shall be saturated with water for at least one hour. Initial rubbing shall be done with a medium-
coarse carborundum stone, where a small amount of mortar, having sand and cement ratio equal to that of the
concrete being prepared, is used on the surface.
Rubbing shall be continued until all form marks, projections and irregularities have been removed and a
uniform surface has been obtained. The paste produced by the rubbing shall be left in place. The final rubbing
shall be carried out with a fine carborundum stone and water: this rubbing shall continue until the entire
surface is of a smooth, even texture and is uniform in color. The surface shall then be washed with a brush to
remove surplus paste and powder.
Where the concrete surfaces formed by sliding formwork require treatment to achieve the surface finish
specified for the member, the concrete shall, as soon as the surfaces under the formwork are exposed, be
floated with rubber – lined floats to the desired finish.
4.7.2.1.1 Patching Repair
This method is applicable for maintenance of small range of peel off, spalling or scaling of otherwise sound
concrete due to external forces which affects the durability of concrete surface.
Total area is between 400 -100 cm2.
This item shall consist of furnishing the necessary labor, material and equipment to repair concrete bridge
decks and concrete surfaces using cement-sand mortar including the removal of deteriorated concrete,
preparation of concrete surface, placing, consolidating and curing the mortar.
Material
The economically recommended material for plastering of concrete honeycomb is a mortar having Cement –
Sand ratio equal to that of the concrete to be repaired (usually 1:3 by volume). Advance mortar containing
specialized binders such as potassium silicate, calcium aluminates, sulfur, and oxysulfate or polymer resins.
They cure or set through film drying (air setting), chemical reactions, thermo set bonds, hydraulic bonds, hot
melting, and multiple component binder systems. Unlike conventional construction products, specialty mortar
is not based on Portland cement. Instead, specialty mortar consist of specialty cement such as potassium

silicate that is mixed with water, a coarse aggregate such as gravel or crushed stone, and a fine aggregate or
sand. Specialty cement mortar is used to join components and form structures.
Procedure
a. Traffic warning signs shall be established at both ends of the work section.
b. The Employer’s Representative will indicate what part of the existing structure is to be removed and the
required dimension of the new work.
c. The defects, unsound and contaminated concrete shall be removed and the edges of the patch area should be
prepared.
d. The reinforcement shall be cleaned if exposed and contaminated with rust.
e. Prepare the patch material and bonding coat (as per the maintenance designed) for the job. If a propriety pre-
packaged formulation is to be used the Contractor shall carefully follow the manufacturer’s recommendations.
For common repair jobs a cement and coarse sand mixture in the ratio of 1: 3 by weight is generally adequate.
f. The cement-sand mortar shall be prepared with minimum amount of water. Slump of the mix for shallow
patches should not exceed 25mm. To minimize shrinkage in place, the mortar shall be allowed to stand for half
an hour after mixing and re-mix prior to use. Water shall not be used to re-temper the mix.
g. The bonding coat shall be applied (as per the design) to concrete substrate and to the reinforcement.
h. The mortar shall be applied immediately following the bonding coat. The mortar shall be forcibly projected or
dashed onto the substrate and placed in layers about 10mm thick. Each surface using a blunt piece of wood or
hammers. Each layer shall be cross-patched to facilitate bonding with the next layer. Generally, there need be
no time delays between the layers. For vertical and overhead repairs of considerable thickness, in order to
prevent sagging of mortar, the repair may be limited to about 50mm thickness at one time, and shall then be
kept moist for a day before applying the successive layer.
i. The patch shall be finished to the texture of the surrounding concrete by using similar form material and
hammering with mallet or wood floating or steel trowel ling as instructed by the Engineer.
j. Curing shall be started as soon as possible. The curing should be thorough and continuous to develop strength
and impermeability and to reduce drying shrinkage to a minimum while bond strength is developing. Water
used for curing shall be free from ingredients harmful to concrete. Curing shall be continued for a minimum of
4 days in temperate weather and 7 days in hot, dry or windy conditions.
k. On completion of the work, the site shall be cleaned of all surplus materials and waste, and left in clean, tidy
condition.

4.7.2.1.2 Gunite/ Shot-crete Repair

Gunite (pneumatically applied cement-mortar) and Shot Crete (pneumatically applied cement-concrete) are
suitable for forming the new concrete (i.e. the restoration-concrete) and for strengthening and jacketing of
various structural elements.
This task involves the maintenance of serious peel off, spalling or scaling which affects the safety of third
parties due to a possibility of concrete falling down. Total area is more than 900 cm2.
Pre- treatment of the exposed concrete surface is prime importance when using gunite /shot crete.
Sand blasting has proved to be efficient surface treatment procedure. The exposed sound concrete surface
should be sufficiently pre-moistened. No bonding agent is necessary because at the interface mortar enrichment
occurs as result of aggregate rebound.
Shotcreting in multiple layers requires that the preceding layer achieves a sufficient degree of hardness prior to
shooting- on the next layer. Some nominal reinforcement may be required for a thickness lager than 50 mm.
This reinforcement should be fixed in position in such a manner that it remains stiff and keeps its position
during shotcreting operations (chicken wire mesh is handy).
Curing may be accomplished by evaporation protection method, (e.g. plastic sheet cover), to prevent a rapid
drying out. If a freeze-thaw/salt resistant concrete is required, air entrainment admixture may have to be added
to the mix. Also, surface protection measures may be necessary in certain cases.
There are two basic gunites or gunite / shotcrete processes.
1. A “dry mix” process, where the mixing water is added at the nozzle to which the cement-sand mixture is
brought by compressed air through the delivery hose.
2. A” wet mix” process where all the ingredients, including water, are mixed before entering the delivery
hose.
The process consists of removal of deteriorated concrete using pneumatic hand hammers. Then the cracks are
grouted and dowel bars are anchored into the fasten temperature and shrinkage reinforcement bas (generally 10
mm dia, @ 150 mm centers, into orthogonal directions).
A form is placed around the perimeter of the repairs, then clean coarse-grade aggregate (minimum 16 mm size
for thick sections, and minimum 12 mm size for thin sections) is placed and compacted before pumping an
especially designed cement sand grout into the aggregate by especial insert fitting placed in the face of the
forms. The coarse aggregate may be of any suitable size, depending on the thickness of the repairs. Normal size
varies from 20 to 40 mm down.
Work Procedures
Material and Site Preparations
a. All unsound material should be removed from concrete and masonry surfaces. Chipping should continue
until there are no offsets in the cavity, which would cause an abrupt change in the thickness of the repair.

b. Forms should be made of plywood sheathing, expanded metal sheat, or other suitable material, true to line
and dimension.
c. Safe, adequate scaffolding should be provided so that the toweler, plasterer or nozzle man can hold the tools
at the optimum angle and distance from the surface for all parts of the work. The scaffolding should also
provided easy access to the gunite/shot crete surface for screeding and finishing operations.
d. Concrete around the reinforcing should be removed until clean, un-corroded steel is reached. Concrete
behind reinforcing steel should be removed to a depth to allow proper placement from a nozzle angles not
more than 45 degrees to the surface. Cutting out the defective length and replacing with a new section of
reinforcing bar. Anchoring new bars in the existing, sound concrete should be done by drilling holes and
anchoring the ends with an epoxy grout.
e. New bar reinforcement must be sized and positioned to minimize interference with shot creating. Generally,
bar sizes smaller than 16 mm diameter should be used. One layer of reinforcement is generally sufficient for
sections 20 cm, or less. Wire fabric should be tied similarly to bar reinforcement for gunite /shot crete.
Fabric sheets should be lapped one and one-half space in all directions. At least one layer of fabric is used
for each 7.5 cm. of gunite/ shot crete.
f. Anchorage of gunite / shot crete follows practice for conventional concrete.
Batching and Mixing:
a. Mixing equipment must be capable of maintaining an adequate and continuous flow of uniform material.
Aggregate particles should be well coated with cement paste. Batching by mass is preferred and should
normally be required. Water may be batched by mass or volume. For small jobs, approval may be given to
batching by a volumetric container, provided periodic checks of mass are made, or batching by volumetric
mobile-mixing equipment.
b. Jobsite mixing: Since many gunite / shot crete jobs have a low production rate and are in isolated locations, a
small drum mixer at the jobsite often does the mixing. In such cases, the mixing time should not be less than
1 minute: where other mixers are proposed, satisfactory evidence should be presented to show they are
capable of thorough mixing. The mixer should be capable of discharging all batched material without any
carry –over from one batch to the next. It should be inspected and cleaned thoroughly at least twice a day,
more often if necessary, to prevent accumulations of batched material and minimize unplanned shutdowns.
c. Dry-mix process: The moisture content of the fine aggregate should be such that the aggregate- cement
mixture will flow through the delivery hose at a uniform rate. The optimum moisture content will depend
upon the delivery equipment being used, but it is generally within the range of 3 to 6 percent, by mass, for
the fine aggregate fraction. Volumetric batching and mixing plant operations conforming to ASTM C 685.
d. Wet-mix process: Where ready mixed concrete is used, it should conform to ASTMC 94. Continuous
batching and mixing meeting the requirements of ASTM C 685 may also be used.

e. Admixture dispensers: For either the dry-mix or wet-mix process, admixture dispensers should receive
special attention to ensure that the material is dispensed with in plus or minus three percent of the required
batch quantity and is uniformly dispersed through the mixture.
Application Techniques:
a. Nozzle angle. Plane surfaces should generally be gunite/shot crete with the nozzle held at 90 degrees to the
surface. Interior corners should be gunned by directing the nozzle in the plane bisecting the angle of
intersection of the two surfaces, which reduces the amount of rebound entrapped in the corner. Areas with
reinforcing steel should be gunned at a slight angle from each side. When gunning horizontal work, the
nozzle should be held at a slight angel from vertical so that rebound is blown onto completed work for ease
of removal.
b. Nozzle distance: the optimum distance between the gunite / shot crete nozzle and the surface is generally
about 0.90meter.
c. Nozzle motion. A steady circular or elliptical movement of the nozzle across the surface is the proper
gunning technique.
d. Encasing reinforcement: A blowpipe should be used during the gunning operation to remove accumulation
on the front of the bars and entrapped rebound from behind the bars. All obstacles to the flow of the gunite/
shot crete material stream should be kept to a minimum size.
e. Progression of work
 The bondable material to which gunite/ shot crete is to be applied should be clean and free of bond-
breaking substances such as dirt, grease, oil, curing agents, paints, or deteriorated material.
 A thin initial coat of gunite / shot crete should be rapidly applied to the selected work surface before
starting the layering of guniter/shot crete. The work area should be of such size that the surface could be
maintained “wet” with fresh gunite / shot crete so that initial set does not occur until shooting of the area
is completed.
 Once the initial bonding or wet coat is applied to the entire work area, a second pass over the area may
proceed at a slower rate. Corners should be filled first to prevent the accumulation of overspray and
rebound, followed by application onto the flat areas.
 When the limited work area has been completed, rebound and overspray should be removed from
adjoining areas with air before the gunite/ shot crete takes initial set.
 When gunning vertical work, gunite/shot crete should be applied from the bottom up. For thick walls,
“shelf” or “bench” gunning may be used, where, instead of gunning directly against the vertical surface, a
thick layer of gunite/shot crete is built up from the bottom, maintaining a 45-degree slope.

f. Protection
Gunite/ shotcrete cannot normally be applied during period of rain, or high wind. If proper shields cannot be
erected to reduce the effects of the wind, the shotcreting should be discontinued. Because gunite/ shot crete
rebound, overspray, and dust can defect adjacent surfaces, protection for these surfaces may be needed.
Means of protection include plastic or cloth covers, masking materials, temporary coatings, or plywood or
other wood. If protection is not feasible, then adjacent surface should be cleaned before the contaminant
hardens
g. Construction joints:
Construction joints are normally tapered about one-half of the gunite/ shot crete thickness or a maximum of
25 mm thick to and edge, over a width of 250 to 500 mm. square joints can be cut by a trowel at initial set.
Ordinarily, square joints should be avoided in gunite/ shot crete construction because they form a trap for
overspray and rebound. However, if the joint will be subjected to compressive stress, square or butt joints
may be required. Steps must be taken to avoid or remove trapped rebound at the joint. The entire joint should
be thoroughly cleaned and wetted prior to the application of additional gunite/shot crete. These joints may be
required in some applications, such as canal linings, to control shrinkage cracking of the gunite/ shot crete.
Pre positioning strips of plastic or metal, and leaving them in place, or by saw cutting the newly hardened
gunite/ shot create may create the joints.
h. Water stop:
Due to the difficulty of placing gunite/ shot crete around water stops, use of water stops in gunite/ shot crete
applications should be avoided.
i. Multiple layers:
When a layer of gunite/ shot crete is to be covered by a succeeding layer, it should first be allowed to
develop its initial set. Then scraping, or other means should remove all loose material and rebound. Surface
deposits, which take a final set, should be removed by sand blasting and the surface cleaned with an air-
water jet.
Time limitations:
The time from the batching of gunite/ shot crete to final placement should not exceed 45 minutes during warm
weather, i.e ambient temperatures exceed 270c.

5 CURRENT DEFECT REPAIR PRACTICE IN ETHIOPIA

5.1 Discussion
This study addresses the increasing needs of skill upgrading trainings on bridge maintenance which is not
available in universities or higher technical institutions in the country. Conducting this research study is found
necessary in order to make simple application of the methods considering the local condition by incorporating
international maintenance methods and materials that can be available in the country. In addition, it is intended
to make it friendly applicable and usable for contractors, consultants, and other interested users.
Many bridges in Ethiopia have attained about design period, as most are constructed 40-70 years ago. Others
have suffered abuse by unscrupulous (ignorant) transporters who overload or move over-height containers. As a
result, the structures exhibit cracks and deterioration leaving the steel rebar in most cases exposed to aggressive
climatic conditions.
Thus, maintaining and rehabilitation of existing bridges is a better option provided the relevant strength
requirements are satisfied. In this aspect to tackle the problems, a number of construction chemicals suppliers
advertise wide variety of concrete repair products to meet the needs of all kinds of repair situations, indicating
availability for use.
Collection of inventory data and inspection (regular, major or emergency) of defects is the primary activity
conducted during rehabilitation. Different defects like, cracking, peel off, rebar exposure, honeycomb, void,
water leakage, deformation, corrosion, wearing, bolt missing on different structural parts (superstructure,
substructure or miscellaneous structural elements) has to be rater based on the rating system specified. That is
whether the defect is in rank “A”, rank “B” or rank “C” shall be categorized.
Defects that appear on the surface of concrete during construction or within a relatively short time after
completion, are usually caused by poor quality materials, improper mix design, lack of proper placing and
curing procedures, or poor workmanship. The repair of surface defect is both difficult and costly. The best
repair work will not be as good as an original properly finished surface. Every effort should be made both prior
to and during construction to avoid the use of materials or construction practices that can cause surface defects.
Various causes may have contributed to the formation of a particular defect. However every effort should be
made to determine the cause to ensure that the correct repair strategy is adopted. Sometimes the cause is clear,
for example fire or collision damage.
Structures may be overstressed by conditions outside the control of the designer and constructor, such as
overloading, change to the flow of a river, failure of adjacent structures and various natural causes.
Settlement of a structure, which was not anticipated and allowed for in design, can result in very severe damage
to concrete structures. Wide cracks and crushing where members come into unintentional contact may indicate
that settlement has occurred.
Following a vehicular collision with a bridge, careful consideration of the structural effects must be carried out
by an experienced structural engineer. Damage to primary elements can severely weaken a structure, or even
cause collapse.

Generally defect in concrete structures result from many factors such as poor design detailing, construction
deficiencies, structural failure due to overstress or loss of section resulting from other defects, free/thaw effects,
chemical attack, settlement of the foundation, changes to the support or loading conditions caused by scour or
silting, failure of bearings or expansion joints, and traffic collision defect.
The defects mentioned above are rehabilitated by different materials, one of the fundamental materials and
widely used one is concrete. With a worldwide estimated consumption of between 21 and 31 billion tones of
concrete in 2006, concrete is the second most consumed substance on Earth after water! A world without
concrete is almost inconceivable!
The principles of producing concrete and understanding the laws of concrete behavior are well enough
established through long experience and extensive research to make it possible to design and erect structures
that meet the recognized requirements of engineering use and safety. There is still a need for continued
research, however new questions are constantly arising, and new methods and machines for construction
operations are being developed. If concrete is to meet increasingly higher expectations with regard to durability
and structural efficiency, and continue in the forefront as a building material, the new requirements need to be
met by ever-increasing knowledge obtained from research and experience.
Concrete sets, hardens, gains strength, and exhibits reduced permeability with the passage of time, but it is not
the passage of time alone that causes these things to happen. If the concrete is kept very cold, none of this will
happen. If all moisture is removed, none of this will happen.
Many or even most concretes are confronted with potential deteriorative service conditions. If the concrete
has not been provided with immunity against these influences, it may well slowly deteriorate as time passes, but
not simply because time passes. Concrete need not deteriorate.
Concrete is essentially a compressive material. While it has adequate strength for most structural uses, it is best
suited for relatively massive members that transmit compressive loads directly to the founding material.
Although concrete has low tensile strength, reinforcing it with steel bars produces a material that is suitable for
the construction of flexural members such as deck slabs, bridge girders, etc.
Concrete is a mixture of sand, gravel and/or other aggregates (the matrix), bound together by a water-based
binder, cement. Admixtures (modifying agents) and additives (fine mineral powers) are sometimes introduced
to improve the characteristics of the fresh concrete, of the mixing process and/or of the final hardened material.
Cement is the fundamental component of concrete, so cement alone or in combination with polymers or epoxy
can be used for maintenance. Based on the type of the defects the materials used for maintenance can be
grouped in to four. These are:
(1) materials used for large defects or cracks (pure cement or polymer modified cement type materials)
Polymer modified cement type : this is cement modified using different polymers and fibers
(2) materials used for small defects or cracks (Resin type repairing materials or crack injection materials)
(3) crack sealing materials, so that small cracks will be ready for injection
(4) materials for bonding
The repair work will be accomplished after conducting inspection and preparation of the repairing materials.
During repairing the procedures has to be properly followed as per the specification or order of the expert. But

removal of concrete if necessary, surface cleaning, substrate preparation and repairing material application are
the general steps applied during rehabilitation.
When removal of part of concrete structure is required, use power driven chipping tools or hydro demolishing
equipment to remove all loose or defective concrete. Avoid defect to sound concrete to remain in place. Avoid
hitting reinforcement steel with the chipping tools. Once the initial concrete is removed, use small power-driven
chipping or hydro demolishing equipment to undercut all exposed reinforcement steel. Expose the entire
perimeter of the steel bars for the full area of the repair provide a minimum clearance of 1cm between the
exposed steel and the surrounding concrete or two times the maximum aggregate size, whichever is greater.
Remove additional concreter as necessary to keep the repair area to reasonably uniform depth. Defect to sound
concrete or to the bond of reinforcement steel outside the repair area shall be repaired at the Contractor’s
expense. The Contractor shall obtain approval of the completed concrete removal before proceeding to surface
preparation.
The area to be repaired shall be cleaned by abrasive blasting, high pressure water blasting, or other methods
approved by the Engineer. All loose particles, dirt, deteriorated concrete or other substances that would impair
the bond of the repair material shall be removed. Exposed reinforcement steel of concrete, rust and other
contaminants shall be cleaned and this should be followed with a high pressure air blast for final cleaning.
Unless directed otherwise, use a bonding agent if cement mortar or concrete is used for the repair material.
Use either a cement scrub or epoxy as the bonding agent. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for
bonding agents if pre-packed repair material is used. Apply a cement scrub coat bonding agent to the saturated
surface-dry substrate by scrubbing, brushing, or other methods approved by the Engineer immediately before
placing the repair material. Apply an epoxy bonding agent in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations. Ensure that any bonding agent used does not set or cure prematurely, creating a bond
breaker.
Where saturated surface-dry (SSD) conditions are needed, pre wet the substrate by pounding water on the
surface for 24 hours. Before placing the repair materials, if pounding is not possible, achieve SSD conditions by
high-pressure water blasting 15 to 30 min. before placing the repair material. A saturated surface-dry condition
is achieved when the surface remains damp when exposed to sunlight for 15min.
Place the repair material in an approved manner ensuring that the repair material is in intimate contact with the
substrate and free of voids. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for pre packed repair materials. Place
the repair materials so that the original lines and surfaces of the structure can be restored.
So far there were no detailed specifications and standards for rehabilitation of concrete defects. This is due to
lack of repairing materials and techniques, unavailability of expertise on the field (no university or college
providing courses on concrete rehabilitation), and lack of awareness about the cost and related problems in
erecting of new bridged as compared to that of rehabilitation. Nearly some companies are providing repairing
materials and techniques in Ethiopia with corresponding manuals and specifications for application. That is why
currently rehabilitation is being practiced to some extent on some deteriorated bridges. For example Ethiopian
Road Authority in collaboration with JICA has rehabilitated many bridges in the country for the last five years.
The following are some of the rehabilitated bridges.
5.2 Sodo Destrict, Kulfo Bridge Rehabilitation Work
Kulfo Bridge is located in Southern Nation Nationalities &People Regional State in trunk road A7-5 at station
497.2 km from Addis Ababa to Arba-Minch in road segment M/Abaya-A/Minch. This Bridge was constructed
by Italian Engineers during a year 1974 G.C. But after 22 years the Bridge had failed and stopped giving service

for traffic in 1996 G.C due to settlement of pier. Between November 1996 – June 1997 G.C. ERA replaced the
settled Pier and opened the road for traffic over the Bridge. A hole with deteriorated concrete around it & rebar
exposure has been exhibited on the deck slab near to Arba-Minch side abutment in 2011 G.C. ERA has
accomplished the maintenance work. See the Location Map of this Bridge below.
Kulfo Bridge
Figure 5.2: Kulfo Bridge Location
Fig 4.6.1 Kulfo Bridge Location

5.2.1 Materials Used for Repair
1. Nitobond EP: bonding agent
Plate 5.2.1a: NitoBond (hardener & base) Plate 5.2.1b: Pouring hardener in to base

Plate 5.2.1c: NitoBond (hardener & base) Plate 5.2.1d: Mixed NitoBond
Plate 5.2.1e: Application of NitoBond Plate 5.2.1f: Cleaning of equipments
2. Nitofill & Concresive 1315: for filling cracks
Plate 5.2.1g: Nitofill) Plate 5.2.1h: Concresive 1315
Plate 5.2.1i: Nitofill (mixing) Plate 5.2.1j: Concresive (mixing)

3. Nitomortar: for sealing of cracks
Plate 5.2.1k: Nitomortar (hardener & base) Plate 5.2.1l: Nitomortar (pouring)
Plate 5.2.1m: Nitomortar (stiring) Plate 5.2.1n: Nitomortar application)
4. Normal Mortar with fiber: - It is a mortar prepared by mixing sand and normal Portland cement with
ratio (1:3) and micro fibers. The fiber is used to improve dry shrinkage and tensile strength of normal
mortar
Plate 5.2.1o: sand, fiber and Portland cement respectively from left to right
Mixing Procedures
1) Mix Portland cement & sand thoroughly using a shovel according to mix ratio
2) Disperse the micro fibers in a water can (0.6kg/m3)
3) Slowly add the water to cement-sand mix and mix it well
4) Apply it on the prepared substrate

5.2.2 Honey Comb Repair Work
• Procedure of the repair work

1 Cut the defect area with grinder
2 Chipping
3 Cleaning with water jet
4 Removing the corrosion by grinder
5 Applying anti-rust paint
6 Applying Bonding Agent (NITOBOND EP)
7 Applying EMACO S88CT
8 Curing
Plate 5.2.2a: Honeycombed surface Plate 5.2.2b: Cut the defect with grinder to make small squares with 5cm sides
Plate 5.2.2c: Chipping or removing the deteriorated concrete

Plate 5.2.2d: Cleaning with water jet

Plate 5.2.2e: Applying anti-rust paint
Plate 5.2.2f: (Nitobond EP) Plate 5.2.2g: Applying Bonding Agent (Nitobond EP)

Plate 5.1.2h: Applying EMACO S88CT placing and curing
5.2.3 Repair Work of Hole on Deck Slab
• Procedure of the Repair Work

1 Remove the deteriorated concrete around the hole with hammer
2 Construct the formwork( soffit )
4 Removing the corrosion by grinder
5 Applying anti-rust paint
6 Applying Bonding Agent (NITOBOND EP)
7 Placing EMACO S88CT
8 Applying Bonding Agent (CONCRESSIVE 1414)
9 Placing concrete treated with fiber(RHOFIBER)

Plate 5.2.3a: Remove the deteriorated concrete around the hole

with hammer, construct the formwork (soffit), Cleaning with water jet and applying anti-rust paint
Plate 5.2.3b: Concresive 1414 Plate 5.2.3c: Applying Bonding Agent Concresive 1414

Plate 5.2.3d: Nitobond Plate 5.2.3e: Fiber (Rhofiber)
Plate 5.2.3f: Applying Bonding Agent Nitobond
Plate 5.2.3g: Mixing concrete with fiber (Rhofiber)

Plate 5.2.3h: Placing concrete treated with Fiber (Rhofiber) Plate 5.2.3i: Finished repaired concrete
5.2.4 Cracks Repair Work
• Procedure of the Repair Work

1 Cleaning the crack with water jet
2 Sealing the crack with EMACO S88CT since the cracks more than 5mm
3 Cleaning by grinder
5 Drilling holes a diameter of 6mm at 15 cm spacing
6 Installing pipes in holes to a depth of 3cm
7 Sealing the crack and the holes again with NITOMORTAR FC
8 Injecting NITOFILL EPLV or CONCRESSIVE 1414
9 Cutting the pipes with grinder
10 Removing 5cm width seal from the crack for monitoring
Plate 5.2.4a: Cleaning with water jet Plate 5.2.4b: Sealing the crack with EMACO S88CT

Plate 5.2.4c: Sealing preparation Plate 5.2.4d: Cleaning using grinder
Plate
5.2.4e: Drilling holes diameter of 6mm at 15 cm spacing Plate 5.2.4f: Installing pipes in holes to a depth of 3cm
Plate 5.2.4g: CONCRESSIVE 2200 Plate 5.2.4h: Sealing the crack and holes with NITOMORTAR

Plate 5.2.4i: Injecting Nitofill EPLV or CONCRESSIVE 1414
Plate 5.2.4j: Cutting the pipes with grinder

5.3 Debre Markos District, Kulech Wenz and Timberbada Bridge Repair Work
1. Kulech Wenz Bridge: It is RC-Box Girder type, located on D/Markos – Dembecha road segment, 17km
from D/Markos town. It is located near to D/Markos town and the bridge river is wet by now, and it is
located on a curve road alignment.
2. Timberbada Bridge: It is RC Deck Girder a type, located on D/Markos – Dembecha road segment 43 km
from D/Markos Town. Timberbada River is wet at winter the water way adequacy is enough at all weather
conditions. But the bridge is highly deteriorating and no proper repair has been done so far.
5.3.1 Materials Used for Repair

1. NitoBond EP

It is special adhesive epoxy resin concrete bonding agent

1 can of base = 0.75Kg, and 1 can of hardener = 0.41Kg, then mix and apply at cleaned substrate.
Plate 5.3.1a: NitoBond Plate 5.3.1b: NitoBond application
2. EMACO S88CT
It is a special mortar with RehoFiber to avoid crack due to shrinkage. One bag = 25 Kg of mortar mixed with
3.5 – 4 liter of water and will be applied over the NitoBond Epoxy bonding material. The RehoFiber shall be
added to the mixed mortar.
Plate 5.3.1c: EMACOS88CT Plate 5.3.1d: RehoFiber
3. Renderoc TGXtra + RHEOFIBER (Polypropylene Fiber)
It is another type of Polymer modified mortar with Rheofiber to avoid crack.
One bag = 25Kg of Renderoc TGXtra mixed with 4.5 liters of water and 8g of Rheofiber.
4. Nitomortar FC or Concresive 2200

It is high strength epoxy coating Mortar. One Can of base = 4.965Kg mixed with one Can of hardener =
0.9Kg and applied over the crack, so that the crack will be sealed for injection.

Plate 5.3.1e: Concresive 2200 Plate 5.3.1f: Concresive 2200 (mixing)
Plate 5.3.1g: Concresive 2200 (mixing) Plate 5.3.1h: Concresive 2200 application
5. Nitofill EPLV It is low viscosity epoxy injected in to the crack through the drilled holes by pressure.
Plate 5.3.1i: Nitofill EPLV

Plate 5.3.1j: Nitofill EPLV application
5.3.2 Timberbada Bridge Peel off and Rebar Exposure Maintenance
Plate 5.3.2a: Saw cut and chipping
Plate 5.3.2b: Grinding and removing of corrosion

Plate 5.3.2c: Cleaning by jet water and painting anti rust
Plate 5.3.2d: Applying NitoBond

Plate 5.3.2e: Applying EMACO S88CT
Plate 5.3.2f: Applying Renderoc TGXtra + RHEOFIBER (Polypropylene

Fiber)

5.3.3 Kulech Wenz Bridge RC Deck Girder Crack
Plate 5.3.3a: Cleaning crack area by grinder and wire brush

Plate 5.3.3b: Drilling injection hole
Plate 5.3.3d: Sealing the crack by NitoMortar for injection by

Nitofill EPLV or CONCRESSIVE 1414
Plate 5.3.3c: Cutting and inserting injection pipes

6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Conclusion
In concrete bridge failures, reconstruction of the structure instead of rehabilitation for every defect or failure is
very difficult in terms of money and construction. That is the amount of money involved for reconstruction of
bridge is much and very expensive. In addition closing of the road may interrupt traffic flow, which has
significant impact on the economy of the country especially when the bridge is on the federal road. So
rehabilitation or maintenance of concrete bridges become very crucial and mandatory to stop failure of bridges
before reaching their design period and to avoid unnecessary expense to construct a new bridge instead of
maintaining and lengthen the service life of the bridge.
Proper design and construction does not mean that the bridge will serve about its design life. Because lack of
inspection and controlling with minor rehabilitation may make the bridge to fail before serving to its maximum
capacity. So monitoring, inspection, and maintenance of every concrete bridge have to be done starting from
construction day before failure, which leads to erection or construction of a very expensive new bridge.
Unlike the practice we used to do before, concrete bridge rehabilitation techniques, materials and procedures are
burning and crucial issue now a day, being many of the bridges are reaching about their design life and need
rehabilitation before failure. Considering the urgency of the issue, the universities in particular and the country
in general with the respective parties have to think of the problem and participate on provision of possible
solutions. Although not satisfactory or to the requirement of the country, Ethiopian Road Authority (ERA) in
collaboration with Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) has maintained some bridges within the last
five to eight years.

Concrete bridge maintenance is not an easy task, because regaining the overall condition especially the
structural strength of concrete bridge by simple plastering is difficult. So the use of different admixtures
(modifying agents), additives (fine mineral powers) and epoxies is mandatory following the procedures and
specifications given by the suppliers. At this time there are many suppliers for the construction company
involved in maintenance or construction.
Considering the importance of concrete bridge rehabilitation on a national base currently, this study has done to
address the basic defects, causes of defects, materials for maintenance and possible techniques and procedures
of rehabilitation.
Before rehabilitation of any defect, inspection is the most important activity to know the types and causes of
defects. Rating or ranking of the defect makes maintenance simple and avoids unnecessary expenditure of
money. So, inventory and inspection of defects with corresponding ranking is the primary activity before
performing any maintenance work.
Having bridges ready for maintenance, the next task is selection and preparation of materials involved for
maintenance. The different materials used for maintenance can be grouped in to three categories.
(1) Cement type repairing materials: this is simply Portland cement mortar (concrete) or non-
shrinkage mortar (concrete)
(2) Polymer modified cement type : this is cement modified using different polymers and fibers
(3) Resin type repairing materials: this is an epoxy or chemical used for repairing purpose
Before applying any repairing materials, the substrate that receives repairing materials has to be prepared and
made ready to receive the new materials. Rehabilitation of concrete bridges is very wide, so that maintenance
techniques of all bridge defects might be a course by itself. However during maintenance of any defect works;
removal of concrete, surface cleaning, substrate preparation, and repair material application are the basic
procedures that any worker has to follow.
6.2 Recommendations
The absence of detailed specifications and standards for rehabilitation of concrete defects makes maintenance
difficult in Ethiopia. This is due to lack of repairing materials, unavailability of expertise on the field (no
university or college is giving courses on concrete rehabilitation), and lack of awareness about the cost and
related problems in erecting of new bridged as compared to that of rehabilitation.
On the contrary many bridges in the country are deteriorated and needs replacement or rehabilitation. That is
why preparation of documents vital for rehabilitation and production of expertise about rehabilitation is
mandatory. Materials involved for maintenance in addition to cement or concrete have to be produced in the
country or imported from abroad.
Considering the limitations to perform maintenance and the urgency of the need of maintenance the country in
general and the universities in particular should take the assignment and shall forward relevant contribution
towards rehabilitation. So:
 The universities shall incorporate
concrete maintenance courses in the department, so that the country can have professionals or expertise
on concrete rehabilitation.
 The universities and respected
officials shall discuss and forward proper specifications and manuals for concrete rehabilitation.
 The universities shall prepare
course material or module on concrete rehabilitation.

 Materials required for maintenance

should be imported if not available in the country or the government should encourage domestic
investors to produce locally.
 Workshops shall be prepared, so
that well trained professionals will be produced in addition to creation of awareness about the topic for
the related industries.
References
1 Concrete bridge maintenance

manual, ERA, 2010
2 Concrete bridges, V.K. Raina,
1996
3 AACRA bridge repair manual,
AACRA, February 2004
4 AASHTO Manuals for condition
evaluation of bridges, AASHTO SUB COMMITES, AASHTO, 1994
5 ERA standard technical bridge
repair manual, ERA, 2002
6 Bridge engineering, Demetros E.
Tonias, P.E., 1995
7 Concrete structures protection,
repair and rehabilitation, R. DODGE WOODSON, 2009
8 Crack analysis in structural
concrete, theory and application, ZIHAI SHI, ELSEVIER 2009

9 Concrete structures protection

repair and rehabilitation, R. DODGE WOODSON, ELSEVIER, 2009
10 Bridge design manual, TEXAS
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION, December 2001
11 Bridge safety inspection manual,
NICET, September 2004
12 Bridge inspection maintenance
and repair, departments of the army and the air force, December 1994
13 Manuals of TRL, ASTM, and BS
standards
14 Reinforced concrete mechanics
and design, JAMS K. WIGHT, JAMES G, MACGREGOR, 6th ed., Pearson, 2012
15 Specification and application
manuals for different repairing chemicals and epoxies
16 Sika concrete repairing epoxy
manuals, 2012
17 FOSROC concrete repairing epoxy
manuals, 2012
18 BASF concrete repairing epoxy
manuals, 2012
19 ASTM standards related to
concrete, 2003
20 Basic construction materials,
Theodore W. Marotta, 7th Edition, pearson, 2005
21 Evaluation and repair of
concrete structures, JAMES D. CRAIG, 2002

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CONCRETE BRIDGE MAINTENANCE

CONCRETE BRIDGE MAINTENANCE

Bayu Getachew Azmera

Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

By Bayu Getachew Page I

Addis Ababa University

School of Graduate studies

Signed by the Examining Committee:

Dr. Bikela Teklu

Chairman, Department Signature Date

Dr. Asnake Adamu

Advisor Signature Date

Dr. Ing. Adil Zekaria

Internal Examiner Signature Date

Dr. Ing. Girma Zerayohannes

External Examiner Signature Date

By Bayu Getachew Page II

Dr. Asnake Adamu

Advisor Signature Date

By Bayu Getachew Page III

By Bayu Getachew Page I

By Bayu Getachew Page II

Table of contents Page

2 REVIEW OF BRIDGE DEFECTS AND THEIR CAUSES………………………….4

By Bayu Getachew Page III

2.4.2 Water Leakage and Deteriorations ……………………………………………….. 25

3 MATERIALS FOR REPAIR……………………………………………………………….... 28

4 METHODS OF REPAIR AND REHABILITATION………………………………33

By Bayu Getachew Page IV

4.6.4 Repair of pier columns-Encasing…………………………………………………………...55

5 CURRENT DEFECT REPAIR PRACTICE IN ETHIOPIA…………………67

6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION…………………………………………….84

By Bayu Getachew Page V

 Defects of concrete structure

By Bayu Getachew Page 1

1) The maintenance procedure

1.2 Objective of The Study

By Bayu Getachew Page 2

 To identify the causes of their

1.3 Scope of The Thesis

1.4 What is In This Thesis

By Bayu Getachew Page 3

2 REVIEW OF BRIDGE DEFECTS AND THEIR CAUSES

3a) Year built: Year of original construction

By Bayu Getachew Page 4

By Bayu Getachew Page 5

2.1.1.1 Revised Inventory Data

2.1.2 Defect Inspection

To do bridge inspection in the standardized manner can provide:

By Bayu Getachew Page 6

 Information on the effect of any changes in traffic loads

(B). Work Flow of Inspection Start

Regular Inspection/ Emergency Inspection/

Classification Type Purpose Frequency Method Inspector

By Bayu Getachew Page 8

2.1.2.2 Standard Procedures of Inspection

By Bayu Getachew Page 9

2.1.2.3 Defects and Damage

Bridge Component Defects/Damages Principal Causes