Psychology 114 Completed PDF

Psychology
114
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Chapter 1 – Evolution of Psychology
INTRODUCTION
Def. of Psychology = the scientific study of the mind, mental processes and behaviour
We understand this through a scientific approach – we use systematic methods to identify, analyse
& describe phenomena
Psychology:
o psyche = soul
o logos = study of
=> was first used in the 16th Century
MIND:
Originates in brain
Fosters human consciousness
Produces mental processes (thoughts, memory, etc.) = influences behaviour
Therefore, it uses our existing knowledge AND new info received to develop our capacity to apply
our knowledge & creatively use our imaginations
MENTAL PROCESSES:
Def. = activities in the brain required to produce a sequence of systematic actions, changes &
functions
Since the mind executes mental processes, a disturbance or disruption of mental processes
indicates a disorder of the mind (your pattern of behaviour is affected)
BEHAVIOUR:
*BEHAVIOUR ≠GOOD/BAD BEHAVIOUR!!!*

Def. = any response carried out by an organism
=> an action that is either a reaction or a functional pattern in a system:
o As a reaction: response to a stimulus (stepping on a snake = running away)
o As a functional pattern: functional response (enough sleep = body wakes up)
o Both are responsive and therefore influenced by mental processes
Fluidity in Development of Psychology:

Psychology could not be in its current state without development
It will also not survive without evolving
Therefore, psychology is historical and progressive
o FLUIDITY is essential for the evolution of psychology
*Note: we did not create psychology
o Thinking, perceiving, experiencing, understanding and behaviour already existed
o This was used to invent theories & frameworks (in psychology, for instance)
Many individuals achieved fame because of their significant impact on the development of psychology.
Their contributions were influenced by the world around them.
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17th CENTURY
Psychology developing from philosophical speculations about the mind to a research-based science
René Descartes (1960s)
o Theory of Dualism explained the relationship between biological and mental processes – he
believed that the body and mind are separate and are needed to drive actions (mind-body
split)
o Brought about introspection
Def. = a subjective method, using what we see, to try and make sense of the world
o ‘I think, therefore I am’ = if I think, then I must exist
o Was a believer in logic
o Believed that the misuse of the mind caused the wrongs in the world
o Wanted to be better equipped for thinking
o Believed in grounding ideas in the individual, not authority
John Locke (1632-1704)
o Tried to push the idea of a mechanical/physical mind
o By some natural law, matter must be governed
Thus behaviour must be governed by some law and able to be studied systematically
James Mill (1773-1836)
o Coined the term ‘materialism’
o Supported Locke’s ideas
19th CENTURY
Saw a surge of science and philosophy

1848 Neurosciences took centre stage with the Phineas P. Gage incident
o (his head was impaled by a metal rod, yet he seemed rather fine)
o Over the years, his personality changed dramatically, resulting in scientists analysing the
relationship between his symptoms and parts of his brain.
Theories and Schools of Thought that came about in this era:
o Experimental Psych – William James
o Psych as a Science – Wilhelm Wundt
o Structuralism – Edward Titchener
o Functionalism – William James
o Psychoanalytic Theory – Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler
o Behaviourism – John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B. F. Skinner
o Humanism – Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow
o Cognitivism – Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky, Herbert Simon
o Evolutionary Psych – David Buss, Martin Daly etc.
o Biological Psych – James Olds, Roger Sperry etc.
PERSPECTIVE PRINCIPAL SUBJECT BASIC PREMISE
CONTRIBUTORS MATTER
Psychoanalytic Freud Jung Adler Unconscious Unconscious motives and experiences in
determinants of be early childhood govern personality and
haviour mental disorders
Behavioural Watson Effects of the ONLY observable events (stimulus-
Pavlov environment on response relations) can be studied
Skinner overt behaviour scientifically
Humanistic Maslow Unconscious Humans are free, rational beings with the
Rogers aspects of human potential for personal growth, and they are fund
experience amentally different from other animals
Cognitive Piaget Thoughts, mental Human behaviour cannot be fully

Chomsky processes understood without examining how people acqu
Simon ire, store, and process information
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCH:
William James
1870s
One of the early influences on Western Psych
PSYCH AS A SCIENCE:
Wilhelm Wundt (± 1879)

Established first formal lab for psych research
o University of Liepzig
Established first journal devoted to publishing psych research
Developed Science of Psychology focusing on CONSCIOUSNESS
o Def. of Consciousness: the study of awareness in an immediate experience
His lab focused on attention, memory, sensory process & reaction time experiments
o EXPERIMENTAL METHODS – like science
He was known as a voluntarist as he was interested in volitional behaviour
Used introspection to probe the perceptual processes of his experimental subjects
One of his students, Stanley Hall, founded the first psych research lab in America, its first psych
journal and he was also the first president of the American Psychological Association (APA)
Focus on people in their environments
STRUCTURALISM
Edward Titchener (± 1892)

Def. = a theoretical orientation that analyses consciousness into its basic elements (sensations,
feelings, images) and investigates their relation
His work involved sensation & perception in vision, hearing, touch
Introspection :
o participants are exposed to stimuli and asked to analyse this
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BUT!
o Many scientists found it unscientific
o They doubted the extent to which people could accurately report on their minds and what
they experience
FUNCTIONALISM
William James (± 1872)

Different, clashing approach to Structuralism
Def. = theoretical orientation with the approach of an investigation of the function/purpose of
consciousness (NOT structure)
Because of Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection/ Survival of the Fittest, James felt that the typical
characteristics of a species (in this case, consciousness) serves some important purpose
He felt that Structuralism didn’t conceptualise the real nature of consciousness
o Structuralism suggested that consciousness was static = NO!
o Consciousness is a continuous flow of thoughts (Stream of Consciousness) = YES!
While Structuralism had lab-based research, Functionalism focused on how people adapt their
behaviour in the real world
Functionalism emerged stronger than Structuralism and led to Behaviourism and Applied Psych
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Sigmund Freud (1900s)

o Psychoanalysis of the Unconscious
o Def. = the thoughts, memories and desires lying below the surface of conscious awareness
but that influence behaviour
=> (slips of tongue could reveal true intention, for example)
o Concluded that psychological disturbances are largely caused by personal conflicts existing
at an unconscious level
o Stated that elements of personality, behaviour and motivation are explained by exploring
the role of the unconscious
o His theory was slow to gain confidence amongst academics:
He suggested that people were not masters of their own mind
He proposed that behaviour is greatly influenced by how people cope with their
sexual urges
He downplayed the spiritual, cultural and evolutionary influences on psychological
processes
It was also considered unscientific
o But by the 1920s = Psychoanalysis widely known
Carl Jung (1913)

o Father of Archetypal Psychology
He introduced a number of archetypes detailing essential features of all human
psychological processes
o He also analysed (analytical psych) cultural and spiritual influences and their interaction
with the archetypes
o Introduced the collective unconscious
Def. = a framework that everyone uses to collect and describe experiences
Alfred Adler (1900s)
o Individual/Adlerian Psych; Community Psych
o He emphasised human needs and their ability to create positive social change and impact
BEHAVIOURISM
1913; late 1920s -> present day

John B. Watson
o He said that scientific psychology should ONLY study observable behaviour
o => Psychology should abandon the study of the consciousness
Was trying to redefine what psych is about
o Said that the scientific method rests on the idea of verifiability
Scientific claims can be verified by anyone willing and able to make the required
observations, but only if things (like behaviour) can be observed DIRECTLY AND
OBJECTIVELY
Mental processes are too private for scientific study – no one can actually see/touch
someone’s thoughts
o Nature vs NURTURE Debate
Behaviour is either determined by genetic inheritance or environment & experience
Little Albert Experiment – conditioned a child to fear rats
Ivan Pavlov (1901)
o Classic conditioning of reflex
o Pavlov’s Dog Experiment – conditioned a dog to salivate when hearing a bell
o Influenced behaviourists to study stimulus-response (S.R.) relationships
Therefore, Behaviourism = S.R. Psych
o This contributed to the rise of animal research in psych
Since humans are no longer needs as test subjects to report on their mental
processes
=> can now control animal subjects way more easily
B. F. Skinner (1953)
o Operant Conditioning
o Stated that organisms tend to repeat responses leading to POSITIVE outcomes and not
those to negative/neutral ones
o Skinner Boxes (tested with rats)
o Also stated that all people are controlled by their environment and not by themselves or
their conscious thoughts
‘Free will is an illusion’ – didn’t sit well with some academics and people
HUMANISM
1950s
Behaviourism & Psychoanalysis = NO!
o Both of these schools dehumanised people, suggesting that they aren’t in control of their
own destinies
Def. = Theory emphasising the uniqueness of human qualities, especially their freedom and
potential for growth
Carl Rogers (1951)
o Said that human behaviour is primarily governed by each individual’s sense of self-concept
o Said that when analysing behaviour one must take into account the fundamental human
drive towards personal growth and their need to fulfil their potential
Psychological disturbances are caused by thwarting these needs
Abraham Maslow (1954)
o Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Completed from bottom to the top
COGNITIVISM
Def. = the study of thoughts and mental processes

Human behaviour can’t be fully understood without examining how people acquire, process and
store info
Jean Piaget
o Child cognitive development
Noam Chomsky
o Physiology of Language
Herbert Simon
o Problem-solving
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCH
Def. = study of the evolutionary bases of behaviour in animals & humans

o => patterns of behaviour are products of evolution for adaptive value
o E.g. aggression
They believed that behavioural patterns have evolved to solve adaptive problems, and that natural
selection favours behaviour that enhances reproductive sex
David Buss, Martin Daly, Margo Wilson, Leda Cosmides, John Tooby
BIOLOGICAL PSYCH
Def. = study of the physiological bases of behaviour in animals & humans

They believed that an organism’s functioning can be explained in terms of bodily structures and
biochemical processes underlying behaviour
Heavy focus on physiology
James Olds, Roger Sperry, David Hubel, Torsten Weisel
PSYCHOLOGY TODAY:
Product of history and in almost every aspect of life

Continues to evolve
Is EMPIRICAL, dynamic and multifaceted
Includes areas like:
Health Psychology Fear and Psychosocial

and behavioural Child aspects of non-
aspects of Chronic anxiety in communicable
illness development children diseases (Cancer)
Culture, Well-being
Stress and
disability and Suicide and quality
mental health trauma of life
Pets as Career
Death and
psychology and
therapy bereavement measurement
PSYCHOLOGY IN AFRICA:
Used to be predominantly white

2 major perspectives:
AFROCENTRIC: AFRICAN:
Aimed exclusively at those of an African descent Adopts a universal approach to psychology
PSYCHOLOGY 114
CHAPTER 2:
Introduction:
Investigating questions is what psychology is all about
Psychologists are committed to addressing questions about behaviour through formal,
systematic observation.
As scientists, psychologists have to figure out how to make observations that will shed light on
the puzzles they want to solve – and stand up to the critical scrutiny of their peers.
Psychologists rely on a large toolkit of research methods, because different kinds of questions
call for different strategies of investigation.
Having a good grasp of these methods will enhance your ability to understand information.
Becoming familiar with the logic of the empirical approach will improve your ability to think
critically about claims concerning behaviour.
3 sets of interrelated goals:
measurement understanding application and

and description and prediction control
Measurement & Description:

To develop measurement techniques that make it possible to describe behaviour clearly and
precisely.
Researchers must measure the phenomenon under study.
For example, in studying the effectiveness of muscle relaxation techniques in reducing anxiety,
a psychologist must first develop a means of measuring anxiety.
o THE STATE-TRAIT ANXIETY INVENTORY (STAI)
o BECK ANXIETY INVENTORY (BAI)
o HOSPITAL ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION SCALE-ANXIETY (HADS-A)
Understanding & Prediction:

To evaluate their understanding, scientists make and test predictions called hypotheses.
Eg.
Hypothesis: Regular class attendance will improve academic performance amongst first year
psychology students.
Research Question: Does regular class attendance influence academic performance amongst first year
psychology students?
Application & Control:

The profession of psychology attempts to apply research findings to practical problems.
To build toward a better understanding of behaviour, psychologists construct theories.
o A theory is a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations.
A scientific theory must be testable.
Theory construction is a gradual, iterative process that is always subject to revision.
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Research methods are a most important part of the social sciences as they explain how
intellectual functioning can be enriched.
Steps in a scientific investigation:
3. Develop a
1. Identify a 2. State the 4. Formulate a
research
problem rationale hypothesis
question
5. Develop a
7. Analyse the 8. Report the
research 6. Collect data
data results
design
Hypothetical example: Depression and academic performance among university students
1. Identify a problem
Also known as the problem statement.
What is the problem you have identified?
Over recent years there has been a dramatic decline in the academic performance of
university students and depression is thought to be associated with this.
2. State the rationale

Motivation on why that problem is worth investigating.
Justify why, and how this study could advance knowledge.
Based on available evidence depression is a common psychiatric disorder that can impact
a university students’ academic performance. However, this has not yet been investigated
amongst students at Stellenbosch University. The aim of this study is to determine
whether depression influences academic performance in this group.
3. Develop a research question

Seeks to address or answer the problem that was identified.
Must be succinct, and focus on the purpose of the study.
Is there a correlation between depression and academic performance?
4. Formulate a hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more
variables.
High scores on a measure of depression will correlate with poor achievement scores on a
psychology test.
5. Develop a research design

The structure or map of how the hypothesis will be tested.
The detailed plan of how you will conduct your investigation.
Correlational research design
6. Collect data
Gather information from your research participants.
Participants are usually a subset of the population i.e. a sample.
Sample is usually similar in characteristics and therefore representative of population.
Test/ exam scores in students with and without diagnosed depression.
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7. Analyse data
Once all data has been collected you will analyse it statistically.
SPSS
8. Report the results

Share findings with scholarly community, participants and general public.
State study limitations.
State recommendations for future research.
Publication of results in academic peer-reviewed journals.
Conference presentation.
Research approaches:
There are mainly two types of research approaches: qualitative and quantitative studies, which
differ in numerous ways.
The purpose of a qualitative research approach is to understand and interpret social
interactions.
Quantitative research aims to test hypotheses, assess cause-and-effect relationships, as well as to
make predictions.
Mixed Methods:
Using multiple ways to explore a research problem
i.e. using both quantitative and qualitative methods to investigate a problem
One method alone is simply not enough to understand the underlying phenomenon
Quantitative Research Designs:

Test hypotheses
Asses cause and effect relationships
Quantitative research designs:
1. Experimental research design

Researcher has complete control over the experiment
Experimental group and the control group
Randomisation
One or more of variables are manipulated while the others are kept constant
Threats to validity:
Selection Bias (pre-existing group differences)
Mortality/Attrition (drop out/ withdraw/lost to follow up)
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Instrumentation threat (observed changes are due to change in assessment not
intervention)
Maturation threat (influence of physiological and psychological changes over time)
History threat (event during study that changes participant responses)
Testing threat (repeated measurements on same variable, which leads to improved
performance)
Small sample size (susceptible to outliers that can skew the results)
Multiple treatment effect (can’t attribute the effects to 1 treatment alone)
2. Quasi-experimental research design

Almost a true experimental design
Adopted in settings where impractical to carry out true experiments
Participants are not randomly assigned
i.e. allocation of participants to different groups cannot be manipulated by the researcher
IV variable is something the researcher cannot actually alter (e.g. whether people smoke or
not)
The IV can be identified and its effect on the DV can be studied
But random allocation to experimental groups is not possible
3. Descriptive research design

Summary of thoughts, feelings or behaviour of individuals regarding a particular
phenomenon
Purpose: to determine the frequency with which a particular variable occurs, or the extent
to which two variables are associated or ‘co-vary’
Example: to know the opinions Americans regarding the 2016 elections, they would be
asked whether they thought Trump or Clinton would win.
Frequencies calculated based on responses.
4. Survey design
Type of descriptive research
Ask large samples of people questions about their perceptions, attitudes and behaviour
Purpose: to gather information about the prevalence, distribution and associations
between the variables within a sample of interest
Hand out questionnaires, electronically via e-mail and web-based surveys (such as Survey
Monkey), telephonically or by face- to-face interviews.
Participants may be required to respond based on a rating scale (also known as Likert
scale) questions such as:
How would you rate youth’s interest in politics?
How would you rate your experience of Psychology 114 today?
Weaknesses
o self- report bias (i.e. participants may not give honest responses)
Not possible to establish causation in survey research
Lastly, if a sample is non-representative of the larger population, or is biased, it may be
impossible to generalise the findings.
5. Correlational research design

Describes the strength of the relation between two or more variables or characteristics
Purpose: to determine whether a relationship exists among variables, and to predict future
events from present knowledge
For example, the variables of height and weight are related (correlated) since taller people
generally weigh more than shorter people
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Not possible to identify the independent & independent variables in correlational research
Researcher is not manipulating one variable and measuring effect on another
Using statistics to see if there is a relationship between 2 variables
Weakness - cannot be used to draw inferences about the causal relationships between and
among variables
o For example: not possible in correlational research to hypothesise that children who
watch violent cartoons will engage in aggressive play
Qualitative research designs:
1. Observational Design:
Direct observation of individuals in their natural setting.
Passively observe things – be as unobtrusive as possible.
Systematically collect data.
a) Naturalistic observation:
Researcher engages in careful observation of behaviour without intervening directly
with the subjects - allowing researchers to study behaviour under conditions that are
less artificial than experiments.
It can be particularly useful for studying animals in their natural habitats
b) Participant observation:
Researcher immerses him/herself within the social setting under study, in order to
gain deeper insights into the social world.
Limitation: participants observed may alter their behaviour due to the presence of the
researcher.
c) Laboratory observations:
Assist researchers in having more control over variables that may not be possible to
manage in naturalistic observation.
Reduces the influences of confounding variables, which helps to increase the internal
validity of the experiment.
Easy to replicate, this increases generalisation of the results (external validity).
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2. Case Study Design:
Makes use of multiple sources of evidence, such as interviews, documents and observation.
Useful when investigating complex psychosocial phenomena that cannot easily be studied
experimentally.
Disadvantages:
o Results cannot be generalised because case studies focus on a small group of
participants
o Subjectivity
3. Phenomenology:
Based on understanding that the world and reality are not objective but are socially
constructed by people.
Study of individuals’ everyday experiences and provides an understanding of issues from their
perspectives of social realities.
Research typically asks questions like “What does the experience mean?”
Qualitative Data Collection Methods: Interviews:
1. Face-to-face:
Conduct interview in the presence of a participant – build rapport.
‘stage fright’ for the interviewer
Circumstances on the day may affect the collection of data.
May be costly in terms of time and money, (45-60mins; travel costs).
2. Telephone:
Difficult to establish rapport.
Can be easily arranged – no need to travel (cost-effective).
Gather information rapidly.
Cover a greater geographical area.
Retain anonymity from researcher.
May be intrusive to call peoples homes (must be sensitive towards this).
3. Focus Group:
Small group discussion (6-10 people per group) – why not more?
Moderator/facilitator and note-taker
Interpreter
Typically < 2hours
Diversity of opinions
Not just a lot of information in a small amount of time
Cost-effective
Participants build on each others ideas
Ethics?
Managing of focus group
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Structured: Unstructured: Semi-structured:
Interview questions Conversational interviews Commonly used
developed beforehand Useful when researcher does not Interview guide, with a
All interviewee’s asked the have enough information on topic – set of probes
same question wants to explore detail – and let Know interviews
Neutral tone- avoid interview be guided by natural flow schedule well – to
leading participants/ of conversation facilitate conversational
prompt certain responses Topics that he/she would like to style
Questions posed in same cover during interview (open-
sequence to everyone ended)
Analysing qualitative data:
1. Thematic analysis:
2. Discourse analysis
3. Content analysis
4. Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA)
5. Grounded theory analysis
6. Narrative analysis
Ethical Transgressions of the past:

The Nuremberg War Crime Trials and Hitler’s experiments (Nuremberg code)
The Tuskegee syphilis experiments (1930’s)
Milgram’s obedience experiments (Yale 1960)
Ethics in Psychology:
All psychological research introduces some ethical issues, which should be identified and
resolved prior to the commencement of a research study.
Researchers are bound by regulated ethics and legislation to protect the dignity and welfare of
participants.
Amongst the guidelines of the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA, 2002) and its
Professional Board for Psychology, psychologists are required to conduct psychological
practice and research, as well as conduct research in accordance with these legislative
parameters.
3 Basic ethics principles:

1. Respect for persons: Treating persons as autonomous agents and protecting those with
diminished autonomy.
2. Beneficence: Minimizing possible harms and maximizing benefits.
3. Justice: Distributing benefits and risks of research fairly.
Protection of participants from harm:

Voluntary participation
Informed consent
Confidentiality
Debriefing
Deception
Voluntary participation:
Invite participants to take part in a study (they have power to decide)
Do not force, coerce or bribe
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Vouchers & travel reimbursement – token of appreciation for their time
NB in studies that take a long time
Incentives do provide some motivation for participation
Altruism
Informed consent:
More than just a signature on a form
Make sure participants understand what the research is about
Describe it in their own words
Use language that is understandable (grade 6 reading level)
Language barriers! – therefore must offer consent in language participants are comfortable
with
Inform of the nature of research
Free to withdraw from study without consequence
Consent also protects researcher against accusations
Assent for <17 years
Confidentiality:
Protect the identity and information of participants that take part in your study
Identity and responses kept confidential
Data stored in locked cabinets/password protected computers
Pseudonyms/study numbers instead of names
Debriefing:
Takes place after study
For participant (to reveal if any deception did occur/ reveal hypotheses)
For researcher (stepping in and stepping out of others’ lived realities)
Deception:
Researcher deliberately withholds information from participants about real intention of the
study
Participants not fully aware of study hypothesis
Participants not fully aware how study data will be used
Ethics committee’s seldom approve covert observation
Ethics committee need to establish that participants will not be harmed during the experiment
(whether physical or psychological)
Bias in research:
Bias is a form of systematic error that can affect scientific investigations & alter the measurement
process
Biases can negatively impact the validity of research
1. Selection Bias
Occurs when potential research participants, selected to take part in a study, are not
representative of the population of interest
2. Sampling Bias
A type of selection bias & refers to a particular error that occurs due to the sample selection
A sample is biased if some participants are under-represented or over-represented, relative
to others in the population
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3. Measurement Bias
Involves a systematic error that can occur during collection of data
a) Instrument bias – occurs when the instrument used to assess particular phenomenon
gives incorrect information because of a communication barrier between the researcher
& participant
b) Experimenter bias/ experimenter expectancy effect – a subjective bias that occurs
towards particular results because the experimenter anticipates such findings
c) Insensitive measure bias – occurs when the instrument used is not sensitive enough to
detect what might be important to understanding the specified research variables
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CHAPTER 3:
Neurons:
Individual cells
Receive, integrate and transmit information
The basic chains of communication in the nervous system
In the human nervous system, the vast majority are interneurons - neurons communicate only
with other neurons
However, some neurons also receive signals from outside the nervous system (from sensory
organs) or carry messages from the nervous system to the muscles that move the body
Structure of a neuron:
Neural Impulse:
Neuron at rest
Is a tiny battery, a store of potential energy
Inside and outside the axon are fluids containing electrically charged atoms and molecules
called ions
Positively charged sodium (Na) and potassium (K) ions and negatively charged chloride (Cl)
ions are the principal molecules involved in the nerve impulse
Neuron at rest:
When the neuron is not conducting an impulse = in a resting state
The cell membrane is polarised – negatively charged on the inside and positively charged on
the outside
The charge difference across the membrane can be measured with a pair of microelectrodes
connected to an oscilloscope
In a resting neuron, this difference, called the resting potential, is about –70 millivolts
The action potential:

When the neuron is stimulated, channels in its cell membrane open, briefly allowing positively
charged ions to rush in
For an instant, the neuron’s charge is less negative, or even positive, creating an action
potential
An action potential is a very brief shift in the neuron’s electrical charge that travels along an
axon
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After the firing of an action potential, the channels in the cell membrane close up. Some time is
needed before they are ready to open again and the neuron cannot fire until then
ALL-OR-NONE LAW:
Neural impulse is an all-or-none proposition, like firing a gun
Either the neuron fire or it doesn’t and its action potentials are all the same
The size of an action potential is not affected by the strength of the stimulus - a weaker
stimulus does not produce a weaker action potential.
If the neuron receives a stimulus of sufficient strength, it fires, but if it receives a weaker
stimulus, it doesn’t. This is referred to as the “all-or-none law.”
THE SYNAPSE:
The neural impulse is a signal that must be transmitted from a neuron to other cells
This transmission takes place at special junctions called synapses, where terminal buttons
release chemical messengers
The two neurons are separated by the synaptic cleft, a microscopic gap between the terminal
button of one neuron and the cell membrane of another neuron. Signals have to cross this gap
for neurons to communicate.
The neuron that sends a signal across the gap is called the presynaptic neuron
The neuron that receives the signal is called the postsynaptic neuron
Receiving signals: Postsynaptic Potentials:

Lock and key mechanism
Then some neurotransmitters either drift away from receptor sites or become inactivated by
enzymes that metabolise (convert) them into inactive forms
Most neurotransmitters, however, are reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron through
reuptake - a process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the
presynaptic membrane.
1. Synthesis and storage of neurotransmitter

molecules in synaptic vesicles
2. Release of neurotransmitter molecules into
synaptic cleft
3. Binding of neurotransmitters at receptor sites on
postsynaptic membrane
4. Inactivation (by enzymes) or removal (drifting
away) of
neurotransmitters
5. Reuptake of neurotransmitters sponged up by the
presynaptic neuron
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NEUROTRANSMITTERS:
Neurotransmitter Function Dysfunction
Dopamine (DA) • Control of voluntary movement Parkinsonism

• Characterised as ‘reward pathway’ Schizophrenia
• Cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity in DA Addictive disorders
synapses
Norepinephrine • Contribute to regulation of mood and arousal Depressive disorders
(NE) • Cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at NE
synapses
Serotonin • Involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness, Depressive disorders

aggression OCD
• Prozac and similar antidepressant drugs affect Eating disorders
serotonin circuits
Acetylcholine • Released by motor neurons controlling skeletal Alzheimer’s disease
(Ach) muscles
• Contributes to the regulation of attention, arousal
and memory
• Some Ach receptors stimulated by nicotine
Gamma Amino • Serves as widely distributed inhibitory Anxiety disorders
Butyric Acid transmitter, contributing to regulation of anxiety
(GABA) and sleep / arousal
• Valium and similar anti-anxiety drugs work at
GABA synapses
Glutamate • Serves as widely distributed excitatory Schizophrenia
transmitter
• Involved in learning and memory
Endorphins • Resemble opiate drugs in structure and effects

• Play role in pain relief and response to stress
• Contribute to regulation of eating behaviour
The Organisation of the Human Nervous System
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Major Characteristics of the Nervous System:
Transformation of information
o External stimuli are transformed into chemical signals interpretable by the brain or
spinal cord, via sensory nervous tissue. Chemical messages are then transformed back
into physiological or behavioural processes, via efferent or motor neurons
Transmission and integration of information
o Nervous tissue, via multitudes of synapses, functions to integrate and transmit
information throughout the brain and body
Flexibility and adaptability
o The nervous system reacts to environmental stimuli and adapts as we grow and learn
Synergistic function
o Neurons act in synergy with one another, to produce meaningful reactions and
interactions
The Nervous System:

100 billion cells Neurons
Collect information
Enable body to respond
Central Nervous System = Spinal cord & brain

Peripheral Nervous System = Afferent & efferent nerve pathways
The Peripheral Nervous System:
The peripheral nervous system can be divided into two parts.

The somatic nervous system is made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles
and sensory receptors. They carry information from receptors in the skin, muscles, and joints
to the CNS, and from the CNS to the muscles.
These functions require two kinds of nerve fibers
Afferent nerve fibers are axons that carry information inward to the CNS
Efferent nerve fibers are axons that carry information outward from the CNS to the periphery
of the body
The autonomic nervous system controls automatic, involuntary, visceral functions that people
don’t normally think about, such as heart rate, digestions, and perspiration.
Thus the autonomic nervous system (ANS) is made up of nerves that connect to the heart,
blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands.
The autonomic system is a separate (autonomous) system, although it is ultimately governed
by the central nervous system.
Divided into two branches
o Sympathetic division – mobilise the body’s resources for emergency = ‘fight or flight’
response
o Parasympathetic division – conserves bodily resources = ‘rest and digest’
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Key Functions: Parasympathetic vs. Sympathetic Nervous System:
Central Nervous System:
Brain and spinal cord

Best protected organ in the body
Protected by the skull and enclosing sheaths (meninges)
Brain is surrounded by three main layers
o Outer dura mater (thick rubbery layer)
o Arachnoid membrane (spider web-like appearance)
o Pia mater (softer, directly surrounding the brain itself)
CNS is bathed in its own special nutritive fluid, the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
CSF nourishes the brain and suspends the brain in a protective cushion
Hollow cavities in the brain that are filled with CSF are called ventricles
Spinal cord
o Extension of the brain
In the spinal column that runs down the centre of the back
o Communicate with all muscles and sense organs below the head
o Connects the brain to the rest of the body through the peripheral nervous system
o Pairs of spinal nerves are attached to the spinal cord at 31 points
o Spinal nerves pass signals from the environment to the spinal cord and transmit the
responses from the spinal cord to the body
o Spinal cord damage
Brain = pinnacle of CNS
Looking inside the brain: Research Methods:
Investigators who conduct research on the brain or other parts of the nervous system are
called neuroscientists.
22
Often, brain research involves collaboration by neuroscientists from several disciplines,
including anatomy, physiology, biology, neurology, neurosurgery, psychiatry and psychology
Neuroscientists use many specialised techniques to investigate connections between the brain
and behaviour
They have relied most heavily on electrical recordings, lesioning and electrical stimulation
More recently, transcranial magnetic stimulation, brain-imaging techniques (such as CT and
MRI scans) and neuropsychological assessment methods, have enhanced neuroscientists’
ability to study brain structure and function
Research Methods:
1. The Electroencephalograph (EEG):

The electroencephalograph (EEG) is a device that monitors the electrical activity of the
brain over time by means of recording electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp
EEG provides output in the form of line tracings called brain waves
Various states of consciousness are associated with different brain waves
Abnormal firing of neurons = epilepsy
EEG can assist with diagnosis
Video EEG is sometimes necessary
Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures
2. Lesioning:
Lesioning involves destroying a piece of the brain. It is typically done by inserting an
electrode into a brain structure and passing a high-frequency electric current through it to
burn the tissue and disable the structure
Lesioning of brain structures is more often used in animals, because there are not a lot of
subjects to examine
It is also difficult to determine the exact location and the severity of the subject’s brain
damage
Major advances was for example made in understanding how the brain regulates hunger by
using the lesion method in animals
3. Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB):

Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) involves sending a weak electric current into a
brain structure to stimulate (activate) it.
o The current is delivered through an electrode, but the current is different from that
used in lesioning
o Most research is conducted with animals
o Occasionally used on humans in the context of brain surgery
o After a patient’s skull is opened, the surgeons may stimulate areas of a patient’s
brain in order to avoid or limit damage to critical areas of the brain
4. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS):

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a new technique that permits scientists to
temporarily enhance or depress activity in a specific area of the brain.
o A magnetic coil mounted on a small paddle is held over a specific area of a subject’s
head
o The coil creates a magnetic field that penetrates to a depth of 2 cm
o Researcher can then increase or decrease the excitability of neurons
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BRAIN IMAGING PROCEDURES:
1. Computerised tomographic (CT) scanning:

1970s
An imaging technique where X-rayed images of cross-sections of the brain are combined
into a three-dimensional image of this structure
Least expensive and most widely used in research
2. Positron emission tomography (PET):

CT scans can portray only brain structure, PET scans can examine brain functio, mapping
actual activity in the brain over time
A nuclear medicine technique where, as a result of injecting small quantities of
radiosotopes into a person that find their way into the brain
3. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI):

1980s
An imaging technique using magnetism where cross-sectional images of the brain are
combined into a three-dimensional image of its structure
4. Functional MRI (fMRI):

New variation of MRI
An imaging technique using magnetism where cross-sectional images of the brain are
combined into three dimensional images of its structure while a person is performing
certain functions or being exposed to certain stimuli
Neuropsychological Assessment:
Neuropsychology is a branches of psychology concerned with the interaction between
biological aspects of the brain and psychological, as well as behavioural expression thereof
Neuropsychological testing provides insight into the nature and effects of damage to the brain
Lesions and less specific brain damage which are often not visible using brain imaging
techniques, may be recognised using neuropsychological assessment
Subjects with specific lesions may also be studied, and their performance on behavioural and
cognitive tests measured, in order to hypothesise neuropsychological correlates of those
lesions
BRAIN AND BEHAVIOUR:
24
The Hindbrain:
The medulla, has charge of largely unconscious but essential

functions, such as regulating breathing, maintaining muscle
tone, and regulating circulation
The pons contains several clusters of cell bodies that
contribute to the regulation of sleep and arousal
The cerebellum is critical to the coordination of movement
and to the sense of equilibrium, or physical balance
The Brainstem:
The brainstem consist of the medulla, the pons and the
midbrain
The brainstem appears to be a ‘stem’ from which the rest of the brain ‘flowers’, like a head of
cauliflower
The many folds (gyri and sulci) in the brain function to increase the surface area of the brain,
allowing a greater population of neurons.
At the brainstem’s lower end, it looks like an extension of the spinal cord; at its higher end, it
lies deep within the brain
The Midbrain:
The midbrain is concerned with certain sensory processes, such as
locating where things are in space, vision and hearing
The midbrain is the origin of an important system of dopamine-
releasing axons
Among other things, this dopamine system is involved in the
performance of voluntary movements.
The abnormal movements associated with Parkinson’s disease are
due to the degeneration of neurons in this area.
The Reticular Formation:

Running through both the hindbrain and the midbrain is the
reticular formation
Lying at the central core of the brainstem, the reticular
formation contributes to the modulation of muscle reflexes,
breathing, and the perception of pain
It is best known, however, for its role in the regulation of
arousal and sleep/wakefulness
The Forebrain:
25
The Cerebrum:
Largest and most complex part of the human brain

Includes the brain areas that are responsible for our most complex mental activities, including
learning, remembering, thinking, and consciousness itself
Divided into right and left halves, called cerebral hemispheres
The Four Lobes:
Research suggests that the prefrontal cortex contributes to an impressive variety of higher-
order functions such as:
Working memory – which is a temporary buffer that processes current information
Reasoning about relations between objects and events and some types of decision-making
Some theorists suggest that the prefrontal cortex houses some sort of ‘executive control
system’
The association areas in the frontal lobes are also involved in personality and in higher order
thinking such as planning, organisation, abstract thought, co-ordinating skilled movements,
and memory.
1. The occipital lobe includes the cortical area where most visual signals are sent and visual
processing is begun – called the primary visual cortex
2. The parietal lobe includes the area that registers the sense of touch - the primary
somatosensory cortex
3. The temporal lobe contains an area devoted to auditory processing, the primary auditory
cortex
4. The frontal lobe contains the principal areas that control the movement of muscles, called the
primary motor cortex.
Brain Plasticity:
It was once believed that significant changes in the anatomy and organisation of the brain were
limited to early periods of development in both humans and animals
Studies show that
o experience can affect brain structure,
o brain damage can lead to neural reorganisation,
o neurogenesis (formation of new neurons) can occur in some areas of the adult brain
Thus, the brain is not ‘hard wired’ in the way a computer is
The structure and function of the brain appears to be more plastic than widely believed
The neural wiring of the brain appears to be flexible and constantly evolving
However, plasticity is not unlimited
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o Rehab efforts with people who suffered severe brain damage clearly demonstrate that
there are limits on the extent to which the brain can rewire itself
BROCA’S AREA: Production of Speech
In 1861, Paul Broca, a French surgeon, performed an autopsy on a patient who had been
unable to speak for 30 years
The autopsy revealed a lesion on the left side of the man’s frontal lobe
Since then, many similar cases have shown that this area of the brain - which came to be
known as Broca’s area - plays an important role in the production of speech
WERNICKE’S AREA: Comprehension of Language

In 1874, Paul Wernicke discovered that damage to a portion of the temporal lobe of the left
hemisphere leads to problems with the comprehension of language
Patients with damage in Wernicke’s area can speak normally but have difficulty understanding
others
Right brain/ Left brain: Cerebral Laterality:
The cerebrum is divided into right and left hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum
Evidence that the left cerebral hemisphere usually processes language led scientists to view it
as the dominant hemisphere
However, studies of split-brain patients revealed that the right and left halves of the brain each
have unique talents, with the right hemisphere being specialised to handle visual-spatial
functions.
Early evidence of cerebral hemisphere specialisation sparked many popular views as to certain
people being ‘left brain dominant’ or ‘right brain dominant’
Tends to oversimplify the many cerebral functions that are inherently dominant to each
hemisphere
While certain functions remain pervasive to either the left or right hemisphere, it is unlikely
that an individual would present with a total lateral dominance
Split-Brain Research:
In split-brain surgery the corpus callosum is cut to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures
Radical procedure, only used as last resort
Each hemisphere’s primary connections are to the opposite side of the body
The left hemisphere controls, and communicates with the right hand, right arm, right leg, right
eyebrow and so on, while the right hemisphere controls, and communicates with the left side
of the body
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Visual Input in the Brain:
Vision is more complex

Stimuli in the right half of the visual field are registered by receptors on the left side of each eye
that send signals to the left hemisphere
Similarly, stimuli in the left half of the visual field are registered by receptors on the right side
of each eye that send signals to the right hemisphere
Roger Sperry and his colleagues found that the ability of split-brain subjects to name and
describe objects depended on which side of the visual field the image was flashed in
When pictures of common objects were flashed in the right visual field and thus sent to the left
hemisphere, the split-brain subjects were able to name and describe the objects depicted
In another experimental procedure, split-brain subjects were asked to reach under a screen to
hold various objects
When objects were placed in the split-brain subjects’ right hand, which communicates most
directly with the left hemisphere, the subjects had no problem naming the objects
When the objects were placed in the subjects’ left hand, which communicates most directly
with the right hemisphere, the subjects had difficulty naming the objects
Research with split-brain subjects provided the first compelling evidence that the right
hemisphere has its own special talents
Based on this research, investigators concluded that the left hemisphere usually handles verbal
processing
The right hemisphere usually handles nonverbal processing, such as that required by visual-
spatial and musical tasks
Perceptual Asymmetries:
Split-brain operations creates an abnormal situation

Is it safe to generalise from split-brain subjects to normal individuals whose corpus callosum
are intact?
One method of studying cerebral specialisation in an intact brain is by looking at perceptual
asymmetries (left-right imbalances between the cerebral hemispheres in the speed of visual
or auditory processing)
Subtle differences in the abilities of the two hemispheres can be detected by precisely
measuring how long it takes participants to recognise different types of stimuli
Heredity and Behaviour:
Behavioural genetics is an interdisciplinary field that studies the influence of genetic factors on
behavioural traits
Basic Principles of Genetics:
o Chromosomes and Genes
o Genotype Versus Phenotype:

Genotype refers to a person’s genetic makeup
Phenotype refers to the ways in which a person’s genotype is manifested in
observable characteristics
o Polygenic Inheritance
28
Every cell in your body contains information from your parents, found on the chromosomes
that lie within the nucleus of each cell
Chromosomes are strands of DNA molecules that carry genetic information
Genes are DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission
Each chromosome contains thousands of genes, which also occur in pairs
Sometimes a member of a pair has a louder voice, always expressing itself and masking the
other member of the pair - this is a dominant gene.
A recessive gene is one that is masked when the paired genes are different
When a person has two genes in a specific pair that are the same, the person is homozygous
for that trait. If the genes are different, they are heterozygous.
Structures and Processes involved in Genetic Transmission:

The basic units of genetic transmission are genes housed on chromosomes
Genes operate in pairs, which may be homozygous or heterozygous.
When a pair of genes is heterozygous, one may be dominant and the other recessive
Genotype refers to one’s genetic makeup, whereas phenotype refers to one’s observable
characteristics.
Genotypes are translated into phenotypes in many ways
Most behavioural qualities appear to involve polygenic inheritance, which means that many
pairs of genes play a role in influencing the traits
Investigating Hereditary Influence:

Family studies, twin studies, and adoption studies assess the impact of heredity on behaviour
Family studies and twin studies focus on genetic relatedness and how it affects various traits in
order to study the influence of nature on behaviour
Adoption studies are able to assess the influences of both nature and nurture, as adopted
children’s traits can be evaluated in relation to both their biological and adoptive parents
The Interplay of Hereditary and Environment:

Research indicates that most behavioural qualities are influenced jointly by heredity and
environment, which play off of each other in complex interactions
New work in epigenetics ( the study of heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve
modification of the DNA sequence) has further demonstrated that genetic and environmental
factors are deeply intertwined
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CHAPTER 4:
Introduction:
Our sensory systems allow us to explore, understand and respond to a multitude of stimuli in
our individual environments, giving each of us a unique experience of the world around us
Within your environment, you could just as easily have relied on your auditory (hearing),
olfactory (smell), gustatory (taste) and/or kinaesthetic (touch) sensory systems to identify
different kinds of stimuli around you
Examining each of the senses individually
starting with the sensory aspects and then working our way through to the perceptual aspects
Psychophysics: Basic Concepts and Issues:

Psychophysics studies how a physical stimulus within the environment is converted into
perceptions and psychological experiences
Each person’s environment contains a variety of stimuli that our bodies process via our
sensory organs (mouth, ears, eyes, skin and nose)
Stimuli can also be referred to as sensory input
Our sensory systems organise and interpret sensory input so that we can attach meaning and
develop a response to this input through two separate, but interacting, stages of sensation and
perception
However, we frequently view sensation and perception as one process
Sensation is the physiological process of taking in raw physical energy from stimuli (such as
light from the environment) via the sensory receptors of our different sensory organs
Transduction is a sub-process that occurs during sensation. It’s defined as the conversion of
the raw physical energy into sensory neurological signals
Perception is a psychological process, whereby sensory neurological signals that reach the
brain are selected, organised and interpreted, so that we can make sense of and attach meaning
to sensations
Sensation vs. Perception:
Each process influences the

other in terms of effect or
impairment
Different forms of agnosia
(breakdown between sensation
and perception)
o Auditory
o Tactile
o Olfactory
o Visual
o Form
Without a fully functioning sensory system it can be very difficult to make sense of our world
Biologically, people have the ability to see, hear, smell, taste and feel in a similar way BUT we
all perceive stimuli in different ways due to three factors
o The functionality of our individual sensory systems
o The different types of stimuli that occur in our individual environments
o Our unique contexts and experiences
30
THRESHOLDS: Looking for limits:
A threshold is a point at which a stimulus triggers a response

Fechner and his contemporaries studied the minimal amount of stimulation (physical energy)
required from a stimulus in order to stimulate a psychological experience
o Known as stimulus intensity – how intense (strong) a stimulus has to be in order for it
to be detected
The weakest detectable stimulus is a concept known to psychophysics as absolute threshold
However, theory of absolute threshold cannot be used as a reliable method for stimulating a
psychological response
Fechner considered the theory of just noticeable difference (JND) as an alternative method
for triggering a psychological response
The theory of just noticeable difference (JND) aims to identify the lowest intensity of
stimulation that can create a noticeable difference between stimuli, also known as difference
threshold
However, the JND is subjective based on differing perceptions
Researchers had to define the absolute threshold as the stimulus intensity detected 50% of the
time
Signal Detection Theory:
The signal-detection theory replaces Fechner’s sharp threshold with the concept of
detectability
This theory proposes various factors and influences, besides the intensity of a stimulus, which
can affect the detection of stimuli, such as
o Personal experiences
o Biases
o Expectations
o Degrees of motivation
o Previous exposures to stimuli
o Personal sensitivity
o Level and ability of alertness
o Willingness and the confidence to respond
o Personal strengths
More modern concept in psychophysics
Perception without Awareness:

Research suggests that perception without awareness exists, and that this influences the
concept of subliminal advertising
However, research also points out that the effects of subliminal perception are somewhat weak
∴ the concept shouldn’t cause concern
Sensory Adaptation:
Sensory adaptation can be a natural occurrence, as prolonged exposure to stimuli can weaken
the sensation effects
Sensory adaptation allows people to identify changes in their environment more easily
31
This concept points out that individuals are more aware of differences in stimuli sensations
within the environment, which can be significant in cases where a difference in stimuli is a
cause for concern
The Visual System: Essentials of Sight:

What the eyes sees and what it perceives are two different things
Our visual systems can be influenced by the contexts we operate in, and the meanings attached
to what we see:
o Eg.) See your father hugging your sister and then perceive this as him favouring her
over you
The Stimulus: LIGHT

The stimulus of vision is light
Light is electromagnetic radiation that travels in
waves
Light waves vary in amplitude (height) and in
wavelength (which depends on the distance between
the peaks)
Total Range of Wavelengths:

The visible spectrum for
humans is only a slim portion
of the total range of
wavelengths
Other animals have different
capabilities. (e.g. many insects
can see shorter wavelengths
than humans can see)
These wavelengths are in the
ultraviolet spectrum.
Light waves vary in amplitude, wavelength and purity which influence perceptions
Physical properties Related perceptions
Amplitude Brightness
Wavelength Hue (‘color’)
Purity Saturation
THE EYE:
Visual system relies on the eye as the sensory organ

Two major functions
o It transports stimuli to the necessary receptors (sensation)
o Forms part of the process of creating images of the visual world (perception)
Film-camera
32
o Capture images upside down and these images are corrected so that we can perceive
them the right way round
The eye has two main purposes, providing a “house” for the neural tissue that receives light
(the retina) and channelling light toward the retina
Light passes through the cornea, pupil and lens and falls on the light-sensitive surface of the
retina, where images of objects are reflected upside down
Structure and Functions:

Cornea = a transparent window where light enters the eye
Lens = a crystalline structure that adjusts its curvature, to focus the images falling on the retina
The iris (coloured ring of muscle) and the pupil (the black centre of the eye), constricts or
dilates depending on the amount of light present in the environment, and changes the size of
the pupil
The retina:
o Contains two types of receptors, rods and cones
o Rods play a key role in night vision
o Cones play a key role in daylight vision & colour vision
o These are light-sensitive cells, which convert light into electrical signals through the
process of transduction
o Cones and rods also play a role in a process known as ‘adaptation’
If you move out of a poorly lit room into the bright sunshine outdoors, your eyes
need to adapt to the brighter light = light adaptation
When you go back indoors, your eyes are able to adapt from seeing in a lighter
illumination to a slightly darker illumination = dark adaptation
How Does Visual Information get to the Brain?
Visual information processing occurs within the retina, where light is converted into electrical
impulses, which travel to the brain in order for perception of vision to occur
The retina forms part of the CNS, which is an extension of the brain (this explains why complex
visual-information processing occurs within the retina as well as in the brain
Light striking the rods and cones triggers the firing of neural signals that pass into the cells in
the retina
Signals move from receptors to bipolar cells to ganglion cells, which in turn send impulses
along the optic nerve.
These axons carry visual information, and depart the eye through the optic disk
Visual Pathways:
Axons leaving the back of each eye from the optic nerves,
which project into the brain’s relay centre, the thalamus.
The optic pathways then travel from the thalamus to the
primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe at the back of the
brain.
The optic nerves from the inside half of each eye

crisscross at the optic chiasm and then project to the
opposite half of the brain
o This arrangement ensures that signals from both
eyes go to both hemispheres of the brain
33
Input from the right half of the visual field strikes the left side of each retina and is transmitted
to the left hemisphere (shown in blue)
Input from the left half of the visual field strikes the right side of each retina and is transmitted
to the right hemisphere (shown in red)
The nerve fibres from each eye meet at the optic chiasm, where fibres from the inside half of
each retina cross over to the opposite side of the brain
After reaching the optic chiasm, the major visual pathway projects through the lateral
geniculate nucleus (LGN) in the thalamus and onto the primary visual cortex (solid lines)
A second pathway detours through the superior colliculus and then projects through the
thalamus and onto the visual cortex
The LGN is the main visual pathway where conscious visual perception takes place
Any difficulties within this pathway can result in a form of blindness
The LGN’s functions lies with perception of colour, form, contrast and motion, while the
superior colliculus aids in the perception of motion and the coordination of visual input with
other sensory input
The superior collivulus also performs supplementary duties such as sensory processing
Once visual information arrives at the occipital lobe, information processing can now occur in
the primary visual cortex
The Visual System: Perceptual Processes:
Physiological perception is dependent on vision when we define it as an input stimulus in

order to make meaning of light waves
Psychological perception, on the other hand, is not necessarily dependent on vision, but rather
on cognitive and affective association based on memory
The distinction is important, because changes or disturbances in perception will either relate
to physiological abnormalities (such as near-sightedness), or
Mental perceptual disturbances (such as visual hallucinations)
Perceiving Forms, Patterns & Objects:
A reversible figure is a drawing that is compatible with two

different interpretations that can shift back and forth
This shifting is caused by information given to you about the
drawing, called a perceptual set.
A perceptual set creates the shift in how you interpret sensory
input
Eg.) A man and woman dancing or a seal balancing a ball on its
nose?
Gestalt principles:
Top-down processing is clearly at work in the principles of

form perception described by the Gestalt psychologists
The Gestalt principle maintains that the whole can be greater
than the sum of its parts One example of gestalt is the phi
phenomenon - the illusion of movement created by
presenting visual stimuli in rapid succession.
The Gestalt principles of form perception include proximity,
closure, similarity, simplicity, and continuity.
34
Perceiving Depth or Distance:
Depth perception involves interpretation of visual cues that indicate how near or far away
something is.
Two types of clues are used to make judgments of distance: monocular cues (clues from a
single eye) and binocular cues (clues from both eyes together).
Binocular cues include retinal disparity (objects within 25 feet project images to slightly
different locations on the left and right retinas; thus each eye sees a slightly different view of
the object) and convergence, feeling the eyes converge toward each other as they focus on a
target
Monocular cues are clues about distance based on the image in either eye alone
Pictorial depth cues are cues about distance that can be given in a flat picture.
The Auditory System: HEARING
The auditory (hearing) system offers us information about the world, but meaning can only be
attached to this information once the brain has perceived it
This interpretation will also be dependent on input from other senses and other influencing
factors
The auditory process involves both sensation and perception of sound, as two separate yet
interacting processes of the auditory sensory system
The stimulus for the auditory system is sound waves, which are actually vibrations of
molecules
Humans can hear wavelengths between 20 – 20 000Hz
Sound waves must travel throughout some physical medium, such as air
Like light waves, sound waves are characterised by their amplitude (loudness), wavelength
(pitch), and purity (timbre)
Also as with light, characteristics of sound interact in sound perception
Sensory Processing in the Ear:
The receptors for hearing are tiny hair cells that line the basilar membrane that runs the length
of the cochlea, a fluid-filled, coiled tunnel in the inner ear
35
Neural impulses are routed through the thalamus and then sent to the primary auditory cortex,
which is mostly located in the temporal lobe
The Chemical Senses: Taste and Smell:
The chemical senses, which include the gustatory system (the sensory system that provides
information for taste) and the olfactory system (which provides information for smell), both
rely on the sensory organs of the nose and mouth and work closely together
Although the sense of smell and the sense of taste influence each other, they are still separate
sensory systems
TASTE:
The stimuli for taste generally are chemical substances that are soluble (dissolvable in water)
These stimuli are dissolved in the mouth’s saliva
The four primary tastes are sweet, sour, bitter, and salty, with uneven distribution on the
tongue
Nature and Location of Receptors:

Receptors for taste are clusters of taste cells found in the taste buds, which line the trenches
around tiny bumps on the tongue
Taste cells have a short lifespan (about 10 days) and are constantly being replaced
Brain pathways in initial processing
o These cells absorb chemicals, trigger neural impulses, and send the information
throughout the thalamus and on to the insular cortex in the frontal lobe
SMELL:
The stimuli are volatile chemical substances that can evaporate and be carried in the air
These chemical stimuli are dissolved in the mucus of the nose
Efforts to identify primary odours have proven unsatisfactory
If primary odours exist, there must be a lot of them

Olfactory receptors are called olfactory cilia and are located in the upper portion of the nasal
passages
Like taste cells, they have a short lifespan (about 30-60 days) and are constantly being
replaced
Brain pathways in initial processing
o Neural impulses are routed through the olfactory bulb and then sent directly to the
olfactory cortex in the temporal lobe and other cortical areas
o Smell is the only sensory input not routed through the thalamus
The Tactile System: TOUCH
The stimuli are mechanical, thermal and chemical energy that impinge on the skin
The body’s surface (the skin) is our biggest sensory organ
36
Receptors in the skin can register pressure, warmth, cold and pain
The sense of touch delivers a more direct contact with the immediate environment (stimuli) –
this is because our skin covers the majority of the body and is one of the first organs to come
into contact with anything external

Temperature is registered by free nerve endings in the skin that are specific for cold and
warmth
Pain receptors are also mostly free nerve endings which transmit information to the brain via
two types of pathways –
o the fast pathway that registers localised pain and relays it to the brain in a fraction of a
second, and
o the slow pathway that lags a second or two behind and carries less localised, longer-
lasting aching or burning pain
Neural impulses are routed through the brainstem and thalamus and on to the somatosensory
cortex in the parietal lobe
37
PSYCHOLOGY 114
Chapter 6
Chapter 6: Conditioning and Learning

What is learning?
• Learning can be understood as knowing something you did not know before, or being able to do
something you were previously unable to do.
• Learning is a fundamental concept that is at the core of psychology.
• Learning can shape habits, beliefs, personality traits, emotional responses and personal
preferences.
• Learning is the process involved in observable behaviour changes.
• It cannot be seen happening we assume learning has occurred when we note the change in
behaviour
Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov
• Phobias are defined as irrational fears of specific objects or situations.

• Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a stimulus obtains the capacity to create a
certain response that was originally created by another stimulus.
• The term conditioning came from Pavlov’s desire to explore the ‘conditions’ that produce this kind
of learning.
• Pavlov’s experiments showed how learned associations were formed within the subject’s
environment.
• Ivan Pavlov was a prominent Russian physiologist who did research on digestion.
• Pavlov discovered that dogs will salivate in response to the sound of a tone in a process we now call
classical conditioning
Pavlov’s experiment:
• Ivan Pavlov, the Russian psychologist, designed an experiment to observe the role of saliva in the
digestive processes of dogs.
• Pavlov restrained the dogs in a chamber and collected the saliva produced after presenting them
with meat powder.
• The saliva was collected through a tube implanted in the dogs’ salivary gland. Since salivation is a
reflexive and spontaneous response, it is unlearnt and occurs automatically when a hungry animal
is offered food.
• he researchers observed that the dogs did not only salivate when they received food but also when
they saw the food.
• In some of his experiments, Pavlov included the use of an auditory stimulus in the form of a bell
tone.
• He would present the meat powder to the dogs and simultaneously play the bell tone.
• Later, when the bell tone was presented to the dogs without the meat powder, they still salivated.
• Through the process of conditioning, the neutral stimulus of the bell tone (which did not induce
salivation before the experiment) developed the ability to trigger the response of salivation in the
dogs.
• Pavlov’s experiment shows how learned associations were formed within the subject’s
environment.
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Terminology:
Association = A link or relationship that is made between one or more event, object or subject.
Eg.) Sam became afraid of water after he nearly drowned. (There is an association between the water
and fear due to his previous experience)
Stimulus = An object, behaviour or event that triggers, or is conditioned to trigger a response.

Eg.) Fred becomes hungry and his mouth waters when he smells boerewors (stimulus) cooking on the
braai for the first time.
Unconditioned association = The relationship Pavlov observed between the meat powder and the dogs
producing saliva was a natural, unlearned association. The relationship is biological & did not have to be
created through conditioning unconditioned association
Eg.) Gerald breaks into a sweat in the hot Durban sun.
Unconditioned stimulus (US) = A stimulus that creates a spontaneous response without previous
conditioning.
Eg.) Mandy is allergic to cats (unconditioned stimulus) and sneezes (unconditioned response) when she
is near one.
Unconditioned response (UR) = A reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous
conditioning.
Eg.) Sarah jumps when a balloon is popped her jumping is an automatic and unconditioned response
to the unexpected bang.
Conditioned association = The relationship between a stimulus and a response that exists once
conditioning has taken place.
Eg.) Seb always drank a beer when he watched the rugby with his friends. After a while, he became
thirsty for a beer whenever he saw a rugby match.
Conditioned stimulus (CS) = A neutral stimulus that once did not produce a response but that is now,
through the use of conditioning, capable of producing a conditioned response.
Eg.) John always studied at his desk (unconditioned stimulus) in his room. After a particularly tough
exam period, he became anxious whenever he saw his desk. The desk is now a conditioned stimulus by the
association between his desk, studying and possible failure.
Conditioned response (CR) = A learned reaction to a stimulus that occurs because of conditioning.
Eg.) A horse performs a jump to receive a treat.
Trial = The presentation of a stimulus, or a pair of stimuli, to a subject in a classical conditioning

experiment. Experiments may involve several trials as associations are created and explored.
Eg.) A horse may not perform the jump immediately when shown a treat, however, if he receives a treat
every time he jumps, after several trials, he will jump when he sees the treat.
Classical Conditioning in Everyday life:

• Conditioned Fear & Anxiety:
• Fear conditioning is thought to depend upon an area of the brain called the amygdala
• Amygdala = part of the brain correlated to emotions
• In humans, the amygdala is activated by fear stimuli without the need for conscious access to the
stimuli before a response is elicited.
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Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning:
• Acquisition (forming new responses)
• Extinction (weakening conditioned responses)
• Spontaneous recovery (resurrecting responses)
• Stimulus Generalization
• Stimulus Discrimination
• Higher order conditioning
1. Acquisition:
• Classical conditioning can be broken
down into two basic parts - acquisition
and extinction.
• Acquisition is the initial stage of learning
something - like Pavlov’s dog learning to
drool at the tone of the bell.
• The graph here shows the strength of the
dog’s response, measured in drops of
saliva, to the conditioned stimulus (the bell).
• In the brain, there is an important chemical involved in conditioning: Dopamine (pleasure-giving
chemical).
• Involved in the reward centre of the brain and gives a pleasurable experience when this chemical is
released.
• In Conditioning, dopamine neurons burst when an unexpected reward is received.
2. Extinction:
• Extinction is the process by which
the association between the
unconditioned stimulus (meat
powder) and conditioned stimulus
(bell ringing) is broken.
• When the bell is presented enough
times without being paired with meat, the response
extinguishes.
3. Spontaneous recovery:
• Spontaneous recovery is a
phenomenon discovered by Pavlov in
which an extinguished conditioned
stimulus suddenly elicits a
conditioned response again when
there is a period of time between
trials in a classical conditioning
experiment.
• The CR this time is weakened and
eventually re-extinguishes, though after another “rest” interval, a weaker spontaneous recovery
occurs.
• Resurrecting response
• Even if you manage to rid yourself of an unwanted conditioned response, it may reappear.
• Example: This may help explain why people who manage to give up cigarettes, drugs or poor eating
habits for a while often RELAPSE and return to their unhealthy habits.
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4. Stimulus Generalization:
• Examples: phobia of open water.

• The original conditioned stimulus for her fear was that specific river, but her fear was ultimately
generalised to most natural bodies of water.
• Showing the conditioned response to a stimulus that was not previously encountered.
• The more similar new stimuli are to the original conditioned stimulus, the greater the
generalisation.
NB: Little Albert experiment:

• John B. Watson, the founder of behaviourism, conducted an influential early study of
generalisation.
• Watson examined the generalisation of conditioned fear in an 11-month-old boy, known as “Little
Albert.”
• Watson conditioned Little Albert to show fear of the conditioned stimulus (a rat).
• Little Albert then generalised his fear to a number of furry objects, including a rabbit, a fur coat, and
Watson wearing a Santa Claus mask.
• The basic law governing generalisation is: The more similar new stimuli are to the original
conditioned stimulus, the greater the generalisation.
• This principle can be quantified in graphs called generalisation gradients.
5. Stimulus Discrimination:
• Opposite of stimulus generalisation

• Example: Dog gets excited when it hears your car
• Discrimination has adaptive value: animals survival may depend on it being able to distinguish
edible from poisonous food.
6. Higher order conditioning:
• There is a way other than stimulus generalisation to observe a CR without a CS-US pairing, it is
called higher-order conditioning.
• This phenomenon was discovered by Pavlov.
• It involves three steps
o First, a US is paired with a CS (known as CS1)
o Then CS1 is paired with another CS (CS2)
o Finally, CS2 (which had not been paired with the US) elicits a CR from the individual being
conditioned.
Operant Conditioning: B. F. Skinner:

• Operant conditioning is a form of learning where responses are controlled by their consequences.
• The most important aspect of operant conditioning is that subjects tend to repeat responses that
are followed by positive or enjoyable consequences.
• Reinforcement occurs when an event following a response increases the likelihood of the subject to
make that response in the future.
• Behaviour is lawful and can be controlled.
• Behaviour can be manipulated by manipulating environmental factors
• Humans do not have freedom of choice regarding their behaviour.
• Psychology should study the laws governing human behaviour
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Operant Conditioning: Skinner Classical Conditioning: Pavlov
• Operant conditioning is a form of learning • Classical conditioning explains reflexive
where responses are controlled by their responding that is influenced by stimuli
consequences preceding the reflexive response
• Operant behaviour is not preceded by any
identifiable stimulus - it appears to be
produced spontaneously (emergent behaviour)
• Operant behaviour has an effect on the • Respondent behaviour is familiar behaviour
environment - this effect on the environment that is now stimulated by a previously neutral
controls the behaviour stimulus that, after repeated pairings with an
• Behaviour increases due to environmental unconditioned stimulus, has become a
reinforcement conditioned stimulus
• A reinforcer: any environmental change • The respondent behaviour in response to a
condition/stimulus that increases the likelihood conditioned stimulus is a conditioned response
that a particular behaviour will be repeated
Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning:
• Skinner’s principle of reinforcement holds that organisms tend to repeat those responses that are
followed by favourable consequences, or reinforcement.
• Something is positively reinforcing if individuals are reinforced when it is presented to them, like
food, water, sleep, or sex.
• An example of positive reinforcement is if you tell a joke and all your friends laugh, you’re more
likely to keep telling jokes.
• This is an experimental apparatus, also known

as an “operant chamber,” devised by Skinner
for testing laboratory animals in operant
conditioning experiments.
• It is commonly referred to as the ‘Skinner
box’.
• A Skinner box is a small enclosure in which an
animal can make a specific response that is
systematically recorded while the
consequences of the response are controlled.
• Cumulative recorders create a graphic record of

responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a
function of time.
• Each time the lever in the Skinner box is pressed, it moves
the pen up a step.
• A steeper slope represents a rapid response rate.
• The rat in a Skinner box initially explores his surroundings,
then eventually presses the lever in the box, a behaviour
which is reinforced by the presentation of water.
• The rat becomes conditioned by the positive reinforcement to continue pushing the lever.
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Acquisition and Shaping:
• In operant conditioning, as in classical conditioning, acquisition refers to the initial stage of learning
some pattern of responding.
• Operant conditioning is usually established through a gradual process called shaping, which
involves the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response.
• Shaping is necessary when an organism does not, on its own, emit the desired response.
• For example, when a rat is first placed in a Skinner box, it may not press the lever at all. In this case
the experimenter begins shaping lever-pressing behaviour by reinforcing the rat whenever it moves
toward the lever.
Extinction:
• When a behaviour disappears because it is no longer reinforced
• Extinction burst refers to the phenomenon whereby a behaviour will initially increase in frequency
(due to a lack of reinforcement) before it finally disappears (if reinforcement remains withheld)
• Extinction in operant conditioning is the process by which
the association between response and contingency is
broken.
• The most efficient means of unpairing a response and
contingency is to stop reinforcing the operant response –
for example, to not present food when the bar is pressed.
• Since responses are graphed cumulatively, the line never
goes down - when a response is extinguished, the line
flattens.
Schedules of Reinforcement and Patterns of Response:
• In operant conditioning, a favourable outcome is much more likely to strengthen a response if the
outcome follows immediately.
• A schedule of reinforcement determines which occurrences of a specific response result in
presentation of a reinforcer.
• The simplest schedule is continuous reinforcement
• Continuous reinforcement occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced.
• Intermittent reinforcement, or partial reinforcement, occurs when a designated response is
reinforced only some of the time.
• A fixed-ratio schedule entails giving a reinforcer after a fixed number of non-reinforced responses.
• A fixed-ratio schedule, in general, provides a rapid response, indicated by the steep slope of the
curve.
• Eg. A student who receives money for every fifth A she receives on a test
• A variable ratio schedule entails giving a reinforcer after a variable number of non-reinforced
responses.
• Variable-ratio schedules, like fixed-ratio schedules, tend to provide a rapid response.
• Intermittent reinforcement, or partial reinforcement, occurs when a designated response is
reinforced only some of the time.
• Example: Playing slot machines is based on variable-ratio reinforcement as the number of non-
winning responses varies greatly before each time the machine pays out.
• Interval schedules require a time period to pass between the presentation of reinforcers.
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• A fixed-interval schedule entails reinforcing the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval
has elapsed - reinforcement is not given before the interval has elapsed.
• Example: Once a year after Thanksgiving, retail stores in the United States of America have large
discounts in preparation for Christmas, on a day called “Black Friday”. Shopping before the sale
does not provide the reinforcer (getting cheaper items).
• A variable-interval schedule entails giving the reinforcer for the first response after a variable time
interval has elapsed.
• Example: Constantly checking a cell phone to see if there are text messages waiting is reinforced by
the periodic receipt of text messages.
Positive vs Negative reinforcement:

• Responses can be strengthened either by presenting positive reinforcers or by removing negative
reinforcers.
• Positive reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the
presentation of a rewarding stimulus.
• Something is negatively reinforcing if individuals can avoid or escape from an aversive situation.
• The reward is taking something away
Aversive Conditioning – Escape and Avoidance:

• Aversive conditioning is an aspect of operant conditioning that deals with unpleasant stimuli and
how we learn to stay away from them.
• Escape is defined as performing an operant response to cause an aversive stimulus to cease (e.g.
run to the other side of a shuttle box to get away from shock).
• Avoidance involves a stimulus, usually a light or bell, that signals the onset of the aversive stimulus.
• Taste aversion is a special instance of conditioning because it breaks two of the cardinal rules of the
process - it occurs after only one pairing of CS-US, and the presentation of the US (illness) and CS
(taste) can be separated by as much as 24 hours.
• Taste aversion also supports the behaviour-systems approach because it is clearly a crucial
response to poisoning.
Observational Learning: Albert Bandura

• Observational learning occurs when an organism’s response is influenced by the observation of
others who are called models.
• Albert Bandura investigated observational learning extensively and identified four key processes in
observational learning: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.
• The power of observation accounts for most learning
• Bandura commented that one should not view observational learning as entirely separate from that
of classical and operant conditioning.
Operant Conditioning: Skinner Observational Learning: Bandura

• Individuals learn passively on the basis of • Individuals are active participants who
environmental reinforcement/punishment influence their own learning process (via self-
• Conditioning is the only form of learning regulation)
• Learning is always linked to reinforcement by • Learning takes place via direct experience,
an external agent observation, self-regulation
• Learning is linked to direct, vicarious, and self-
reinforcement
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Observational Learning in Action:
• The behaviour of the observer changes as a result of observing the behaviour of the model and the
consequences of the model's behaviour
• The nature of the modelled behaviour (New vs Old)
• The characteristics of the model (High vs Low Status)
• The consequences of the Model’s behaviour
• The characteristics of the observer (motivation, intelligence, perception, personality, confidence,
expectations)
• Self-efficacy
Key Learning Goals:

Describe classical conditioning and Pavlov’s demonstration of this concept.
• Classical conditioning is the process of a neutral stimulus acquiring the capacity to create a
response that was previously created by a different stimulus.
• This conditioning was described by Ivan Pavlov, who conditioned dogs to produce saliva at the
sound of a tone.
• The key elements are the unconditioned stimulus (US), the conditioned response (UR), the
conditioned stimulus (CS) and the conditioned response (CR).
Explain how classical conditioning plays a role in emotions such as fear and anxiety.
• Everyday responses are regulated through classical conditioning such as phobias, mild fears and
even pleasant emotional responses.
• Physiological responses, such as sexual arousal, also respond to classical conditioning.
Describe acquisition, extinction and spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning.

• A conditioned response can be weakened and eventually extinguished when the CS is no longer
associated with the US.
• Spontaneous recovery can occur and an extinguished response reappears.
Describe the processes of generalisation and discrimination.

• Conditioning may generalise to other stimuli that are similar to the original CS.
• The opposite of generalisation is not responding to stimuli that are similar to the original CS; this is
called discrimination.
Explain higher-order conditioning.

• Higher-order conditioning occurs when a CS operates as if it was a US, therefore classical
conditioning does not require a completely unconditioned stimulus, and an already established CS
can operate in the same way.
Define positive and negative reinforcement.

• Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive or pleasant stimulus is presented after the behaviour
has been performed and the likelihood of that behaviour being performed again increases.
• Negative reinforcement occurs when an aversive or unpleasant stimulus is removed after a
behaviour has been performed and the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated in the future
increases.
Explain extinction.
• Extinction is the gradual weakening and eventual stopping of behaviour by withholding the stimulus
that reinforced it.
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Explain punishment in terms of operant conditioning.
• Punishment is aimed at decreasing behaviour.
• It is the presentation of an aversive or unpleasant stimulus after the behaviour in order to decrease
the behaviour, or it is the removal of a positive or pleasant stimulus after the behaviour has been
performed in order to decrease the behaviour.
Discuss the theoretical importance of conditioned taste aversion.

• Conditioned taste aversions can be readily acquired even when a lengthy delay occurs between the
CS and US.
• The findings on conditioned taste aversion suggest that evolution may have programmed some
organisms to learn certain types of associations more easily than others.
Review the concept of preparedness and argue whether the laws of learning are universal.
• Preparedness helps us to understand why people acquire phobias (that were once a threat to our
ancestors) much more readily than possible sources of threat in modern times.
• Evolutionary psychologists maintain that learning processes differ to a certain degree amongst
species because different species have to contend with different adaptive problems.
Explain the research on latent learning and its theoretical significance as contributed by Tolman.
• Tolman’s studies suggested that learning can take place in the absence of reinforcement, which he
called latent learning.
• His findings suggested that cognitive processes contribute to conditioning, but his work was not
influential at the time.
Understand the theoretical implications of research on signal relations and response-outcome relations.
• Rescorla’s work on signal relations demonstrated that a significant component that governs
classical conditioning is the predictive value of CS.
• Thus, when a response is followed by an advantageous result, the response is more likely to be
reinforced if the response appears to have caused the outcome.
• Non-contingent reinforcement, cognitive biases and irrational reasoning appear to contribute to
superstitious behaviour.
• Studies of signal relations and response-outcome relations suggest that cognitive processes play a
larger role in conditioning than originally believed.
Explain how EAP is able to change behaviour in humans.

• EAP is an effective approach for changing behaviour in humans as it is experiential in nature.
• An encouraging, non-threatening environment, enables the client to use the therapy session as an
opportunity for learning.
• The horse offers immediate feedback on the client’s behaviour for the client to learn from.
• The client can then apply the new desired behaviour to other contexts; thereby learning from the
horses’ reinforcement.
Explain how the horse is used in EAP.

• The horse is considered to be the co-therapist in an EAP session.
• The horse is very perceptive to non-verbal stimuli of the client, as well as mirroring the client in the
session. Thus the client has direct feedback from the horse on their behaviour.
• The more aware that the client is of the horse’s reaction to them, the more aware they become of
their own behaviour and its impact.
• The horse is able to reinforce the desired behaviour of the client which the client can then apply in
other situations.
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Chapter 7: Key Processes in Memory
Memory as an internal process = Input (Encoding), Storage, Output (Retrieval)
Encoding:
Attention: focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli is crucial to memory (negative effect
of multi-tasking)
Attention = crucial to memory.
Memory is negatively affected by inattention especially when we try to multi-task
Eg.) Driving while talking on a cell phone.
o One study investigated this and found that talking on a cell phone seriously impaired their
braking skills.
o Those talking on the cell phone ran more red lights and took longer to brake.
Different levels of encoding (Levels-of-Processing Theory)
Levels of Encoding:
While attention is necessary, there are qualitative differences in how you attend to something.
o If you’re talking on a cell phone in a car with the music in the background, you’re likely
attending to the conversation more than the music, the music more than your foot on the
gas pedal, etc.
These differences in attending affect how well we remember things and form the levels-of-
processing theory.
In this theory, the most basic type is structural encoding.
1. Structural Encoding: Shallow processing emphasising the physical structure of the stimulus
(encoding the shapes that form letters in the alphabet)
2. Phonemic Encoding: The next level of encoding is phonemic which emphasises what a word sounds
like (reading aloud or to oneself)
3. Semantic Encoding: Deepest level of encoding emphasising the meaning of verbal input - requires
thinking about the content and actions the words represent (understanding the meaning of an
argument in an article)
Ways to Improve Encoding:

Elaboration: Linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding
o Eg.) You are studying phobias for your psychology test, and you apply this information to
your own fear of spiders.
o Elaboration often consists of thinking of examples & self-generated examples seem to work
best.
Visual imagery: Creating visual images to represent the words to be remembered
o Concrete words are much easier to create images of (Eg. “doctor” is easier to visualise than
“truth”)
Dual-coding theory: Memory is enhanced by forming semantic or visual codes
Self-referent encoding: Deciding how or whether information is personally relevant
o Information that is personally meaningful is more memorable
Motivation To Remember (MTR) at the time of encoding
o Another factor that appears to influence encoding effectiveness is one’s motivation to
remember (MTR) at the time of encoding.
Storage: Maintaining information in memory
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1. Sensory memory
2. Short-term memory
3. Long-term memory
Information Processing Theories:
How do we organise and store information over time?

This and related questions were addressed by two researchers: Atkinson and Shiffrin.
They proposed that memory is made up of three memory storages: sensory memory, short-term
memory, and long-term memory
Sensory Memory:
Sensory memory is one of two temporary storage buffers that information must pass through
before reaching long-term storage.
Sensory memory preserves information through the senses, in its original form (e.g. if you see
something, the sensory memory is vision, not any other sense).
It allows us to experience a visual pattern, sound, or touch even after the event has come and gone.
o In doing this, sensory memory gives us additional time to recognise things and memorise
them.
For vision and audition, sensory memories only last about 25 seconds.
You can see this characteristic of sensory memory, called an afterimage, when a flashlight or
sparkler is moved about quickly, creating what appears to be a continuous figure.
Short-term memory:
After its brief stay in sensory memory, information moves to what Atkinson and Shiffrin called
short-term memory.
Short-term memory is the second buffer, after sensory memory, before information is stored long-
term.
Short-term memory has a limited storage capacity that can only maintain information for 20
seconds.
Researchers attribute this poor performance to time-related decay of memory, but also to
interference (when other information gets in the way of what’s being stored)
To counteract time effects, many people use rehearsal, the process of repetitively verbalising or
thinking about information.
o In doing this, they recycle the information back into short-term memory. We all do this
when we have to remember bits of information; we repeat telephone numbers, emails, web
addresses, etc.
The magic number 7( ± 2 ):

In addition to time decay and interference, short-term memory has a limited capacity – it can only
store so much information.
This was first discovered by George Miller in the 50s, when he found that most participants could
only remember 7 plus or minus 2 digits.
When we need to memorise more than these amounts, the information already stored in our short-
term memory is displaced.
Rather than viewing information broken into bits, we can store multiple bits as chunks, a processing
known as chunking.
Eg.) Take the letters FBINBCCIAIBM.
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Few could recall these from short-term memory, but by using chunking, we can put these letters
into meaningful, easy-to-memorise units, such as FBI-CIA-NBC-IBM.
o In this demonstration, we went from working with 12 down to 4 pieces to remember
Short-term memory as Working memory:

Decades after Miller discovered the magic number 7 rule, Alan Baddeley proposed a more complex
model of short-term memory he called “working memory”.
His working memory theory divided short-term memory into four components.
The phonological loop
o This component is nothing new; it is present in earlier models of short-term memory.
o This component is at work when we recite or think of information to keep it in our memory.
The visuospatial sketchpad
o This allows people to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images.
o Eg.) If you needed to rearrange the clothes, shoes, and other junk in your closet, the
visuospatial sketchpad would be at work.
The central executive system
o This system is in charge of directing and dividing focus and attention.
o If you’re listening to the TV, talking on the phone, and trying to read, your central executive
system is trying to manage and divide your attention to these tasks.
The episodic buffer
o In the episodic buffer, all the information in short-term memory comes together to be
integrated in ways that allow it to be passed on to long-term memory more easily.
Long-Term Memory:
The final stop for memory storage is in our long-term memory.
Long-term memory = an unlimited capacity storage that can hold information over long periods of
time
Flashbulb Memory:
Some claim that flashbulb memories, which are unusually vivid and detailed recollections of
momentous events, provide evidence that what gets to long-term memory, stays there.
Researchers have found, however, that although some memories stick around forever, they are
often inaccurate and people feel overly confident in their reports of them.
This information is extremely relevant when considering eyewitness testimony.
Further Classification of Declarative Memory:

Endel Tulving has further divided declarative memory into two separate systems: episodic and
semantic.
Episodic memory is made up of chronological, or temporally dated, recollections of personal
experiences.
o all memories in which a “time stamp” is made (Ie. You remember an event associated with
some information)
Semantic memory contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time when it was learned.
o Eg.) 01 January marks the new year, dogs have four legs, etc
Types of Memory:
Prospective memory involves remembering to perform actions in the future.
Eg.) Remembering to walk the dog or take out the trash
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Retrospective memories involve remembering events from the past or previously learned
information.
Eg.) You may try to remember who won the Soccer World Cup last year or what last week’s lecture
covered.
Research is underway to determine whether these proposed systems correlate with actual neural
processes.
Organising Knowledge in the Memory:

Memories are formed in various ways depending on many factors such as the type of information
(e.g. fact vs event).
One way in which we organise information is through clustering: the tendency to remember similar
or related items in groups.
Similarly, when possible, factual information may be organised into conceptual hierarchies.
A conceptual hierarchy is a multilevel classification system based on common properties among
items.
Schemas are organised clusters of knowledge about an object or event abstracted from previous
experience.
o Eg.) a schema of a classroom might include desks, students, chalkboards, teacher, etc.
o When confronted with a novel classroom, we will more likely remember things that are
consistent with our schemas.
o However, we also may remember things that violate our schema expectations.
o Eg.) If you walk into a classroom, and see an animal, you’ll likely remember that, since most
classroom schemas do not contain animals.
Another way we organise information is through semantic networks.
o Semantic networks consist of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways
that link related concepts.
o Eg.) the phrase “fire engine” may be organised in a network of similarly related words, such
as engine, fire, and red.
o In this network, words closer to one another are more strongly related.
A final, much more complex explanation of how we store knowledge is found in parallel distributed
processing, in which cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected
networks.
Retrieval: getting information out of memory

When you are not able to retrieve information that feels as if it’s just out of your reach, you are
experiencing the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.
Though this shows a failure in retrieval, researchers have shown that retrieval can occur more
frequently when retrieval cues are present.
Retrieval cues are stimuli that help gain access to memories.
Other cues, called context cues can aid our retrieval of memories.
Working with context cues involves putting yourself in the context in which a memory occurred.
Eg.) You may forget what you were looking for when going from your bedroom to the kitchen, but
once you return to the bedroom you might remember “Oh yeah, I wanted a glass of water”.
o This is because the context cues in your bedroom help you retrieve the memory.
Reconstructing Memories:
When we retrieve information, it’s never an exact replay of the past.
Instead, we pull up reconstructions of the past that can be distorted and include inaccurate
information.
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Our poor abilities to retrieve information accurately has been extensively studied and is now known
as the misinformation effect, which occurs when individuals recall of an event is altered by
misleading post-event information.
Other research has consistently found that people introduce inaccuracies in the simple story-telling
we do every day.
These findings have helped psychologists understand that memory is not a perfect process and that
it’s more malleable than once thought.
Reality Monitoring and Retrieval:

Reality monitoring = the process of deciding whether memories are based on external or internal
sources
People engage in reality monitoring when they reflect on whether something actually happened or
they only thought about it happening.
This dilemma arises more frequently than one would expect
Source Monitoring and Retrieval:

Source Monitoring = the process of making inferences about the origins of memories
Another explanation for why we sometimes fail to retrieve memories accurately is due to source
monitoring.
Eg.) You may hear a story on CNN but may say your friend told you about it earlier.
This is an example of a source monitoring error in which a memory derived from one source is
misattributed to another source.
Source monitoring can help us understand why some people “recall” something that was only
verbally suggested to them or confuse their sources of information.
Destination memory involves recalling to whom one has told what.
Forgetting: When memory lapses
Ways to measure forgetting:

There are three general ways of measuring forgetting, but psychologists prefer to use the term
retention, focusing on the proportion of what is remembered, rather than what is forgotten.
First is a recall measure, which requires a person to reproduce information on their own without
any cues.
o If asked to memorise 10 words then say them out loud, this would be a recall test.
Second is a recognition measure, which requires a person to select previously learned information
from an array of options.
o All students take part in this process when completing multiple-choice or true-false
questions in exams.
Third is a relearning measure, which requires a person to memorise information a second time to
determine how much time or effort is saved since learning it before.
Eg.) If it took you five minutes to memorise a list of words and then only two minutes the second
time, your relearning measure would be three minutes. In other words, you remembered 60% of
what you memorised to begin with.
Encoding Problems and Decay:

To truly understand ‘forgetting’ we must explore the possible causes for why we forget – factors
that affect encoding, storage, and retrieval.
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One explanation may be that we think we are forgetting something, but in fact we never learned it
to begin with.
Pseudoforgetting is actually ineffective encoding due to lack of attention, rather than any storage
or retrieval errors.
Another explanation is that over time memory traces fade away, known as the decay theory.
o While this explanation has some merit, much of our forgetting is actually better understood
through interference theory.
Interference:
Interference theory, which proposes that people forget information because of competition from
other material, is a well-documented process and can account at least for some of our forgetting.
This type of interference in which new information impairs previously learned information =
retrograde interference.
Proactive interference = when old information interferes with new information
o Eg.) When your old phone number interferes with your recalling the new number.
Retrieval Failure:
Encoding Specificity Principle = Value of a cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory
code formed during encoding
Forgetting can also be because of failures in information retrieval.
One explanation has to do with the similarity between the environment or way that we learned
something and the setting in which we try to retrieve it.
Transfer-appropriate processing = Occurs when the initial processing of information is similar to
the type of processing required by the subsequent measure of retention
Motivated Forgetting:
Over a century ago, Freud offered a new explanation for retrieval failures – that we keep distressing
thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious.
We repress memories or we are motivated to forget.
Many psychologists and psychiatrists believe that repressed memories exist, as seen in many of
their patients, especially in abuse and other traumatic experiences, but still others deny their
accuracy.
Sceptics of Repressed Memory Theory

Do not think individuals are lying on purpose
Therapists’ may ask leading questions until the patient inadvertently creates a false memory
Countless studies show that it is easy to create false memories
Some court cases discredit existence of repressed memories
Misinformation effect, source monitoring, and other researched areas show us that memory is not
as reliable as many of us think
Long-term Potentiation Neurogenesis:

One line of research suggests that memories form because of alterations in synaptic activity at
specific sites in the brain.
Memories may also depend on a process called long-term potentiation, which is a long-lasting
increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific neural pathway.
A final process called neurogenesis, or the formation of new neurons, may also contribute to the
shaping of neural circuits that may underlie memories.
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Newly formed neurons appear to be more excitable than older ones, and this may mean they can
more quickly be used to form new memories.
LTP appears to involve changes in both presynaptic (sending) and postsynaptic (receiving) neurons
in neural circuits in the hippocampus.
Retrograde and Anterograde Amnesia:

After serious trauma, some individuals develop amnesia, or extensive memory loss.
Similar to how interference is categorised, amnesia can be either retrograde or anterograde.
Retrograde amnesia results in loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the injury
Whereas anterograde amnesia results in loss of memories for events that occur after the injury
By examining the brain structure and functioning of individuals with serious brain injury, scientists
have identified some areas that may be important in the consolidation of memories.
Consolidation refers to a hypothetical process involving gradual conversion of information into
durable memory codes for storage in long-term memory.
These areas are those around the hippocampus, which comprise the medial temporal lobe.
Systems of Memory:
Declarative memory handles factual information
Whereas non-declarative memory houses memory for actions, skills, conditioned responses, and
emotional memories.
If you know that a bike has two wheels, pedals, handlebars, etc., you are using declarative memory.
However, if you know how to ride a bike, this is non-declarative memory.
Key Learning Goals:

Describe the three types of encoding discussed by Craik and Lockhart, and explain how depth of processing
relates to memory.
According to levels-of-processing theory, structural, phonemic and semantic encoding represent
progressively deeper levels of processing.
Deeper processing generally results in better recall of information.
Identify four factors that can enrich encoding.

Elaboration enriches encoding by linking a stimulus to other information.
The creation of visual images to represent words can enrich encoding. Visual imagery may help by
creating two memory codes rather than just one.
Self-referent encoding that emphasises personal relevance may be especially useful in facilitating
retention.
Increasing the motivation to remember at the time of encoding can enhance memory.
Describe the sensory store in memory, and discuss the durability and capacity of short-term memory.
The sensory store preserves information in its original form, probably for only a fraction of a
second.
Some theorists view stimulus persistence as more like an echo than a memory.
Short-term memory can maintain unrehearsed information for about 10 to 20 seconds.
Short-term memory has a limited capacity that has long been believed to be about seven chunks of
information.
However, a more recent estimate suggesting that the capacity of STM is four items plus or minus
one is becoming increasingly influential.
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Describe Baddeley’s model of working memory, and discuss the research on working memory capacity.
Short-term memory appears to involve more than a simple rehearsal loop and has been
reconceptualised by Baddeley as working memory.
Working memory includes the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, a central executive
system and an episodic buffer.
Individual differences in working memory capacity correlate with measures of many cognitive
abilities.
Review findings on the nature and durability of long-term memory.

Long-term memory is an unlimited capacity store that may hold information indefinitely.
Penfield’s ESB research and the existence of flashbulb memories suggest that LTM storage may be
permanent, but the evidence is not convincing.
Compare and contrast declarative and non-declarative (procedural) memory.

Declarative memory is memory for facts, whereas non-declarative memory is memory for actions,
skills and conditioned responses.
Declarative memory depends more on conscious attention and is more vulnerable to forgetting.
Distinguish between episodic and semantic memory.

The episodic memory system processes temporally dated recollections of personal experiences.
The semantic memory system processes general facts.
Describe the nature and importance of prospective memory.

Theorists have also distinguished between retrospective memory (remembering past events) and
prospective memory (remembering to do things in the future).
Prospective memory plays a pervasive role in everyday life.
Describe conceptual hierarchies and schemas, and their role in long-term memory.
Information in long-term memory can be organised in simple categories, or multilevel classification
systems, called conceptual hierarchies.
A schema is an organised cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event.
Generally, people are more likely to remember things that are consistent with their schemas.
Explain the role of semantic networks and connectionist networks in memory.

Semantic networks consist of concepts joined by pathways.
Research suggests that activation spreads along the paths of semantic networks to activate closely
associated words.
Parallel distributed processing models of memory assert that specific memories correspond to
particular patterns of activation in connectionist networks.
Explain the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon and how retrieval cues and context cues influence retrieval.
The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is the temporary inability to remember something you know,
which feels just out of reach. It clearly represents a failure in retrieval.
Memories can be jogged by retrieval cues. Reinstating the context of an event can also facilitate
recall. This factor may account for cases in which hypnosis appears to aid recall of previously
forgotten information.
In general, however, hypnosis seems to increase people’s tendency to report incorrect information.
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Explain the concept of destination.
Destination memory involves recalling to whom one has told what.
The results of the Featured Study suggest that destination memory errors are more common than
source-monitoring errors.
Destination memory may be more fragile because people are self-focused on their message when
talking to others.
Describe Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve, and discuss three measures of retention.

Ebbinghaus’s early studies of nonsense syllables suggested that people forget very rapidly.
Subsequent research showed that Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve was exceptionally steep.
Forgetting can be measured by asking people to recall, recognise, or relearn information.
Different methods of measuring retention often produce different estimates of forgetting.
Recognition measures tend to yield higher estimates of retention than recall measures.
Assess ineffective encoding and decay as potential causes of forgetting.

Some forgetting, including pseudo-forgetting, is caused by ineffective encoding of information,
which is usually due to lack of attention.
Decay theory proposes that forgetting occurs spontaneously with the passage of time.
It has proven difficult to show that decay occurs in long-term memory.
Evaluate interference and factors in the retrieval process as potential causes of forgetting.
Interference theory proposes that people forget information because of competition from other
material.
Proactive interference occurs when old learning interferes with new information.
Retroactive interference occurs when new learning interferes with old information.
Forgetting may also be a matter of retrieval failure. According to the encoding specificity principle,
the effectiveness of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code that
represents the stored item.
Understand the reconstructive nature of memory, and summarise research on the misinformation effect.
Memories are not exact replicas of past experiences.
Memory is partially reconstructive.
Research by Loftus on the misinformation effect shows that information learned after an event can
alter one’s memory of the event.
Even the simple act of retelling a story can introduce inaccuracies into memory.
Apply the concepts of reality monitoring and source monitoring to everyday memory errors.
Reality monitoring involves deciding whether memories are based on perceptions of actual events
or on just thinking about the events.
Source monitoring is the process of making attributions about the origins of memories.
According to Marcia Johnson, source-monitoring errors appear to be common and may explain why
people sometimes ‘recall’ something that was only suggested to them.
Summarise evidence on the controversy regarding recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse.
People who tend to accept recovered memories of abuse note that child abuse is quite common
and argue that repression is a normal response to it.
Memory researchers who tend to be sceptical about recovered memories argue that a minority of
therapists prod their patients until they inadvertently create the memories of abuse that they are
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searching for. They point out that countless studies have demonstrated that it is not all that difficult
to create false memories, and that memory is more malleable and less reliable than assumed.
Memories recovered spontaneously appear more likely to be authentic than memories recovered
in therapy.
Describe evidence on the neural circuitry of memory, including work on long-term potentiation and
neurogenesis.
According to Kandel, memory traces reflect alterations in neurotransmitter release at specific
synapses.
Thompson’s research suggests that memory traces may consist of localised neural circuits.
Memories may also depend on long-term potentiation, which is a durable increase in neural
excitability at synapses along a specific neural pathway.
Neurogenesis may contribute to the sculpting of neural circuits for memories.
Distinguish between two types of amnesia, and identify the anatomical structures implicated in memory.
In retrograde amnesia, a person loses memory for events prior to the amnesia.
In anterograde amnesia, a person shows memory deficits for events subsequent to the onset of the
amnesia.
Studies of amnesia and other research suggest that the hippocampus and the broader medial
temporal lobe system play a major role in memory. These areas may be crucial to the consolidation
of memories.
Discuss the importance of rehearsal, testing, distributed practice and interference in efforts to improve
everyday memory.
Rehearsal, even when it involves overlearning, facilitates retention.
Testing yourself on material also enhances retention.
Distributed practice tends to be more efficient than massed practice.
Study sessions should be scheduled in ways that minimise interference.
Discuss the value of deep processing good organisation and mnemonic devices in efforts to improve
everyday memory.
Deeper processing of material tends to result in greater retention.
Evidence also suggests that organisation enhances retention; hence, outlining texts may be
valuable.
Meaningfulness can be enhanced through the use of mnemonic devices such as acrostics and
acronyms.
The link method is a mnemonic device that depends on the value of visual imagery.
Understand how hindsight bias and overconfidence contribute to the frequent inaccuracy of eyewitness
memory.
Research indicates that eyewitness memory is not nearly as reliable or as accurate as widely
believed.
The hindsight bias, which is the tendency to reshape one’s interpretation of the past to fit with
known outcomes, often distorts eyewitness memory.
People tend to be overconfident about their eyewitness recollection.
Clarify the role of attention in memory, and discuss the effects of divided attention.
Attention, which fosters encoding, is inherently selective and has been compared to a filter.
The cocktail party phenomenon suggests that input is screened late in mental processing.
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Evidence indicates that the location of the attention filter may be flexible, depending on the
cognitive load of current processing.
Divided attention undermines encoding and performance on other tasks, including driving.
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Chapter 9: Intelligence:
Human Intelligence:
Human intelligence = a complex human ability, where mental processes are used to attend to tasks,
problem-solve and comprehend abstract ideas and information.
Intelligent Quotient (IQ) refers to the numerical representation of the level of an individual’s
intelligence.
The way that intelligence is understood, described and measured is, like any scientific concept,
based in a theoretical context which reflects the cultural, social, historical and economic framework
of a society at any given time.
Historic Overview of Intelligence Testing:

Sir Francis Galton, a cousin to Charles Darwin, concluded that intelligence is inherited and passed
down in families from generation to generation.
Alfred Binet and a colleague, Theodore Simon, published the first useful test of general mental
ability, the Binet–Simon Scale, in 1905.
In 1912 a German psychologist named William Stern introduced society to the term Intelligent
Quotient (or IQ).
A few years after Binet’s death, Professor Lewis Terman and his colleagues at Stanford University
published the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale.
Modern IQ tests are able to indicate whether an individual’s intelligence score falls within the
normal distribution.
Terman and the Stanford-Binet:

The ratio of mental age to chronological age made it possible to compare children of different ages.
Terman made a strong case for the potential educational benefits of testing and became the key
force behind American schools’ widespread adoption of IQ tests.
Wechsler’s Innovations:
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
Wechsler made his scales less dependent on subjects’ verbal ability than the Stanford-Binet. He
included many items that required nonverbal reasoning.
Wechsler also discarded the intelligence quotient in favour of a new scoring scheme based on the
normal distribution. This scoring system has since been adopted by most other IQ tests, including
the Stanford-Binet.
Principal Types of Tests:

Psychological tests = measurement instruments
A psychological test is a standardised measure of a sample of a person’s behaviour.
Tests of mental abilities include three principal subcategories: intelligence tests, aptitude tests, and
achievement tests.
Personality tests measure various aspects of personality, including motives, interests, values, and
attitudes.
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Both personality scales and tests of mental abilities are standardised measures of behaviour.
Reliability:
Reliability refers to the measurement consistency of a test (or of other kinds of measurement
techniques).
Reliability estimates require the computation of correlation coefficients.
Validity:
Validity refers to the ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure.
Content validity refers to the degree to which the content of a test is representative of the domain
it’s supposed to cover.
Criterion-related validity is estimated by correlating subjects’ scores on a test with their scores on
an independent criterion (another measure) of the trait assessed by the test.
Construct validity is the extent to which evidence shows that a test measures a particular
hypothetical construct.
Debate About the Structure of Intelligence:

A long-running debate about the structure of
intelligence was launched by Charles Spearman, who
invented a procedure called factor analysis.
Spearman divided abilities into two parts, g, for
general mental ability, and “special abilities” largely
determined by general ability.
In this image, the boxes labelled S1, S2, and S3 stand
for specific abilities, and at their core is g, general
mental ability.
L.L. Thurstone, an American psychologist, used a different approach that spread focus among seven
primary mental abilities.
Eventually, psychologists divided g into two parts: fluid intelligence, which involves reasoning
ability, memory capacity, and speed of information processing, and crystallised intelligence, which
involves ability to apply acquired knowledge and skills in problem-solving.
IQ Tests:
The normal distribution is a symmetric, bell-shaped curve that represents the pattern in which
many characteristics are dispersed in the population.
The key point is that modern IQ scores indicate exactly where you fall in the normal distribution of
intelligence.
In comparison to most other types of psychological tests, IQ tests are exceptionally reliable.
However, like other tests, they sample behaviour, so a specific testing may yield an
unrepresentative score.
IQ tests are valid measures of the kind of intelligence that’s necessary for one to do well in
academic work. But if the purpose is to assess intelligence in a broader sense, the validity of IQ
tests is debatable.
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Laypersons’ Conception of Intelligence:
Gradual Stabilisation of IQ Scores:

Note in this image that at around the ages of 7 to
9, IQ tests become fairly accurate predictors of IQ
at age 18.
Studies that have followed participants into late
adulthood have also found impressive stability.
Although IQ scores tend to stabilise by age 9,
substantial changes are seen in a sizable minority
of people.
In conclusion, IQ scores tend to be stable, but
they are not set in concrete.
Theories of Intelligence:
It has been indicated that IQ measurements are regarded as useful in society when they are able to,
for example, objectively predict scholastic performance.
In some educational arenas, where necessary and appropriate, children may be placed in
specialised educational school environments.
The Study of Intelligence: A South African Perspective:

International and South African academic literature view intelligence in two related ways.
The first concerns itself with theoretical definitions about intelligence, describing its nature and
structure.
Secondly, the study of intelligence expounds on the practical development of tests that measure
constructs of intelligence.
Although intelligence tests are characterised by their reliability, they are constantly being evaluated
in the literature regarding their validity in various contexts.
Questions regarding the validity of tests are often linked to socioeconomic, cultural and linguistic
factors.
Predicting Scholastic and Vocational Success:

It has been mentioned that one of the pragmatic purposes of using IQ tests is to predict scholastic
and vocational success.
Studies have suggested some association between intelligence test performances and vocational
success.
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Extremes of Intelligence:
If viewed purely from a psychometric perspective, intelligence can be diagrammatically represented
as a bell curve, with both extremes of intelligence situated on the tail ends of the curve.
The more profound the extreme of intelligence, the rarer its occurrence in the general population.
This is why both intellectual disability and giftedness can be defined as deviations from the mean.
Intellectual Disability:
Mental retardation or intellectual disability refers to subnormal general mental ability accompanied
by deficiencies in adaptive skills, originating before age 18.
The vast majority (85%) of individuals diagnosed with retardation fall in the mild category (IQ: 55–
70)
Only about 15% of people with intellectual disability fall into the subcategories of moderate,
severe, or profound retardation.
Giftedness:
High intelligence is only one of three requirements for achieving eminence.
A combination of exceptional ability, creativity, and motivation leads some people to make
enduring contributions in their fields
Intelligence – the Nature versus Nurture Debate:

Galton’s book, Hereditary Genius (1869), concluded that high intelligence and giftedness, hence
success and eminence, are passed down from generation to generation, through genetic
inheritance.
Galton thus coined the term nature versus nurture to refer to the continuous debate that has
boldly been threaded through generations of research and academic discussions about intelligence.
Evidence for Hereditary Influence:

The best evidence regarding the role of genetic factors in intelligence comes from studies that
compare identical and fraternal twins
Research on adopted children also provides evidence about the effects of heredity (and of
environment)
Evidence for Environmental Influence:

Adopted children show some resemblance to their foster parents in IQ. This similarity is usually
attributed to the fact that their foster parents shape their environment.
Researchers studied children consigned to understaffed orphanages and children raised in the
poverty and isolation of the back hills of Appalachia.
Generally, investigators found that environmental deprivation led to the predicted erosion in IQ
scores.
Interaction of Heredity and Environment:

Theorists use the term reaction range to refer to these genetical determinants of behaviour.
According to the reaction-range model, children reared in high-quality environments that promote
the development of intelligence should score near the top of their potential IQ range.
Conversely, children reared under less ideal circumstances should score lower in their reaction
range.
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Cultural Differences in IQ Scores:
Many social scientists argue that minority students’ IQ scores are depressed because these children
tend to grow up in deprived environments that create a disadvantage - both in school and on IQ
tests.
Negative stereotypes of stigmatised groups’ intellectual abilities create feelings of vulnerability in
the classroom.
These feelings of stereotype threat can undermine group members’ performance on tests, as well
as other measures of academic achievement.
Investigating Cognitive Processes in Intelligent Behaviour:

Cognitive psychology refers to the study of how people think, and how people use thought
processes to influence their behaviours.
There are three facets of intelligence that characterise the way we process information.
o Analytical Intelligence
o Creative Intelligence
o Practical Intelligence
Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence:

Sternberg’s model of intelligence proposes that there are three
aspects or types of intelligence: analytical intelligence, practical
intelligence, and creative intelligence.
According to Sternberg, traditional IQ tests focus almost
exclusively on analytical intelligence.
He believes that the prediction of real-world outcomes could
be improved by broadening intelligence assessments to tap
practical and creative intelligence.
Expanding the Concept of Intelligence:

Howard Gardener expands on the idea that traditional IQ tests have a narrow focus and generally
focus on conventional verbal and mathematical skills.
Gardener suggests that humans exhibit eight independent strands of intelligence: logical-
mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and
naturalist intelligence.
Gardener highlights the ways in which cognitive processes link to creativity and the creative
process, and emphasises that creativity and talents cannot be measured by traditional IQ tests.
Gardener’s approach has been criticised for having little predictive value in the measurement of
these independent intelligences.
However, his theory has resonated with many who feel that traditional thinking on intelligence is
too limited.
Key Learning Goals:
Distinguish between the terms Intelligence and IQ.

The term intelligence is a psychological and theoretical concept that refers to the broader ability of
acquiring and using complex mental skills and to understand abstract concepts.
IQ refers to the numerical representation of the level of an individual’s intelligence.
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Explain why the layperson’s view of intelligence is pertinent to academia and name three attributes of
intelligence that according to Sternberg’s survey, the layperson discerns as important.
Both lay people and academics make up South African society, and the perceptions and
understandings of both are pertinent in shaping and defining theoretical academic constructs such
as intelligence.
According to Sternberg’s survey, the layperson deems the following three attributes of intelligence
as important: problem-solving intelligence, verbal intelligence and social intelligence.
Identify contributions of Galton and Binet to the evolution of intelligence testing.

The first efforts to objectively and scientifically measure intelligence were made by Sir Francis
Galton, who held that intelligence is inherited.
Galton is also known as the father of psychometrics for his pioneering work on correlation,
percentiles and the bell curve.
Modern intelligence testing began with the work of Alfred Binet, a French psychologist who
published the first useful intelligence test in 1905. Binet’s scale measured a child’s mental age as
compared to his or her chronological age.
Summarise contributions of Terman and Wechsler to the evolution of intelligence testing.

Lewis Terman revised the original Binet scale to produce the Stanford–Binet in 1916.
It introduced the intelligence quotient and became the standard of comparison for subsequent
intelligence tests.
David Wechsler devised an improved measure of intelligence for adults and a series of IQ tests that
included both a verbal and non-verbal score, thus reducing the emphasis on verbal ability.
In time, Wechsler devised extensions of his scale for children called the Wechsler Independent
Scales for Children (WISC).
He introduced a new scoring system based on the normal distribution. This scoring system has been
widely adopted in contemporary intelligence tests.
Outline the debate between Spearman and Thurstone about the structure of intelligence and discuss the
debate’s current status.
Spearman, through factor analysis, established that a single core factor underlies intelligence
argued that all cognitive abilities share a core underlying factor, which he called general mental
ability (g).
Thurstone asserted that intelligence is made up of many independent abilities.
Although Spearman’s (g) has been influential in contemporary intelligence research, modern IQ
tests typically subdivide (g) into ten to 15 specific abilities, which echo the types of intellectual
abilities asserted by Thurstone.
List and describe principle types of tests.

Psychological tests are standardised measures of behaviour.
Mental ability tests can be divided into intelligence tests, aptitude tests and achievement tests.
Personality tests measure behavioural traits, motives and interests.
Clarify the concepts of standardisation and test norms.

Standardisation refers to the uniform procedures used in the administration and scoring of a test.
Test scores are interpreted by consulting test norms.
Test norms provide information about how an individual’s performance on a test compares to
others in the normative sample, such as in his or her age group or grade level.
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Explain the meaning of test reliability.
As measuring devices, psychological tests should produce consistent results each time it measures a
psychological construct.
This psychometric property of tests is called test reliability.
Reliability estimates should yield fairly high positive correlations.
Distinguish amongst three types of validity.

Validity refers to the degree to which there is evidence that a test measures that which it was
designed to measure.
Content validity refers to the extent that a test measures acquired or applied knowledge and is
crucial on classroom tests.
Criterion-related validity is critical when tests are used to predict performance.
Construct validity is critical when a test is designed to measure a hypothetical construct.
Clarify the meaning of deviation scores on modern intelligence tests.

In the modern scoring system, deviation IQ scores indicate where people fall in the normal
distribution of intelligence for their age group.
On most tests, the mean is set at 100 and the standard deviation is set at 15.
Explain Test Adaptation and the necessity of Test Adaptation processes in the South African context.
Test adaptation refers to the process of adapting an existing measure for a different context.
In a multicultural and multilingual context such as South Africa, test adaptation processes are
necessary in order to maintain a test’s reliability and validity.
Describe the process of acculturation and its relevance in testing practices in South Africa.
Acculturation occurs when the minority culture adopts the culture of the dominant culture in a
society, such as Western culture.
This needs to be considered carefully and sensitively during the test adaptation process, and
considered when selecting tests that are culturally fair and valid for South African users.
Delineate the development of intelligence tests in South Africa.

The development of intelligence testing in South Africa echoed that of international countries.
Historically, the misuse of tests was motivated by the political and social ideologies of the time.
However, those who are involved with contemporary test development and adaption processes
continue to be faced with the challenging task to produce tests that are culturally and linguistically
valid.
Discuss the stability of IQ scores and analyse how well they predict scholastic and vocational success.
IQ scores tend to stabilise around the ages of 7 to 9 years and can be good predictors of scores at
age 18, but this is not fixed and meaningful changes are possible.
IQ scores are associated with occupational attainment and income, but the correlations are
modest.
IQ scores should not be interpreted in isolation when predicting scholastic achievement or making
hiring decisions, as many internal and external psychological factors can affect the predictive
validity of an IQ test.
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Describe how intellectual disability is defined and divided into various levels.
Intellectual disability refers to below average general mental ability originating before the age of
18. This is accompanied by deficiencies in adaptive skills.
Psychometrically, intellectual disability is associated with IQ scores below 80.
Diagnoses of intellectual disability should not be based solely on test results.
Four levels of intellectual disability have been distinguished: mild, moderate, severe and profound.
Review what is known about the causes of intellectual disability.

About 1 000 organic conditions can cause intellectual disability, but diagnosticians are unable to
pinpoint a biological cause in 30 to 50 percent of cases.
Research suggests that cases of unknown origin are mostly caused by unfavourable environmental
factors, such as poverty, neglect and poor nutrition and are associated with mild intellectual
disability.
Genetic anomalies are associated with severe and profound intellectual disability and are less
common.
Discuss the identification of gifted children and evidence on their personal qualities.
Children who obtain IQ scores above 130 may be viewed as gifted. But cut-offs for accelerated
programmes vary, and schools rely too much on IQ scores.
Research by Terman showed that gifted children tend to be socially mature and well-adjusted.
However, Winnet has expressed some concerns about the adjustment of profoundly gifted
individuals.
Articulate the identification of the drudge theory of exceptional achievement and alternative views
Gifted youngsters typically become very successful. Most, however, do not make genius-level
contributions because such achievements depend on a combination of high intelligence, creativity
and motivation.
The drudge theory suggests that determination, hard work and intensive training are the keys to
achieving eminence.
But many theorists argue that innate talent is a key motivator for hard work due to the experience
of initial success.
Summarise evidence that heredity affects intelligence.

Twin studies show that identical twins, even when raised apart, are more similar in IQ than
fraternal twins, suggesting that intelligence is inherited.
Adoption studies reveal that people resemble their parents in intelligence even when not raised by
them.
Describe various lines of research indicating that environment affects intelligence.

Studies show that adopted children resemble their biological parents and adoptive siblings in
intelligence.
The effects of environmental deprivation and enrichment also indicate that IQ is shaped by
experience.
Describe ways that children that reside in rural areas, with little access to formal schooling, can develop
intellectually.
Intellectual stimulation does not necessarily have to conform to the dominant culture. For example,
Ndebele children living in rural areas learn cultural beading from their parents or caregivers, which
develops the foundational skills necessary for adequate intellectual development.
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Explain the Flynn effect and how this becomes evidence for environmental factors that shape intelligence.
In a study of IQ tests, James Flynn discovered that the standard of performance, in order to obtain
an average score of 100, increased every time an IQ test was re-normed. This was deemed due to
advances in industrialisation and technology in the past century.
The Flynn effect demonstrates that IQ is sensitive to and significantly influenced by environment.
Describe how incidences of test misuse lead to racial and cultural stereotyping, both internationally and
nationally.
Test misuse occurs when tests are used incorrectly, which can lead to invalid results.
Historically, test misuse has been evident in both the international and national political arenas
which promoted unswayable racial and cultural stereotypical perceptions.
Describe Sternberg’s Cognitive Approach to intelligence and the three aspects of intelligence that he has
identified.
Robert Sternberg’s theory uses a cognitive perspective, which emphasises the need to understand
how people use their intelligence and the ways in which information is processed.
According to Sternberg, the three facets of successful intelligence are analytical, creative and
practical intelligence.
Evaluate Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.

Howard Gardner maintains that the concept of intelligence should be expanded to encompass a
diverse set of eight types of abilities and not merely focus on traditional aspects of intelligence such
as mathematical and verbal skills.
Gardner’s ideas have been influential, but some critics argue that measuring these types of abilities
has little predictive value.
Assess the role of insight and divergent thinking in creativity and discuss the measurement of creativity.
Creativity involves the generation of original and useful ideas.
Creativity does not usually involve sudden insight.
Divergent thinking contributes to creativity but does not represent its essence.
Creativity tests typically assess divergent thinking.
Such tests are mediocre predictors of creative productivity in the real world.
One problem is that creativity is specific to particular domains of expertise.
Explain how cognitive fallacies such as appeals to ignorance and reification are used in the nature versus
nurture debate about intelligence.
The appeal to ignorance involves misusing the general lack of knowledge or information on an issue
to support an argument.
This fallacy has surfaced in the debate about intelligence, where it has been argued that because
we have little or no evidence that intelligence can be increased by environmental interventions,
intelligence must be mostly inherited.
Reification occurs when a hypothetical construct, such as intelligence, is treated as though it were a
tangible object.
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Chapter 15 & 16: Mental Health and Psychopathology:
TASK ONE: Normal, abnormal or mad?
Important terms:
• Psychopathology is the scientific study of the classification, diagnosis, causes and treatment of
mental illness.
• Mental illness is a persistent pattern of disturbance in thought, emotion, or functioning
• Psychodiagnosis: The process of matching a set of signs and symptoms to a particular mental
disorder.
• Aetiology: the cause, set of causes, or manner of causation of a disease or condition
• Epidemiology: The study of the incidence and distribution of mental or physical disorders within a
population
• Prevalence: The proportion of a population who have (or had) a specific characteristic (e.g., mental
disorder) in a given time period
Defining mental illness: Behaviour/feeling/thoughts that:
1. Are the opposite of psychological health/ well –being

• Very subjective – not a very good definition – what is mental health?
2. Are not the norm (statistically infrequent)
• Just because someone shares a different thought/ opinion does it mean that it’s not normal?
• Statistically infrequent behaviour isn’t always bad!
3. Cause pain/ suffering for the individual (ie. Personal distress)
• Eg. Depression – people may not show overt signs of dysfunctional behaviour but may
experience subjective suffering
• Mental illnesses aren’t always identifiable from the outside!
• Isn’t always valid! Substance use – doesn’t always cause distress
• Paedophilia – they don’t see a problem with that behaviour no personal distress
4. Causes problems for the individual or community (ie. Maladaptive/dysfunctional)
• Impaired ability to perform daily activities
• Eg. Not performing work duties adequately
• Psychosis
Each of these definitions has inherent problems

But we DO draw the line between normal and abnormal in psychology – NB, if you don’t define that
line then you can’t intervene and help yourself or help someone else
The line has shifted historically
o homosexuality (abnormal until 1973)
o Complicated grief (now pathology) – if you show the symptoms of depression/grief for too
long it is defined as depression, not grief
The concept of mental illness has changed over time & is culturally dependent!
Psychodiagnosis: The process of matching a set of signs and symptoms to a particular mental disorder.
How?
• Diagnostic interview
• Observation
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• Collateral information
• Clinical accumen
Why diagnose?
• To investigate/research which interventions are most effective for which disorders
• To match the best interventions to a disorder
• To collect epidemiological data on mental illnesses
It’s not always easy to know where the line between normal and abnormal is…
Sadness vs Depression – context bound
Dieting vs Anorexia/ Bulimia – context bound
Concern about one’s body vs Body Dysmorphic Disorder
Conceptualising mental illness and its treatment:

o 4 major models of conceptualisation and treatment
1. Bio-medical perspective
2. The psychodynamic perspective
3. Cognitive behavioural perspective
4. Community (eco-systemic) perspective
o Each has underlying assumptions that influence:
1. How we understand psychopathology
2. How we understand the treatment of psychopathology
Psychotherapy:
• What is it (typically)?
• Treatment of a mental disorder by psychological rather than medical means
• Involves talking or expressing your thoughts and feelings
• Can take place in an individual or group setting
• Common misconceptions
• There must be something wrong with you for you to go to psychotherapy
• Psychotherapy works for everyone/nobody
• All you do is talk about your past
• It is expensive and takes a long time
• There is only one way to do psychotherapy
• Psychotherapy is incompatible with traditional healing methods
Typical therapeutic chronology:

1. Person tells of presenting problem/chief complaint
2. Psychologist investigates the issue and gathers information
3. Working diagnosis is formed
4. Treatment plan is formulated, hopefully matched most appropriately to the problem
Psychotherapy is typically provided by:

• Psychologist
• Psychiatrist
• Psychiatric nurse
• Counsellor
• Social worker
• Occupational therapist
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Classification of Mental Illness:
• There are two major classification systems for mental illness:
• DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)
• Current version is DSM 5 (2013)
• ICD (International Classification of Diseases)
• Current version is ICD 10
• ICD 11 to be released 2017
• The systems are compatible
• Why is this important?
• Creates a common language for clinical and research work
• ICD codes are used to claim from medical aid
Examples of different categories of mental illness in DSM 5:

Disorders are categorized & grouped according to common symptoms & presumed common causes
and aetiologies for the diseases/illnesses & common treatment pathways
• Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders
• Depressive disorders
• Anxiety disorders
• Trauma and Stress-Related Disorders
• Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders
• Substance use and addictive disorders
TASK TWO: Common mental disorders:
There are approximately 310 different mental disorders in the DSM 5. The most common mental disorders
include major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, substance
use disorder and schizophrenia.
Common signs and symptoms of common mental disorders:
Major depressive disorder:

• Persistent feelings of sadness & despair & a loss of interest in previous sources of pleasure
(anhedonia)
• Depressed people lack the energy or motivation to tackle the tasks of daily living
• Alterations in appetite & sleep patterns are common
• Self-esteem drops & anxiety develops
• Depression plunges people into feelings of hopelessness, dejection & boundless guilt
• Majority of sufferers experience more than one episode of depression in their lifetimes
• Average number of depressive episodes = 5-6
• Chronic major depression may persist for years
Generalised Anxiety Disorder:

• Marked by a chronic, high level of anxiety that is not tied to any specific threat
• The focus of the worry may shift from one concern to another
• they report experiencing distress in relation to how much they worry and how their worrying
impairs them in their daily functioning
• they often dread making decisions & brood over them endlessly
• their anxiety is commonly accompanied by physical symptoms such as: trembling, twitching,
feeling shaky, muscle tension, nausea, diarrhoea, dizziness, faintness, sweating and heart
palpitations
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• gradual onset & seen more in females than males
Autism Spectrum Disorder: People with ASD often have

• a learning disability.
• attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• Tourette's syndrome or other tic disorders.
• epilepsy.
• dyspraxia.
• obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
• generalised anxiety disorder.
• depression
Schizophrenia:
Positive symptoms:
Delusions –false ideas--individuals may believe that someone is spying on him or her, or that they
are someone famous (or a religious figure).
Hallucinations –seeing, feeling, tasting, hearing or smelling something that doesn’t really exist. The
most common experience is hearing imaginary voices that give commands or comments to the
individual.
Disordered thinking and speech –moving from one topic to another, in a nonsensical fashion.
Individuals may also make up their own words or sounds, rhyme in a way that doesn't make sense,
or repeat words and ideas.
Disorganized behaviour –this can range from having problems with routine behaviours like hygiene
or choosing appropriate clothing for the weather, to unprovoked outbursts, too impulsive and
uninhibited actions. A person may also have movements that seem anxious, agitated, tense or
constant without any apparent reason.
Negative symptoms:
Social withdrawal
Extreme apathy (lack of interest or enthusiasm)
Lack of drive or initiative
Emotional flatness
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder:
• Be disorganized
• Lack focus
• Have a hard time paying attention to details and a tendency to make careless mistakes. Their work
might be messy and seem careless.
• Have trouble staying on topic while talking, not listening to others, and not following social rules
• Be forgetful about daily activities (for example, missing appointments, forgetting to bring lunch)
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• Be easily distracted by things like trivial noises or events that are usually ignored by others.
• Fidget and squirm when seated.
• Get up frequently to walk or run around.
• Run or climb a lot when it's not appropriate. (In teens this may seem like restlessness.)
• Have trouble playing quietly or doing quiet hobbies
• Always be "on the go"
• Talk excessively
• Impatience
• Having a hard time waiting to talk or react
Bipolar II Disorder:
• Mood: mood swings, anxiety, deep sadness, euphoria, general discontent, guilt, hopelessness, or
loss of interest or pleasure in activities
• Behavioural: compulsive behaviour, impulsivity, irritability, restlessness, or self-harm
• Cognitive: lack of concentration, racing thoughts, slowness in activity, or thoughts of suicide
• Sleep: excess sleepiness or insomnia
• Psychological: depression or grandiosity
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID):

• Involves the coexistence (in one person) of two or more largely complete, and usually very
different, personalities
• Informal name = multiple personality disorder
• The divergences in behaviour go far beyond those that people normally display in adapting to
different roles in life
• Feel that they have more than one identity
• Each personality has his or her own name, memories, traits and physical mannerisms
• Transitions between identity often occur suddenly
• Rarely occurs in isolation – most individuals with DID also have a history of anxiety, mood or
personality disorders
• Seen more in women than in men
Anorexia Nervosa:
• Involves an intense fear of gaining weight, disturbed body image, a refusal to maintain normal
weight and use of dangerous measures to lose weight
• In restricting type anorexia nervosa, people drastically reduce their intake of food, sometimes
literally starving themselves
• In binge eating/purging type anorexia nervosa, individual attempts to lose weight by forcing
themselves to vomit after meals, by misusing laxatives and diuretics & by engaging in excessive
exercise
• suffer from disturbed body image - no matter how frail and emaciated they become, they insist
that they are too fat
• their morbid fear of obesity means that they are never satisfied with their weight
• because of their disturbed body image, people suffering from anorexia generally do not recognize
them maladaptive quality of their behaviour they rarely seek treatment on their own
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Post-traumatic Stress Disorder:
• Behavioural: agitation, irritability, hostility, hypervigilance, self-destructive behaviour, or social
isolation
• Psychological: flashback, fear, severe anxiety, or mistrust
• Mood: loss of interest or pleasure in activities, guilt, or loneliness
• Sleep: insomnia or nightmares
• Also common: emotional detachment or unwanted thoughts
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder:

• Obsessions = thoughts that repeatedly intrude on one’s consciousness in a distressing way
• Compulsions = actions that one feels forced to carry out
• Obsessions often centre around inflecting harm on others, personal failures, suicide or sexual acts –
people may feel that they have lost control of their mind
• Compulsions are often stereotyped rituals that relieve anxiety
• Specific types of obsessions seem to be paired with specific types of compulsions: obsessions
concerned with contamination seem to be paired with compulsions of cleaning
TASK THREE: Bio-medical approaches to mental illness:
The basic assumptions of the bio-medical model of mental illness:

• Humans are biological beings.
• Human behaviour, emotions and cognitions are a function of biological and neurological processes.
• Abnormal behaviour can be thought of as a disease
• Mental illnesses:
o are like any other physical illnesses
o have their roots in genetic abnormalities, brain pathology (problems with the structure or
chemistry of the brain).
o can be treated with medical interventions such as pharmacotherapy, gene therapy,
neurosurgery or electroconvulsive shock therapy.
• Genetic influences
o Our genetics shape our neurological development
o Certain genetic profiles can make some people more vulnerable to mental disorders than
others
o Twin and family studies provide evidence for the heritability of mental disorders
• Neurochemical influences
o Changes in neurotransmitter levels are often associated with mental illness
o e.g. too little serotonin in depression
• Structural changes in the brain
o Abnormalities in brain structures (usually decreases in size) are associated with mental illness
o NB: association does not mean causation!
Criticisms of the bio-medical model of mental illness:

• Overly reductive
• Locates pathology in biology
• Deterministic, by saying that biological changes are solely responsible for psychopathology
• Denies context and the role of emotions and experience
• Assumes that all psychological problems can be effectively treated biologically
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Use the case study of Psychotic disorders to illustrate how the bio-medical perspective is used to
understand and treat mental illness
Understanding psychotic disorders through the biomedical perspective:

Symptoms:
• Delusions
o Cognitive/thought disturbances resulting in false beliefs that have no basis in reality
o Eg. They rule the world and everyone must serve them
• Hallucinations
o Perceptions/perceptual distortions that occur in the absence of external stimuli
o Can affect any sensory system – most common are visual or auditory
o Eg. Seeing something that isn’t there
• Deterioration of adaptive behaviour
o Personal hygiene, work attendance
• Disturbed emotions
o Flattened affect – very little emotional expressivity
• Positive vs negative symptoms
o Positive = behavioural excesses (delusions, hallucinations, bizarre behaviour)
Symptoms that are there that shouldn’t be there
o Negative = behavioural deficits (flattened affect, associability, anhedonia, catatonia)
Absence of behaviour that should be there
Course and outcome:

• Typical onset late adolescence/early adulthood
• Often preceded by long history of strange behaviour (not always though)
• Full recovery is possible, though not common, especially in countries where mental health care is
inadequate
Aetiology: Biomedical perspective

• Genetic vulnerability
o Strong evidence for the heritability of schizophrenia
o 46% chance if both parents have schizophrenia
o Identical vs non-identical twins: 48% vs 17% both have schizophrenia
o Genes predispose a person towards schizophrenia
• Neurochemical factors:
1. Dopamine hypothesis
o Increased dopamine activity leads to schizophrenia
o Drugs that decrease dopamine activity decrease the symptoms of schizophrenia
o Not so widely accepted anymore (glutamate may also be involved)
2. Drug use
o Marijuana use may precede a psychotic episode and the onset of schizophrenia
o Self-medication hypothesis has poor supporting evidence
o Methamphetamine use often precedes a psychotic episode
o Especially in the Western Cape, where there is a tik epidemic
• Structural abnormalities
o Enlarged ventricles from atrophy of surrounding brain tissue
o Decreased grey and white matter
• Neurodevelopmental hypothesis
o Exposure to disease (e.g., influenza) in the womb
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o Malnutrition
o Obstetric complications at birth
Treatment of psychopathology from the biomedical perspective:
• Given the presumed neurological basis of mental illness, treatments are focused on addressing
underlying pathology
Biomedical treatment takes the form of:

• Medication (psychopharmacology)
o Most common
• Electroconvulsive therapy
o Mostly for treatment-resistant depression and psychotic depression; used in combination
with medication
• Neurosurgery
o Usually for people whose symptoms are caused by obvious changes in brain structures, or
for epilepsy (outdated for other forms of psychopathology)
• Genetic manipulation
Psychopharmacology: is a physiological intervention intended to reduce symptoms associated with

psychological disorders, or is the treatment of mental disorders with medication.
• Anti-anxiety medication:
o Benzodiazepines (Valium/diazepam, Xanax/alprazolam)
o Hypnotic/anxiolytic action – helps them sleep deeper/ decrease anxiety
o Not extremely effective
o Usually highly addictive
• Anti-psychotics:
o First-generation (e.g., haloperidol)
o More severe side effects involved in coordination and muscle control
o Second generation (e.g., risperidone)
o Less severe side effects, may also include metabolic disturbances
• Anti-depressants
o Tricyclics
o Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
o Selective-serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
First line of treatment
Are only effective after 2 weeks
• Mood stabilisers
o For bipolar disorder
o Lithium, Valproate
Biomedical perspective treatment of psychotic disorders:

• Anti-psychotics
• First-generation (e.g. haloperidol)

o Act by blocking certain dopamine receptors (D2)
o Also called neuroleptics, due to the side effects
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o More severe side effects involved in coordination and muscle control
o Parkinsonism
o Tardive dyskinesia
• Second generation (e.g. risperidone)

o Act by blocking dopamine D2 receptors, also bind to serotonin 5HT2 receptors
o Less severe motor side effects, may also include metabolic disturbances
TASK FOUR: Psychodynamic approaches to mental illness:
The basic assumptions of the psychodynamic model of mental illness:

• Human behaviour is motivated by unconscious drives and processes.
• People are not always aware of the forces that shape their behaviour (we are not rational beings).
• Our early childhood experiences (particularly our experience of being taken care of) are
fundamental in shaping how we react to others and the world.
• Symptoms of psychopathology develop because of unconscious processes (conflicts, defences, old
patterns which we repeat, etc.)
• Mental illness can be treated by developing insight and understanding (making the unconscious
conscious).
Criticism of the psychodynamic model of mental illness:

• Over pathologises parents by locating problems in childhood
• Difficult to study scientifically due to the assumption of the unconscious
• Can be expensive and time-consuming
• Relies on one-on-one interactions
• Ignores broader contextual influences on behaviour
Use an example to illustrate how the psychodynamic perspective is used to understand and treat mental
illness.
Defence mechanisms:
• We can’t do everything we want when we want, so we have to manage those impulses
• Wishes are repressed
• Repression: unconsciously keeping a desire or wish that is unacceptable in the unconscious
• Defence mechanisms allow us to express difficult emotions and experiences in disguised ways
(adaptive)
• Examples
o Projection (seeing unlikeable parts of oneself in another person)
o Denial (pretending something didn’t happen, sometimes unconsciously)
o Reaction formation (acting in the way that is opposite to how you feel)
o Acting out (doing something that can relieve the tension, but that isn’t the act that is wished
for)
Psychopathology:
• When the psychological turmoil that we experience is too great for defence mechanisms to
manage, symptoms emerge
Psychodynamic psychotherapy:
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• Goal of psychodynamic therapy is to:
o develop insight
o understand defence mechanisms
o use more appropriate ways to deal with uncomfortable feelings or unthinkable thoughts
• Insight helps person make sense of behaviour catch oneself when behaviour is maladaptive
personality and behaviour changes (learning of a flexibility of responses)
• Psychodynamic psychotherapy takes time
o Unconscious processes often affect relationship patterns
o By experiencing a new type of relationship with the therapist, the person can learn to
change those patterns
o Developing insight into one’s problems takes time
• Therapeutic dynamics help provide clues about the person’s difficulties
Basic principles of psychodynamic psychotherapy:
• Non-directive role of the therapist

o Therapist does not provide solutions, but relies on the person’s own capacity to recognise
maladaptive behaviour or rigid defences
• Probing the unconscious and other aspects of fantasy life
o To uncover unconscious processes and feelings
• Focus on emotional experience & expression
• Focus on patterns that emerge in life experiences
• Focus on relationship patterns, including the therapeutic relationship
o Transference and countertransference tell us about the person’s psychological experience
o Relationship patterns can then be challenged and changed
• Understanding resistance
o Resistance towards certain topics indicates that they are important to discuss, may be
repressed, and may be what is causing current difficulties
• Interpretation to help the process of meaning-making
o Providing possible explanations for symptoms, patterns, relationships
Case study: Schizoid personality disorder:

• Person experiences inconsistent caregiving when the father dies as the mother falls into depression
• Child experiences the loss his father, a mistrust in the universe, and anxiety about his own safety as
overwhelming
• Mother can’t help him regulate those feelings
• He uses avoidance as a strategy to manage these feelings – adaptive at first
• Represses thoughts of the actual loss
• Model of a caring relationship is that he will always be let down, that he is too much to manage
• This becomes solidified as part of his personality structure and he becomes schizoid
Treatment:
• Therapist would form a trusting relationship with the person
• Therapist looks out for defences and difficult emotions
• Offer interpretations of behaviour to elucidate how the person is managing difficult emotions
• Invite person to use other defences and practice them in the therapeutic relationship
o E.g. if patient is made to wait because therapist is on phone and feels angry but instead
withdraws, therapist will encourage healthy expression of anger instead of withdrawal
• Therapist will explore ways of allowing the person to work through the difficult emotion that has
been repressed
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• Insight and understanding decrease the intensity of the emotion and allow expression of feelings in
more flexible ways
• Focus on changing relationship patterns that the person is unhappy with
TASK FIVE: Cognitive- behavioural approaches to mental illness:
The basic assumptions of the cognitive-behavioural model of mental illness:
Behavioural approaches (Behaviourism):

• Human behaviour is the result of learning and conditioning (i.e. it is shaped by rewards and
punishments).
• Psychopathology is the result of faulty learning.
• Mental disorders can be treated by encouraging new patterns of behaviour (unlearning problematic
patterns)
Cognitive approaches:
• Human behaviour is a function of how we perceive the world, ourselves and others.
• Mental illness is the result of faulty thought processes, misperceptions and core beliefs.
• Treatment involves changing core beliefs and helping patients learn more adaptive thought
processes (such as better problem solving or alternative ways of seeing the world).
Cognitive-behavioural approaches
• Combine behaviourism and cognitive perspectives
• Assume that there is an interaction between behaviours-feelings-thoughts.
• Symptoms are not signs of an underlying problem: symptoms are the
problem
• Mental illnesses are caused and maintained by a combination of
cognitions and behaviours
Criticisms of the cognitive-behavioural model of mental illness.
• Assumes that symptoms are the problem

o Symptoms cause symptoms
• No accounting for why a person is behaving the way they are
• No emphasis on emotional experience
• Assumes that a person’s thoughts and behaviours are irrational
• Pathologises the individual and not broader influences on thoughts and behaviour
Use the case study of anxiety to illustrate how the cognitive-behavioural perspective is used to
understand and treat mental illness.
Certain styles of thinking make people more vulnerable to anxiety:

a) misinterpreting harmless situations as threatening
b) focusing excessive attention on perceived threats
c) selectively recall information that seems threatening
• This then leads to behaviours that reinforce the anxiety, such as avoiding the stimuli or situations
where one might feel anxious
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Example: Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD):
Symptoms:
• Chronic, high level of anxiety (worry and fear)
• Not linked to any particular stimulus/threat
• Worry constantly about things like family, finances, work and personal illness
• Hope that their worrying will prevent negative events
• Anxiety causes difficulties in concentrating on other things
• May experience physical symptoms as well (muscle tension, trembling, faintness)
Negative automatic thoughts (examples):

• If I don’t work hard in matric, I won’t be able to go to university, which means I won’t be able to get
a good job, which means I won’t be able to provide for my family one day, which means I won’t
have a family, which means that I will die alone (= catastrophizing)
• I spend all day worrying that my brother isn’t sleeping enough at university, and that makes me a
bad person because I’m not looking after him
Behaviours as a result of these thoughts:

• Working really hard but never feeling like you are working hard enough, so that you neglect other
aspects of your life (physical health, social relationships)
• Worrying about your brother has behavioural consequences because you end up doing nothing else
Cognitive – behavioural therapy:
• Focuses on changing maladaptive thoughts and behaviours

• No real interest in why we behave as we do (unlike psychodynamic therapy, which focuses on
uncovering why we have come to behave in certain ways)
• Focuses on creating lasting change in a person’s thoughts and behaviours through changing
negative beliefs and thoughts and constructing new ways of thinking and behaving
• Is one of the most researched and thus most empirically-supported forms of psychotherapy
• Works best for anxiety, depression, PTSD, phobias
Treatment of GAD through cognitive-behavioural therapy:
• Identify negative automatic thoughts

• Challenge false beliefs and selective attention
• Reality testing to show that thought patterns are not backed up by evidence
• Restructuring thought patterns
o rehearsing new thoughts & visualisation
• Relaxation techniques (progressive muscle relaxation and deep breathing)
• Management strategies for when the person feels anxious
TASK SIX: Eco-systemic approaches to mental illness
Basic assumptions of the eco-systemic (community) model of mental illness.
• All behaviour occurs within a context.

• Our context shapes our behaviour.
• Mental illness may have its roots in:
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o social structures (such as family, school, church).
o cultural norms (e.g. gender norms and societal expectations).
o economic factors (e.g. poverty, deprivation, unemployment).
o political forces (e.g. oppression, marginalisation).
Criticism of the eco-systemic model of mental illness:
• Doesn’t account for intra-personal (biological/psychological) causes of difficulties/mental illness

• Assumes that changing society is possible and easy
• Locating pathology in political/social/economic/community structures denies the existence of real
mental illnesses
o Takes for granted that changing systems will prevent abnormal behaviour
Examples to illustrate how the eco-systemic perspective is used to understand and treat mental illness:
Example 1: Suicide
• Suicide can occur for many reasons, but often it is because the person feels overwhelmed, alone,
and unable to cope
• But why would someone feel like this?
o Low levels of serotonin
o Financial stress
o Family pressures
o Relationship difficulties
• All of these, except low levels of serotonin, exist outside the individual – influences that exist in a
person’s environment give rise to a mental health issue.
Multiple things in a person’s environment can lead them to feel suicidal

• Conflict with partner
• Drug and alcohol use
• Poverty
• Medical illness
• Academic pressures
• Conflict between identity and religion – sexuality/ sexual orientation
Suicide might be promoted surreptitiously in a culture:

• In some countries (e.g., Netherlands) physician-assisted suicide is legal
• Media reporting of suicide might put it in someone’s head as a way to solve problems
• If members of your community/family have died by suicide, perhaps that makes it seem like an
appropriate way to deal with feelings of being overwhelmed
Example 2: Anorexia nervosa:
• Western society promotes the idea that thin = beautiful

o Models
o Actresses
• Media report on people who have lost/gained weight, implying that how you look is an important
criterion for how to value people
• Diet trends adopted by friends/family reinforce the idea that people must look a certain way/be a
certain weight to be healthy
79
• This creates a culture of thinness and an obsession with appearance
• Young people, in particular, feel pressured to look a certain way
o To be thin is to be attractive
o Fat is bad
o Disregards normal weight fluctuations in adolescence
• In extreme forms, this can become anorexia nervosa
• Pro-ana websites promote the idea that anorexia is a choice, further contributing to the culture of
pathology
Ecosystemic Interventions:
• No real ecosystemic “psychotherapy”

• “Treatment” involves socio-cultural and political changes (revolution and disruption of society).
• Changes in the things that society values will lead to changes in the prevalence of mental disorder
• Suicide
o Decreasing the pressure we put on people
o Increasing social support
• Anorexia nervosa
o Promoting the idea that all bodies are beautiful
o Measure people by their characteristics and not by their looks
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What are some of the early developments in psychology as a field of study?

What are some of the early developments in psychology as a field of study?

What are mental processes and how are they related to behaviour?

What are mental processes and how are they related to behaviour?

Psychology

*BEHAVIOUR ≠GOOD/BAD BEHAVIOUR!!!*

Fluidity in Development of Psychology:

Saw a surge of science and philosophy

Cognitive Piaget Thoughts, mental Human behaviour cannot be fully

Wilhelm Wundt (± 1879)

Edward Titchener (± 1892)

William James (± 1872)

Sigmund Freud (1900s)

Carl Jung (1913)

1913; late 1920s -> present day

Def. = the study of thoughts and mental processes

Def. = study of the evolutionary bases of behaviour in animals & humans

Def. = study of the physiological bases of behaviour in animals & humans

Product of history and in almost every aspect of life

Health Psychology Fear and Psychosocial

Used to be predominantly white

3 sets of interrelated goals:

measurement understanding application and

Measurement & Description:

Understanding & Prediction:

Application & Control:

Hypothetical example: Depression and academic performance among university students

2. State the rationale

3. Develop a research question

5. Develop a research design

8. Report the results

Quantitative Research Designs:

Quantitative research designs:

1. Experimental research design

2. Quasi-experimental research design

3. Descriptive research design

5. Correlational research design

Qualitative research designs:

Qualitative Data Collection Methods: Interviews:

Analysing qualitative data:

Ethical Transgressions of the past:

3 Basic ethics principles:

Protection of participants from harm:

The action potential:

Receiving signals: Postsynaptic Potentials:

1. Synthesis and storage of neurotransmitter

Neurotransmitter Function Dysfunction

Dopamine (DA) • Control of voluntary movement Parkinsonism

Serotonin • Involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness, Depressive disorders

Endorphins • Resemble opiate drugs in structure and effects

The Organisation of the Human Nervous System

The Nervous System:

Central Nervous System = Spinal cord & brain

The Peripheral Nervous System:

The peripheral nervous system can be divided into two parts.

Central Nervous System:

Brain and spinal cord

Looking inside the brain: Research Methods:

BEHAVIOUR ≠GOOD/BAD BEHAVIOUR!!!