PSYCHOLOGY

Introduction
Physiology is the study of normal function within living creatures. A branch of biology that

deals with the functions and activities of life or of living matter (such as organs, tissues, or

cells) and of the physical and chemical phenomena involved."

“Physiology is a systematic scientific study of behavior and mental process.”

Behavior: behavior refers observable action, response, both human and Animals.

Mental Process: Thinking, Study

History:

Psychology is a relatively young science with its experimental roots in the 19th century,

compared, for example, to human physiology, which dates much earlier. As mentioned,

anyone interested in exploring issues related to the mind generally did so in a philosophical

context prior to the 19th century. Two men, working in the 19th century, are generally

credited as being the founders of psychology as a science and academic discipline that was

distinct from philosophy. Their names were Wilhelm Wundt and William James. This section

will provide an overview of the shifts in paradigms that have influenced psychology from

Wundt and James through today.

 SCHOOL OF THOUGHTS

The direction of psychology was highly influenced by Wilhem Wundt. He had clear and

definite ideas about the new psychology. He determined its goals, subject matter, research

methods, and topics to e investigated.

The emergence of various school of thought and their decline and replacement by other is a

striking chapter of the history of psychology.

Structuralism:

Wlhelm Wandt (1832 – 1920 ) (Father of Modern Psychology)

Introduction:

Structuralism was a school of thought that sought to identify the components (structure)

of the mind the mind was considered the key element to psychology at this point.

Structuralisms believed that the way to learn about the brain and its functions was to

break the mind down into its most basic elements. They believed, the whole is equal to

the sum of the parts.

An example of structuralism is describing an apple. An apple is crisp, sweet, juicy, round

and hard.

Goals:

For functionalists the goal was to understand how to mind and behavior work in

aiding an organism’s adjustment to the environment, the research tools included

anything that was informative including introspection, the study of animal’s

behavior and the study of mentally ill.

Immediate Experience Mediate Experience

Wundt says psychologist should be concerned with the study of immediate

experience rather than mediate experience. Mediate experience provides us with

information or knowledge about something other than the elements of an experience

This is the usual form in which we use experience to acquire knowledge about our

world. Thus the experience of natural scientist is mediated by recording devices and

is not direct.

Sensation, Feeling, Perception

Sensation

Sensations are aroused whenever a sense organ is stimulated and the resulting

impulses reach the brain. Sensations were one of the two elementary forms of

experience.

Feeling

Feelings are the other elementary form of experience. Sensations are feelings are

simultaneous aspects of immediate experience. Feelings are the subjective

compliments of sensations but do not arise directly from a sense of organ.

Sensations are accompanied by certain feelings qualities, when sensation combine

to form a more complex state, a feeling quality will result.

Wundt proposed a tridimensional theory of feelings, based on his personal

introspective observations. According to which any feelings can be described in

terms of the degree to which they possess three attributes. Pleasantness

unpleasantness, excitement - depression tension - relaxation .

 Perception

It is a passive process governed by the physical present stimulations, the anatomical

makeup of the individual and the individual’s past. Experience. These three

influences interact and determine the individual’s perceptual field. Wundt called it

apperception. Perception is passive and automatic and apperception is active and

voluntary.

Criticism

o Wundt did not stand the test of time and was greatly criticized.

o Psychologists became increasingly dissatisfied with the assumption that

introspection could unlock the fundamental elements of the mind.

o Moreover, consciousness was not a truly scientific technique; there was little

way that an outside observer could verify the accuracy of introspection that

trained subjects did make.

 Functionalism

William Jams(1842 - 1910 ) John Dewey

Introduction

Functionalism formed as a reaction to structuralism and was heavily influenced by the

work of William James and the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. Functionalists

sought to explain the mental processes in a more systematic and accurate manner.

Rather than focusing on the elements of consciousness, functionalists focused on

the purpose of consciousness and behavior. Functionalism also emphasized

individual differences, which had a profound impact on education.

Conscious

Consciousness is one of the most difficult terms to define. You can define

consciousness in psychology simply as awareness, but that doesn't give a complete

picture. It's awareness of your internal processes like thinking, feeling, sensing, and

perceiving. It knows who you are and what you possess. Consciousness can mean the

awareness of memories. It can mean the control you exercise over your behaviors. It

can refer to how awake and responsive you are. When you're conscious of experience,

you know what it's like to have that experience. It can also mean being attuned to the

present moment in the here and now.

i. What , why, how

 Method

Functionalists used introspection method to study consciousness. They also used

testes, surveys and experimental techniques to study mental process and

consciousness. In studying animals and children as well as adults, they key question

they asked was “what function does the specific behaviour perform? Psychologists

of this school studies topics such as thinking, memory, consciousness, motivation,

learning and animal intelligence. They were also interested in applying

psychological concepts in schools, business and hones.

Self and Self Esteem

James also describes the concept of self and self esteem. He was an internationalist

on mind body question. As he believed that bodily events cause thought and that

instead of our enemy.

Characteristics of Functionalism

 It was never a well defined school of thought with recognized leader or agreed

on methodology.

 According to keller 1973 common themes were follows.

 The functionalists opposed the sterile search for the elements of consciousness.

 The functionalists wanted to understand the function of the mind and not its

contents.

 They wanted psychology to be a practical since and they sought to apply their

findings to the improvement of personal life, education, industry and so on.

 Functionalists urged the broadening of psychology to include research on

animal, children and abnormal humans.

  The functionalists interest in the way of mental processes and behaviour led

directly to a concern with motivation.

 The functionalists accepted both mental processes and behaviour as legitimate

subject matter for psychology.

 All functionalists were influenced by William James who had been strongly

influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution.

Criticism

 This school of thought was also criticized by psychologists.

 Functionalists did not explain the functions of mind, consciousness.

 They did not describe the relationship of mind and body.

 They used introspection method to study consciousness, which was not

scientific method.

 Functionalistic did not explain the concepts of unconsciousness, so they were

criticized by majority of psychologists.

 Behaviourism
John Broadus Watson (1878- 1958)

Introduction

In 1913 another American psychologist john Watson became the founder of the

school of thoughts known as behaviorism. He believed that psychology should be

the science of over behavior. He rejected the ideas of structure lists and

functionalists. He called psychology as the science of overt behaviour that can be

observed and studied through objective measurement. He believed that psychology

should be hard science, like physics and chemistry.

Internal Behaviour

In an internal, or dispositional, attribution, people infer that an event or a

person's behavior is due to personal factors such as traits, abilities, or feelings.

External Behaviour

In an external, or situational, attribution, people infer that a person's behavior is due to

situational factors

B.F Skiner (Introduction)

B. F. Skinner was an American psychologist best-known for his influence on behaviorism.

Skinner referred to his own philosophy as 'radical behaviorism' and suggested that the concept

of free will was simply an illusion. All human action, he instead believed, was the direct

result of conditioning.

Experiment
Project Pigeon

Skinner took a teaching position at the University of Minnesota following his

marriage. While teaching at the University of Minnesota and during the height of

World War II, Skinner became interested in helping with the war effort. He received

funding for a project that involved training pigeons to guide bombs since no missile

guidance systems existed at the time.

In "Project Pigeon," as it was called, pigeons were placed in the nose cone of a missile

and were trained to peck at a target that would then direct the missile toward the

intended target. The project never came to fruition, since the development of radar

was also underway, although Skinner had considerable success working with the

pigeons. While the project was eventually canceled, it did lead to some interesting

findings and Skinner

Approach

Criticism

 Behaviour went to the extreme with their ideas.

 They limited psychology to the study of the observable behavioural response

given by organism to a stimulus.

 They did not explain consciousness and sub consciousness.

1. Gestalt

Max Wertheimer (1880 - 1943)

i. Introduction

Gestalt psychologists studied whole or totality of behaviour rather than its elements.

Their viewpoint was that whole is greater than its parts. Max Wertheimer (1880 -

1943)was the leader of Gestalt school. The goal of this school was study of

perception, memory, problem, solving, and personality.

ii. Perception

Perception is a process by which people regard, analyze,

retrieve and react to any kind of information from the

environment. For example, some people feel happy about

earning money while others feel happy about spending money.

iii. Phi- Phenomenon

The phi phenomenon is an illusion that is visual in nature,

which causes an observer or viewer to distinguish and

perceive movement in stationary objects. It is a perceptual

illusion in which people see motion that is produced by a succession of

immobile images. Our brain and visual organs allow us to perceive

continuous movement from a series of images. Illusion of smooth

movement is created when our brain fills in the missing information that

does not exist between successive images.

 Insight

Kohler argued the solution to problemsoccur when individuals can view

the entire problem field and rearrange the elements of the problems into

a new configuration. Solutions have a perceptual quality to them, and

they occur quickly, once the components have been reconfigured.

Kholer used the term insight to label such a process. In Gestalt view, the

organism must be able to perceive the relationships among the vireos

parts of the problem before insight learning can occur. Research

reinforced the gestalt idea the learning involves a reorganization of

one’s psychological environment.

iv. Method

To understand how basis sensations combined in to our awareness of the world,

Wundt and other structuralists used a procedure called introspection to study the

structure of the mind. Using introspection, Wundt presented his trained subjects

with a stimulus such as bright green object or a sentence printed on a card and asked

them to describe in their own world what they ware experiencing as they were

exposed to it. Wundt argued that psychologists could come to understand the

v. Criticism

o Gestalitists performed only in the area of perception

o They did nothing about unconscious process. Which are three fourth of our

cognitive process.

o Their approaches ware not purely scientific.

Psychoanalysis

Sigmand Freud (1856 - 1939)

i. Introduction

The last major influence on psychology was psychoanalysis. The founder of the

school of freud developed the theory psychoanalysis to explain personality and treated

patients with psychoanalysis to explain personality and treated patients with

psychological problems. He believed that a person’s past experiences of which he is

unaware influence current behaviour. He defined psychology as science of

unconscious experiences.

ii. Concept of Mind

 Conscious

The conscious mind contains all of the thoughts, memories, feelings, and

wishes of which we are aware at any given moment. This is the aspect of

our mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally. This also

includes our memory, which is not always part of consciousness but can be

retrieved easily and brought into awareness.

For example, the beauty and pleasance of the smell of a red tulip

 Subconscious
 Defines all reactions and automatic actions we can become aware of if we

think about them.

For example, our ability to drive a car: once we get skilled we stop

thinking which gears to use, which pedals to press, or which mirror to look

at, yet can always become aware of what was done once we think about it.

 Unconscious

Defines all past events and memories, inaccessible to us no matter how

hard we try to remember to bring things up.

For example, the first word we’ve learned to say, or how it felt to be able

to walk on our own.

2. Level of Personality

 Id

The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant

gratification of basic physical needs and urges. It operates entirely

unconsciously (outside of conscious thought). For example, if your id walked

past a stranger eating ice cream, it would most likely take the ice cream for

itself. It doesn’t know, or care, that it is rude to take something belonging to

someone else; it would care only that you wanted the ice cream.
 Ego

In contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is the rational,

pragmatic part of our personality. It is less primitive than the id and is partly

conscious and partly unconscious. It’s what Freud considered to be the “self,”

and its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the practical

context of reality. So, if you walked past the stranger with ice cream one more

time, your ego would mediate the conflict between your id (“I want that ice

cream right now”) and superego (“It’s wrong to take someone else’s ice cream”)

and decide to go buy your own ice cream. While this may mean you have to

wait 10 more minutes, which would frustrate your id, your ego decides to make

that sacrifice as part of the compromise– satisfying your desire for ice cream

while also avoiding an unpleasant social situation and potential feelings of

shame.

 Super Ego

The superego is concerned with social rules and morals—similar to what many

people call their ” conscience ” or their “moral compass.” It develops as a child

learns what their culture considers right and wrong. If your superego walked

past the same stranger, it would not take their ice cream because it would know

that that would be rude. However, if both your id and your superego were

involved, and your id was strong enough to override your superego’s concern,
you would still take the ice cream, but afterward you would most likely feel

guilt and shame over your actions.

Dynamics of personality
 Libido

Eros Thanatos

1. Free association

2. Criticism
 4th lecture

Research Method

Five Methods of Psychological Research

 Case Study

 Experiment

 Observational Study

 Survey

 Content Analysis

There is several different research methods used in psychology. These fall into two areas:

quantitative, which depends upon the use of mathematical or statistical data, and qualitative.

Within these two divisions are several kinds of research including correlation, descriptive and

experimental. Which type of research is utilized depends upon the goals of the research.

1. Case Study

A case study is a qualitative research method. It involves an observation of one individual or

a group of individuals over a length of time. The researcher interviews the subject or observes

behaviour and records the information. Generally, this type of psychological research is used

to show how psychology principles or theories are used in actual practice. The case study

method is widely used in professional training.

 Types of Case Studies

Under the more generalized category of case study exist several subdivisions, each of which
is custom selected for use depending upon the goals and/or objectives of the investigator.
These types of case study include the following:

 Illustrative Case Studies

These are primarily descriptive studies. They typically utilize one or two instances of an
event to show what a situation is like. Illustrative case studies serve primarily to make the
unfamiliar familiar and to give readers a common language about the topic in question.

 Exploratory (or pilot) Case Studies

These are condensed case studies performed before implementing a large scale investigation.
Their basic function is to help identify questions and select types of measurement prior to the
main investigation. The primary pitfall of this type of study is that initial findings may seem
convincing enough to be released prematurely as conclusions.

 Cumulative Case Studies

These serve to aggregate information from several sites collected at different times. The idea
behind these studies is the collection of past studies will allow for greater generalization
without additional cost or time being expended on new, possibly repetitive studies.

 Critical Instance Case Studies

These examine one or more sites for either the purpose of examining a situation of unique

interest with little to no interest in generalizability, or to call into question or challenge a

highly generalized or universal assertion. This method is useful for answering cause and

effect questions.
Advantages:
i. Make decision making Easier

ii. Improve the analytical quality of decision

iii. Reduce the time required to make decision

iv. Increase the frequency of correct decision.

v. Deeper understanding.

vi. Fact driven.

Disadvantages:
I. Lack of generalization

II. Lack of clearly defined methods.

III. Time consuming

IV. Costs

V. Bias in data collection and analysis.

2. Experiment

Although this is introduced as a broad kind of research that can be a component of many

methods, the term here is used to denote a specific procedure. In science, experiments are the

most often-used method of research, and there are principles involved in its employment. One

is the presence of a control group. This is an individual, or a group of individuals, that is not

manipulated.

Another principle is the control of variables. That is, the experiment should be as free of

extraneous data as possible. That factor enables psychologists to repeat the experiment, and

that is one requirement of reliable research.

A third principle is the consistency of measurements. Allowing differing standards makes

replication impossible and the results unreliable. The fourth principle involved is showing
cause and effect. That is, the manipulations performed in the experiment led to the results and

nothing else was involved. Experiments can be laboratory-controlled such as sleep studies,

field experiments which allow the psychologist to manipulate the subject but not his

environment, or natural experiments which allow no control and are largely observational.

Lab Experiment

A laboratory experiment is an experiment conducted under highly controlled conditions (not

necessarily a laboratory), where accurate measurements are possible.

The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at what time, with which

participants, in what circumstances and using a standardized procedure. Participants are

randomly allocated to each independent variable group.

 Strength: It is easier to replicate (i.e. copy) a laboratory experiment. This

is because a standardized procedure is used.

 Strength: They allow for precise control of extraneous and independent

variables. This allows a cause and effect relationship to be established.

 Limitation: The artificiality of the setting may produce unnatural

behaviour that does not reflect real life, i.e. low ecological validity. This

means it would not be possible to generalize the findings to a real life

setting.

 Limitation: Demand characteristics or experimenter effects may bias the

results and become confounding variables.

 Field Experiment:

Field experiments are done in the everyday (i.e. real life) environment of the participants. The

experimenter still manipulates the independent variable, but in a real-life setting (so cannot

really control extraneous variables).

Strength: Behaviour in a field experiment is more likely to reflect real life because of its

natural setting, i.e. higher ecological validity than a lab experiment.

Strength: There is less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the results, as

participants may not know they are being studied. This occurs when the study is covert.

Limitation: There is less control over extraneous variables that might bias the results. This

makes it difficult for another researcher to replicate the study in exactly the same way.

Natural Experiment

Natural experiments are conducted in the everyday (i.e. real life) environment of the

participants, but here the experimenter has no control over the IV as it occurs naturally in real

life.

Strength: Behaviour in a natural experiment is more likely to reflect real life because of its

natural setting, i.e. very high ecological validity.

Strength: There is less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the results, as

participants may not know they are being studied.

Strength: Can be used in situations in which it would be ethically unacceptable to manipulate

the independent variable, e.g. researching stress.

Limitation: They may be more expensive and time consuming than lab experiments.

Limitation: There is no control over extraneous variables that might bias the results. This

makes it difficult for another researcher to replicate the study in exactly the same way.

3. Observational Study
This type of qualitative research can be naturalistic or controlled. It is systematic and

carefully recording. The goal of observational research is to identify and describe a variable

or even a set of variables. This type of research can be used as a precursor to other types that

focus on a single issue.

Types of observational:

Naturalistic

Controlled

Structured and Unstructured

Participant and Nonparticipant

Field Observation

 Naturalistic

 Observing people in their normal environment

 Often used in the study of animal behaviour.

Advantages

 Directly observe the subject in a natural setting

 Used to generate new ideas.

 The entire situation can be studied

 More insight in gained

Disadvantages
 Not possible to observe all types of behaviour in a natural
settings.

 Different observers may have different conclusion

 May instances of behaviour do not repeat themselves.

 Controlled Observation

 Carried out in a laboratory

 Controlled

The observer decides where the observation takes places, at what time and under what

circumstances

Standardized procedures are used.

Advantages:

 Can be easily replicated by other researchers by useng the same

observation scheduled

 Obsever can have control over variables.

 A less time consuming method compared to naturalistic observation.

Disadvantages:

 paricipants behave differnentily since the know the are being observed

Structure and unstructured observation

 Participants and Nonparticipant observation:

Participant

In participant observation the observer observes the group under consideration

by taking part in the group. Through participant observation, the observer

collects natural information about the respondents. It provides a better

opportunity to learn more about the events. Participant observation is not

applied in every situation. Whereas in nonparticipant observation, the observer

observes the group without taking part in the group.

Advantages

 Researcher able to be hones with the group in overt participant

observation
 Covert participant observation may be the only way to gather knowledge
on illegal activity.

Disadvantages
 May lose objectivity and become biased.
 If researcher is under cover he has to be very covert about his research.

Nonparticipant Observation

The objectivity of the research is maintained which is not in the case of the participant

observation. Nonparticipant observation gives an unbiased view of the group but participant

observation fails to give an unbiased view of the group.

Advantages

 Participants tend to act more realistically

  Researcher has no influence over the situation

Disadvantages
 Observer may not get a feel of what is happening
 Harder to find or back up a hypothesis without influencing is participant

4. Survey
The survey is a “shotgun” approach to research. It depends upon self-reported data, and so

can be highly subjective. Because of that, surveys generally involve many subjects. It is a

quantitative method using a random sampling of subjects and is probably the only method in

psychological research where randomness is used. It is not an experimental method, but the

samples are “carefully selected.”

Survey research studies large and small populations by selecting and studding samples

chosen from the population to discover the relative incidence distribution and inter relations

of sociological and psychological questions. The researcher is interested in the accurate

assessment of the characteristics of the whole problem.

Two type of design are used in survey I.e cross- sectional design and longitudinal one.

Cross- sectional Design:

Cross sectional design is one of the most commonly used techniques. In a cross sectional

design, one or more samples are drawn from the population at one time. Its focus is

description. It describes the characteristics of a population at a particular point in time.

In a longitudinal Design:
The same respondent is surveyed overtime in order to examine changes in individual

respondents. The longitudinal design has two important advantages. First the investigator

can determine the direction and second the extent of change for individual respondents. But

the major problem with this design is that it can be difficult to obtain a sample a long term

commitment.

Steps in Survey Method:

1. Formulation of problem

2. Population and Sampling

3. Tools of Survey

4. Data collection

5. Data Analysis

6. Results

 Formulation of Problem:

To select accurate topic for survey is basically very important. After the selection of

topic or formulation of problem statement, the purpose of survey must be explained.

Purpose of survey indicates to social issues such as poverty, drug addiction, unemployment,

their causes, effect or remedies can be discussed and suggestions may be formulated for

higher and concerned authorities. It may indicate that how people can get rid of those

problems and at least, they indicate that how people can get rid of those problems and, at

least, they become aware how to control or combat those issues.

 Population and sampling

A most critical issue in the survey method is the identification of subjects to whom the

instrument will be administered or questions will asked. These people are typically called a

sample. This means a group of subjects drawn from some larger group. This larger group is

known as the population that includes all the people, objects or events of a particular class.

When any sample accurately reflects the characteristics of a certain population, it is called a

representative sample. Surveys generally involve sampling. Careful selection of a survey

sample allows researchers to the sample allows researcher to generalize findings from the

sample to the population. Sample is chosen from the sampling frame. The ability to

generalize from a sample to the population depends critically on the representativeness of the

sample should be free of any bias. If the characteristics of the sample are systematically.

Different form the characteristics of the population. That differ in many ways and in turn,

populations differ from each other.

 Tools of survey

To collect information about the problem under study different tools can be utilized. It can be

the questionnaire or any other prescribed test or scale. Main task is to translate the research

question into an interview or any other instrument constructed for the survey.

Data Collection

Different methods can be adopted for the data collection e.g. questionnaire method, interview

method including personal interviews and telephone interview.

 Data Analysis

After data collection, next comes the step of data analysis. For this the responses to questions

are coded and tabulated.

Coding is the term used to describe the translation of questions, responses and respondent

information to specific categories for analysis purpose.

Tabulation is simply the recording of the number of types of responses in the appropriate

categories, after which statistical analysis follows. Percentages, averages, relational indicate

and appropriate tests of significance.

 Result

After the analysis results become clear whether hypotheses are supported or not . After formulation of

the results, by computer. SPSS is commonly used in this regard.

5. Content Analysis

This method of research involves looking at media such as print, television, radio, and others

for the repetition of specific words or phrases, or even ideas. It is a quantitative method,

employing mathematical data about the words or concepts to study things like stereotyping or

certain aspects of culture such as sexuality. This type of research is especially valuable in

advertising but can also be used to predict behaviour in specific populations.

There are many other ways of collecting information; some are general scientific methods,

and some are particular to psychology. The research methods used in psychology depend on

the kinds of data that are being studied and the goal and breadth of the studies.
 Perception

Definition:

Sensation + Meanings + Thinking + Memory = Perception

Perception is a process by which people select, organized and interpret information to

form a meaningful picture.

Fector of Preception

o Subjective factor
o Objective factor
o Social factor

Subjective Factor:

Subjective factor are related to the perceiver’s own self. There are stated as the

internal state or psychological state.

Some subjective are:

 Fitness.
 Interest.
 Past experience and knowledge
 Mantel capacity

Objective Factor:

Objective factor are found in the physical environment know as stimuli. There stimuli

ae so strong that an individual is attracted to attend to them and perceive them.

Social Factor:

Social factor are related to need and interest of the group in society to which an

individual belongs. Men is a social animal; He can’t live alone.

 Social value.
 Attitudes
  Stereotype
 Suggestion

Kind of Perception
1. Form Perception
2. Motion Perception
3. Depth Perception
4. Time Perception

I. Form Perception:

Perception depends on sensory information’s on the base of these information,

different forms and patterns are perceived.

According to wood worth, perceptual organization is based on two thinks.

 Figure
 Ground
II. Motion Perception:

Motion perception is a far more complicated affair, requiring higher levels of

perceptual organization in the brain, to integrate and interpret the responses of

different retinal cell over time. There seems to be a strong tendency for the visual

system to take larger, surrounding figures as the reference frame for a smaller figure

inside it.

We have experienced induced motion many time, when moon is partially covered

with clouds, frequently looks as if it is moving through a surrounding cloud induces

perceived movement in the moon. It is also possible to see motion in the visual field

when we are moving.

III. Depth Perception:

Depth perception also acts as one of the type of perception psychology. It relates to

the way the human eye identifies and contextualizes things in space.
 Depth perception is the visual ability to perceive the world in three dimensions (3D)

and the distance of an object.

For instance, through the naked eye cannot see the end of tunnel, it interprets its

possible depth through past experience such as scientific measurements to know how

deep the tunnel can be.

IV. Time Perception:

Time perception is a field of study within psychology and neuroscience that refers to

the subjective experience of time, which is measured by someone’s own perception of

the duration of the indefinite and continues unfolding of events. The perceived time

interval between two successive events is referred to as perceived duration. Another

person’s perception of time cannot be directly experienced or understood, but it can

be objectively studied and inferred through a number of scientific experiments.

5th lecture

Illusion of Direction:

Linear perspective can be labelled as illusion of direction. To see parallel lines o trees,

or railway tracks, both sides do not look parallel from a long distance. It is called

illusion of direction.

Illusion of weight:

In routine life, some objects look heavier in random look. We guess about their

weight in the light of their volume or size. In reality, small objects can be heavier than

the larger volume ones. What will be our guess when we compare 10 kg cotton with

10 kg steel?

Illusion of Form:

A square looks longer than its width, which is the indication of form illusion.

Illusion of Size:

Size constancy saves us form illusion yet, some other reasons may create size illusion.

Illusion of Context

It is the context which affects the perception and sometimes creates illusion as in

fingers both circles in the centre are of same size. It is their context which creates

illusion. Same is the case with contrast.

Black dot on with surface and with dot of same size is plotted on black surface would

appear different.
Horizontal vertical illusion

If we draw two equal lines as horizontal and vertical they seem unequal, as vertical

line would appear longer than the horizontal.

Wundt’s Illusion

To produce wundt’s Illusion, herring’s technique is used in opposite manner. In it,

parallel line seem bending form the center due to their peculiar crossing line.

Muller lyer illusion

Muller lyer presented two line and put arrow on both

sides of a line and made the other line feather headed.

Both lines look different in length due two arrows and

feathers.

Pogndroff illusion

If a rectangle finger is crossed by a line it creates an

illusion that rectangle is being cut by two distinct line.

Zolliner Illusion:

When parallel lines are being cut in a particular manner they appear as

they are not parallel. It is called zolliner illusion.

Ponzo Illusion:

Two equal lines put at a distance do not seem

equal when we cut them in a different manner.

Aristotle’s illusion

If we cross our two fingers and put a pencil

between them, it feels that two different pencils

are touching our fingers.

Herring illusion

In this two of illusion parallel lines do not look parallel because of their

crossing lines it seems that parallel lines are bending form their sides.

Diagonal illusion

Check whether line is equal to Ac? Which is longer? Just measure and

check your illusion.

 Learning

Meaning and Nature:

Learning can be defined in many ways, but most psychologists would

agree that it is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that results

from experience. During the first half of the twentieth century, the school

of thought known as behaviourism rose to dominate psychology and

sought to explain the learning process.

The three major types of learning described by behavioural

psychology are classical conditioning,

 Operant conditioning,

 Observational learning.