Behaviorism

Bekki Brau, Nathan Fox, & Elizabeth Robinson

Behaviorism is an area of psychological study that focuses on

observing and analyzing how controlled environmental changes affect
behavior. The goal of behavioristic teaching methods is to manipulate
the environment of a subject — a human or an animal — in an effort to
change the subject’s observable behavior. From a behaviorist
perspective, learning is defined entirely by this change in the
subject’s observable behavior. The role of the subject in the learning
process is to be acted upon by the environment; the subject forms
associations between stimuli and changes behavior based on those
associations. The role of the teacher is to manipulate the environment
in an effort to encourage the desired behavioral changes. The
principles of behaviorism were not formed overnight but evolved over
time from the work of multiple psychologists. As psychologists’
understanding of learning has evolved over time, some principles of
behaviorism have been discarded or replaced, while others continue
to be accepted and practiced.

History of Behaviorism
A basic understanding of behaviorism can be gained by examining the
history of four of the most influential psychologists who contributed to
the behaviorism: Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, John B. Watson, and
B.F. Skinner. These four did not each develop principles of
behaviorism in isolation, but rather built upon each other’s work.

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Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov is perhaps most well-known for his work in conditioning

dogs to salivate at the sound of a tone after pairing food with the
sound over time. Pavlov’s research is regarded as the first to explore
the theory of classical conditioning: that stimuli cause responses and
that the brain can associate stimuli together to learn new responses.
His research also studied how certain parameters — such as the time
between two stimuli being presented — affected these associations in
the brain. His exploration of the stimulus-response model, the
associations formed in the brain, and the effects of certain parameters
on developing new behaviors became a foundation of future
experiments in the study of human and animal behavior (Hauser,
1997).

In his most famous experiment, Pavlov started out studying how much
saliva different breeds of dogs produced for digestion. However, he
soon noticed that the dogs would start salivating even before the food
was provided. Subsequently he realized that the dogs associated the
sound of him walking down the stairs with the arrival of food. He went
on to test this theory by playing a tone when feeding the dogs, and
over time the dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a tone even if
there was no food present. The dogs learned a new response to a
familiar stimulus via stimulus association. Pavlov called this learned
response a conditional reflex. Pavlov performed several variations of
this experiment, looking at how far apart he could play the tone
before the dogs no longer associated the sound with food; or if
applying randomization — playing the tone sometimes when feeding
the dogs but not others — had any effect on the end results (Pavlov,
1927).

Pavlov’s work with conditional reflexes was extremely influential in

the field of behaviorism. His experiments demonstrate three major
tenets of the field of behaviorism:

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 1. Behavior is learned from the environment. The dogs learned to
salivate at the sound of a tone after their environment
presented the tone along with food multiple times.
2. Behavior must be observable. Pavlov concluded that learning
was taking place because he observed the dogs salivating in
response to the sound of a tone.
3. All behaviors are a product of the formula stimulus-response.
The sound of a tone caused no response until it was associated
with the presentation of food, to which the dogs naturally
responded with increased saliva production.

These principles formed a foundation of behaviorism on which future

scientists would build.

Edward Thorndike

Edward Lee Thorndike is regarded as the first to study operant

conditioning, or learning from consequences of behaviors. He
demonstrated this principle by studying how long it took different
animals to push a lever in order to receive food as a reward for
solving a puzzle. He also pioneered the law of effect, which presents a
theory about how behavior is learned and reinforced.

Oneexperiment Thorndike conducted was called the puzzle box

experiment, which is similar to the classic “rat in the maze”
experiment. For this experiment, Thorndike placed a cat in a box with
a piece of food on the outside of the box and timed how long it took
the cat to push the lever to open the box and to get the food. The first
two or three times each cat was placed in the box there was little
difference in how long it took to open the box, but subsequent
experiments showed a marked decrease in time as each cat learned
that the same lever would consistently open the box.

A second major contribution Thorndike made to the field is his work in

pioneering the law of effect. This law states that behavior followed by

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positive results is likely to be repeated and that any behavior with
negative results will slowly cease over time. Thorndike’s puzzle box
experiments supported this belief: animals were conditioned to
frequently perform tasks that led to rewards.

Thorndike’s two major theories are the basis for much of the field of
behaviorism and psychology studies of animals to this day. His results
that animals can learn to press levers and buttons to receive food
underpin many different types of animal studies exploring other
behaviors and created the modern framework for the assumed
similarities between animal responses and human responses
(Engelhart, 1970).

In addition to his work with animals, Thorndike founded the field of

educational psychology and wrote one of the first books on the
subject, Educational Psychology, in 1903. Much of his later career was
spent overhauling the field of teaching by applying his ideas about the
law of effect and challenging former theories on generalized learning
and punishment in the classroom. His theories and work have been
taught in teaching colleges across the world.

John B. Watson

John Broadus Watson was a pioneering psychologist who is generally

considered to be the first to combine the multiple facets of the field
under the umbrella of behaviorism. The foundation of Watson’s
behaviorism is that consciousness — introspective thoughts and
feelings — can neither be observed nor controlled via scientific
methods and therefore should be ignored when analyzing behavior.
He asserted that psychology should be purely objective, focusing
solely on predicting and controlling observable behavior, thus
removing any interpretation of conscious experience. Thus, according
to Watson, learning is a change in observable behavior. In his 1913
article “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It”, Watson defined
behaviorism as “a purely objective experimental branch of natural

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science” that “recognizes no dividing line between man and brute.”
The sole focus of Watson’s behaviorism is observing and predicting
how subjects outwardly respond to external stimuli.

John Watson is remembered as the first psychologist to use human

test subjects in experiments on classical conditioning. He is famous
for the Little Albert experiment, in which he applied Pavlov’s ideas of
classical conditioning to teach an infant to be afraid of a rat. Prior to
the experiment, the nine-month-old infant Albert was exposed to
several unfamiliar stimuli: a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, a monkey,
masks with and without hair, cotton wool, burning newspapers, etc.
He showed no fear in response. Through some further
experimentation, researchers discovered that Albert responded with
fear when they struck a steel bar with a hammer to produce a shap
noise.

During the experiment, Albert was presented with the white rat that
had previously produced no fear response. Whenever Albert touched
the rat, the steel bar was struck, and Albert fell forward and began to
whimper. Albert learned to become hesitant around the rat and was
afraid to touch it. Eventually, the sight of the rat caused Albert to
whimper and crawl away. Watson concluded that Albert had learned
to be afraid of the rat (Watson & Rayner, 1920).

By today’s standards, the Little Albert experiment is considered both

unethical and scientifically inconclusive. Critics have said that the
experiment “reveals little evidence either that Albert developed a rat
phobia or even that animals consistently evoked his fear (or anxiety)
during Watson’s experiment” (Harris, 1997). However, the experiment
provides insight into Watson’s definition of behaviorism — he taught
Albert by controlling Albert’s environment, and the change in Albert’s
behavior led researchers to conclude that learning had occurred.

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B. F. Skinner

Skinner was a psychologist who continued to influence the

development of behaviorism. His most important contributions were
introducing the idea of radical behaviorism and defining operant
conditioning.

Unlike Watson, Skinner believed that internal processes such as

thoughts and emotions should be considered when analyzing
behavior. The inclusion of thoughts and actions with behaviors is
radical behaviorism. He believed that internal processes, like
observable behavior, can be controlled by environmental variables
and thus can be analyzed scientifically. The application of the
principles of radical behaviorism is known as applied behavior
analysis.

In 1938, Skinner published The Behavior of Organisms, a book that

introduces the principles of operant conditioning and their application
to human and animal behavior. The core concept of operant
conditioning is the relationship between reinforcement and
punishment, similar to Thorndike’s law of effect: Rewarded behaviors
are more likely to be repeated, while punished behaviors are less
likely to be repeated. Skinner expounded on Thorndike’s law of effect
by breaking down reinforcement and punishment into five discrete
categories (cf. Fig. 1):

Positive reinforcement is adding a positive stimulus to

encourage behavior.
Escape is removing a negative stimulus to encourage behavior.
Active avoidance is preventing a negative stimulus to
encourage behavior.
Positive punishment is adding a negative stimulus to discourage
behavior.
Negative punishment is removing a positive stimulus to
discourage behavior.

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Reinforcement encourages behavior, while punishment discourages
behavior. Those who use operant conditioning use reinforcement and
punishment in an effort to modify the subject’s behavior.

Figure 1. An overview of the five categories of operant conditioning.

Positive and negative reinforcements can be given according to

different types of schedules. Skinner developed five schedules of
reinforcement:

Continuous reinforcement is applied when the learner receives

reinforcement after every specific action performed. For
example, a teacher may reward a student with a sticker for
each meaningful comment the student makes.

Fixed interval reinforcement is applied when the learner

receives reinforcement after a fixed amount of time has passed.
For example, a teacher may give out stickers each Friday to
students who made comments throughout the week.
Variable interval reinforcement is applied when the learner
receives reinforcement after a random amount of time has
passed. For example, a teacher may give out stickers on a
random day each week to students who have actively
participated in classroom discussion.
Fixed ratio reinforcement is applied when the learner receives
reinforcement after the behavior occurs a set number of times.

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 For example, a teacher may reward a student with a sticker
after the student contributes five meaningful comments.
Variable ratio reinforcement is applied when the learner
receives reinforcement after the behavior occurs a random
number of times. For example, a teacher may reward a student
with a sticker after the student contributes three to ten
meaningful comments.

Skinner experimented using different reinforcement schedules in

order to analyze which schedules were most effective in various
situations. In general, he found that ratio schedules are more resistant
to extinction than interval schedules, and variable schedules are more
resistant than fixed schedules, making the variable ratio
reinforcement schedule the most effective.

Skinner was a strong supporter of education and influenced various

principles on the manners of educating. He believed there were two
reasons for education: to teach both verbal and nonverbal behavior
and to interest students in continually acquiring more knowledge.
Based on his concept of reinforcement, Skinner taught that students
learn best when taught by positive reinforcement and that students
should be engaged in the process, not simply passive listeners. He
hypothesized that students who are taught via punishment learn only
how to avoid punishment. Although Skinner’s doubtful view on
punishment is important to the discipline in education, finding other
ways to discipline are very difficult, so punishment is still a big part in
the education system.

Skinner points out that teachers need to be better educated in

teaching and learning strategies (Skinner, 1968). He addresses the
main reasons why learning is not successful. This biggest reasons
teachers fail to educate their students are because they are only
teaching through showing and they are not reinforcing their students
enough. Skinner gave examples of steps teachers should take to teach
properly. A few of these steps include the following:

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 1. Ensure the learner clearly understands the action or
performance.
2. Separate the task into small steps starting at simple and
working up to complex.
3. Let the learner perform each step, reinforcing correct actions.
4. Regulate so that the learner is always successful until finally
the goal is reached.
5. Change to random reinforcement to maintain the learner’s
performance (Skinner, 1968).

Criticisms and Limitations

While there are elements of behaviorism that are still accepted and
practiced, there are criticisms and limitations of behaviorism.
Principles of behaviorism can help us to understand how humans are
affected by associated stimuli, rewards, and punishments, but
behaviorism may oversimplify the complexity of human learning.
Behaviorism assumes humans are like animals, ignores the internal
cognitive processes that underlie behavior, and focuses solely on
changes in observable behavior.

From a behaviorist perspective, the role of the learner is to be acted

upon by the teacher-controlled environment. The teacher’s role is to
manipulate the environment to shape behavior. Thus, the student is
not an agent in the learning process, but rather an animal that
instinctively reacts to the environment. The teacher provides input
(stimuli) and expects predictable output (the desired change in
behavior). More recent learning theories, such as constructivism,
focus much more on the role of the student in actively constructing
knowledge.

Behaviorism also ignores internal cognitive processes, such as

thoughts and feelings. Skinner’s radical behaviorism takes some of
these processes into account insofar as they can be measured but
does not really try to understand or explain the depth of human

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emotion. Without the desire to understand the reason behind the
behavior, the behavior is not understood in a deeper context and
reduces learning to the stimulus-response model. The behavior is
observed, but the underlying cognitive processes that cause the
behavior are not understood. The thoughts, emotions, conscious state,
social interactions, prior knowledge, past experiences, and moral code
of the student are not taken into account. In reality, these elements
are all variables that need to be accounted for if human behavior is to
be predicted and understood accurately. Newer learning theories,
such as cognitivism, focus more on the roles of emotion, social
interaction, prior knowledge, and personal experience in the learning
process.

Another limitation to behaviorism is that learning is only defined as a

change in observable behavior. Behaviorism operates on the premise
that knowledge is only valuable if it results in modified behavior.
Many believe that the purpose of learning and education is much
more than teaching everyone to conform to a specific set of behaviors.
For instance, Foshay (1991) argues that “the one continuing purpose
of education, since ancient times, has been to bring people to as full
as realization as possible of what it is to be a human being” (p. 277).
Behaviorism’s focus on behavior alone may not achieve the purpose of
education, because humans are more than just their behavior.

Conclusion
Behaviorism is a study of how controlled changes to a subject’s
environment affect the subject’s observable behavior. Teachers
control the environment and use a system of rewards and
punishments in an effort to encourage the desired behaviors in the
subject. Learners are acted upon by their environment, forming
associations between stimuli and changing behavior based on those
associations.

There are principles of behaviorism that are still accepted and

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practiced today, such as the use of rewards and punishments to shape
behavior. However, behaviorism may oversimplify the complexity of
human learning; downplay the role of the student in the learning
process; disregard emotion, thoughts, and inner processes; and view
humans as being as simple as animals.

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