LOGIC AND

CRITICAL THINKING
MODULE # 3
DEFINITION
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Explain what a definition is and its importance
2. Enumerate and exemplify the several types of definitions; and
3. Identify the rules in good definition
Definition is a statement that gives the meaning of a term or explains what it is. As it
clarifies the limits by which a word or term should be used and understood, definition
helps eliminate confusion and ambiguity in the use of terms, thereby minimizing, if not
totally eradicating, misunderstanding and misconception in communication.
Definition comprises two elements: the definiendum or the term to be defined; and the
definiens or the defining term. In the definition, “Mathematics is the study of the
relationships among numbers, shapes, and quantities,” “Mathematics "is the definiendum
and “study of the relationships among numbers, shapes, and quantities,”is the definiens.
FOUR (4) MAIN TYPES OF DEFINITION
There are four main types of definition – the nominal, denotative, descriptive, and
connotative definition.
1. Nominal Definition – or ‘definition by name’ simply conveys what the
term means, not what the thing is. The following are the various kinds of
this definition:
a. Etymological definition gives the root word, derivation, origin of a
term.
Examples:
Philosophy (philia, love; Sophia, wisdom) is love of wisdom
Agoraphobia (agora, open space; phobia, fear) is the fear of open or public
spaces
Transport (trans, across; portare, to carry) means to carry across
Pantheism ( pan, all; theos, God; ismos, system of belief) is the belief that God is
everything and everything is God.
b. Synonymous definition gives the equivalent word (which is usually the better
known or more common) of the term being defined.
Examples:
Novice means “beginner
Aficionado means “enthusiast”
Crimson means “red”
c. Biverbal definition gives the translation of the term in another language
Examples:
Vox populi means “voice of the people”
Caveat means “warning or proviso”
A bundok is a “mountain”
d. Definition by full form gives the word or group of words represented by
abbreviation (shortenings, contractions, initialisms, and acronyms).
Examples of shortening:
cont. means continued taxi means taxicab
km. means kilometer deli means delicatessen
hippo means hippopotamus zoo means zoological garden
limo means limousine bike means bicycle
bus means omnibus
Examples of contraction:
Dr. means doctor St. means saint
• Couldn’t means could not didn’t means did not
• We’ve means we have
Examples of initialism
CSI is Crime Scene Investigation
LA is Los Angeles
A.W.O.L. is absent without official leave
a.m. is ante meridian
Examples of Acronym:
AIDS is Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
Laser is light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
Scuba is self-contained underwater breathing apparatus
UNESCO is United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
2. Denotative definition or ‘definition by example’ elucidates the meaning of a term by
mentioning or showing its referent/s. The following are the kinds of this definition:
a. Demonstrative definition or ostensive definition explicates the meaning of a term by
showing or pointing at the object.
For instance, a teacher may explain the meaning of a “laptop” by bringing one and showing
it to the class. A boxing trainer may try to answer the question, “What does ‘left hook’ mean? By
executing it
b. Enumerative definition is done by naming the referents of the term.
Example:
If someone asks, “What is a fruit ?” and you answer by saying, “The apple is a fruit.
The mango is a fruit. The orange is a fruit. The guava is a fruit.”
3. Descriptive definition elucidates the meaning of a term by citing accidental and/or essential
characteristics of the referent/s of the term. The following are the kinds of this definition:
a. Distinctive definition mentions the property of a thing that emanates from its essence or
unique trait.
Examples:
Man can have sense of humor. (The ability to see something as funny is a property of man,
which arises from his being rational.)
Water can take the solid, liquid, and gas states of matter.
b. Accidental definition explains a thing by stating its contingent or unessential characteristic
Examples:
The house has three bathrooms.
The car is yellow.
Kobe Bryant has tattoos.
c. Genetic definition explains how a thing originated or depicts how something is produced.
Examples:
Yeast breads are made by mixing, kneading, and rising the dough, then shaping and
baking the bread.
Pepsi-Cola is a mixture of carbonated water, cane-sugar syrup, and an extract from
kola nuts.
A lunar eclipse occurs when the earth is between the sun and the moon and its shadow
 darkens the moon.
A solar eclipse occurs when the moon is between the sun and the earth and its shadow
moves across the face of the earth.
d. Definition by efficient cause gives the maker or producer of a thing.
Examples:
Nike, Inc. was founded by former track athlete Philip Knight and his college coach
William Bowerman.
The Chronicles of Narnia was written by C.S. Lewis.
The Bible was written by God’s selected servants through His commissioning and
inspiration.
e. Definition by final cause declares the purpose or end of which a thing is produced.
Examples:
School is an institution for teaching students.
Exercise is an activity undertaken to enhance general physical health.
• A calculator is a device used to compute arithmetic operations
4. Connotative definition or essential definition provides the nature or essential characteristics
of the referents denoted by a term. It has two elements: the genus or the property that a thing
has in common with its co-members in the same class, and the specific difference or the
thing’s essential property that distinguishes it from other members of the same class.
Examples:
Octagon is a polygon with eight sides.
Dictionary is a reference book of word meanings or equivalents.
Tsunami is a large ocean wave caused by an underwater earthquake or another
movement of the Earth’s surface.
Blizzard is a storm characterized by extreme cold, strong winds, and heavy snowfall.
Rules in Good Connotative Definition
Connotative definition is very much useful in Logic because it is a definition, which alone
gives the essential meaning of a term. It helps eliminate ambiguity and it reduces the vagueness of
the term in its essential attributes. The following are some rules in making a connotative definition:
a. The defining term must be equivalent to the term being defined. It means that the
definition must either be too broad nor too narrow.
 Examples:
“A typhoon is a violent storm” is too broad since hurricane and blizzard, which are
different from typhoon, are also violent storms. “A guitar is a stringed musical
instrument” is also too broad definition because many musical instruments other than
guitar are also stringed.

On the other hand, the definition “Martial Arts are Korean Tae Kwon Do” is too
narrow as it excludes Aikido, Judo, Karate, and other forms of martial arts. Same
is true with “A basketball player is a point guard” for it excludes basketball players
who are playing other positions.
b. Definition should not be circular
It suggests that the term being defined should not be contained in the defining term;
otherwise, the definition gives little or no information at all and thus fails in its
purpose to explain the meaning of a term.
 Examples of circular definition:
A player is one who plays. (Circularity can be avoided by saying “A player is t
somebody taking part in a sport game as a competitor.”)
A cookbook is a book for cooking. (Better: A cookbook is a book containing recipes
and directions for preparing food.)
A green card is a card that is green. (In the United States, a green card is an identity
card and work permit issued to nationals of other countries.)
c. The definition must be stated in univocal and simple terms. The definition should not
be
expressed in obscure, ambiguous, or figurative language. In defining terms,
perplexing and highly theoretical explanations, as well as subjective judgments, must be
avoided.
Examples of figurative definitions:
Dreams are cages within which we observe the cages without. (William Wantling)
Marriage is a bribe to make the housekeeper think she’s a householder. (T. Wilder)
 Examples of obscure definitions:
Life is our reaction to the basic insecurity which constitutes its substance.(J. Gasset)
Reason is an act of faith to assert that our thoughts have any relation to reality to all.
Examples of subjective definitions:
Death is my neighbor now. (Edith Evans, British actor, said a week before her death
Love is the difficult realization that something other than oneself is real.(I. Murdoch)

d. The definition should not be needlessly negative.

As much as possible, the definition must be in their affirmative form for it must
explain what a term means rather than what it does not.
Examples:
A male is not a female.
Long is the opposite of short.
A ball pen is neither a pencil nor a chalk.
Moral is that which is not immoral.
 LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING
MODULE 4
AMBIGUITY AND VAGUENESS
Objectives:
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. differentiate between vagueness and ambiguity
2. be familiar with the various examples of vague and ambiguous
terms/statements and
3. learn how to revise vague and ambiguous propositions.
This module can serve as a transition between the module about term
and that about
statement. We will see that as terms can be vague and ambiguous,
statements can also be unclear in the same sense.
Ambiguity is the quality of having more than one meaning or being open to more
than one interpretation. A state of being imprecise, it specifically occurs when there
are definite interpretations, but as to which interpretation is meant is unclear. In most
writing and speaking, ambiguity poses a problem as it can lead to the
misinterpretation of the intended message.

Many words in a natural language have more than one use. Especially when it
becomes difficult to ascertain its meaning, the term has become ambiguous. A good
example is the various uses of the adjective cool. Consider the following:
The weather is cool. (‘fairly cold’)
That’s a cool idea. ( ‘excellent’)
That jacket is looking cool. ( ‘fashionable’)
He gave us a somewhat cool reception. { ‘unfriendly’)
 Another good example is the term ‘good’ in moral philosophy (
Ethics) If one were a hedonist, any act which promotes corporal
pleasure is good for him. For a humanist, ‘good’ pertains to the actions
or things which support the development of intellectual potential. If
one were a utilitarian, any action that encourages the greatest
happiness for the greatest number is good. A logical positivist may use
the term good to express his approval. Alternatively, if one were
Kantian, an action is good if it is done in accordance with his duty. But
if one were a preacher, he would say perhaps that something is good if
it contributes to the attainment of salvation. Hence, excessive love for
money may be good to a hedonist but not to a Christian preacher.
VAGUENESS
In contrast, when a term is vague, this means that something went
wrong with the intension or what is referred to by the term or
concept. For example, some logicians define the intension of the terms
“some as, at least one and perhaps all.” But this actually leaves us still
asking, “How many is ‘some’” ? If the president says, “Some cabinet
members are corrupt,” how many cabinet members is he talking
about? Or if a teacher says, “Some students are honest” how many
students are honest?
 In ordinary language, terms like a lot of, lots of, scores of, several, a few,
many, and almost all are good examples of vague terms. Uses of these terms
leave us guessing how many items are being talked about.
When a term is vague, one antidote is to clarify the intension of the concept.
This can be done by adding qualifications or identifying marks to make the
concept more comprehensible. For instance, instead of just saying, “Many PBA
players are adored by Filipino fans,” it would be better to say, “Many PBA
players playing for Ginebra and SanMig are adored by Filipino basketball fans.”
By putting that qualification, it is clear that the term “many” in the sentence
means nearly all. Notice that sometimes, it is not wrong to be lengthy in
discourse {either in writing or speaking) as long as it avoids or minimizes
confusion.
BOTH CAN PRODUCE CONFUSION
We have learned that vague terms like “some “ can be confusing. But
ambiguous concepts, too, can create confusion. For instance, one may use the term
“church” to refer to the congregation (group of people), and in the same breath, use
it without warning and qualification to refer to
Temple (house of worship). If he says, “I don’t like that church because it’s too big,” a
listener would not know whether the person does not like the size of the church
building or the size of the church membership. In Logic, this confusion is called fallacy
of equivocation. The following argument commits such a fallacy:
Nothing is better than God.
‘Siopao’ is better than nothing.
Therefore, ‘Siopao’ is better than God.
AMBIGUOUS AND VAGUE STATEMENT
Basically, a statement is vague if it contains terms like “some”as in,
‘some athletes are drug users.” In the case of ambiguity however, a
statement can be ambiguous even though it contains no ambiguous
term. This is because faulty or careless grammatical construction of
sentence can also be a cause of propositional ambiguity.
A statement is ambiguous when it can be taken to mean many
different statements, such that in some contexts it may be taken to be
true, but in others, false. If after accomplishing an arduous task in a
remote area a sociologist says, ‘my job here is over,” a listener might
suppose that he is resigning from his work for he is perhaps fed up with
his duty. But another listener might as well think, and for hat matter he
could be right, but the sociologist is just
Expressing his wish to finally take rest for he has been away from his family for many months. The
statement, “The organist plays the musical organ by ear.” is comically ambiguous
The following are some of the other ways a statement can be ambiguous:
1. Ambiguous Comparisons
In some propositions stating comparison, it is indistinct whether the second part of the
comparison is intended as a subject or as an object, as in this statement:
Jordan likes Wade better than James.
To avoid such ambiguity, fill in as many words as necessary for clarity. Take note of the
following revisions:
Jordan likes Wade better than he (Jordan) likes James.
Jordan likes Wade better than James does.
2. Ambiguous Reference
Some sentences are ambiguous because it is constructed in such a way that the antecedent of
the pronoun in it is unclear; Example:
When Paul attacked Peter in public, he was very angry.
 It is clear in the sentence who is being referred to by the pronoun “he.”
The statement thus makes us ask, “Who was angry, Paul or Peter?”
Ambiguous reference can be corrected by rephrasing the sentence or
repeating one of the nouns. Notice the following revisions:
Peter was angry when Paul attacked him in public.
Paul was very angry when he attacked Peter in public.
Instead of using any pronouns, there are times when repeating the
noun is preferable. Instead of saying, “There’s a fly in your soap, do you
want to eat it?” which could be misinterpreted as offering to eat the fly, it
is better to say, “There’s a fly in your soup, do you want to ask for another
soup?”
POSSESSIVENESS
Sometimes, the thing that is possessed can have double meaning.
For example, in the sentence: “Everlasting life is one of Christ’s graces,”
the term graces could refer to those given By Christ to His servants, or
the rewards given to Christ by the Father. Again, rephrasing the
sentence is still the key to eliminate such an ambiguity. So how are
you going to revise it
NEGATIVE SENTENCES
Careless users of the word ‘not’ sometimes make statements which they
do not really mean. By misplacing the word ‘not’ sentences, they thus make
them ambiguous. Let’s take this statement:
I’m not a Protestant because my ex-girlfriend is.
Without clarifying it, this could have at least two possible
interpretations:
1. The speaker is not a Protestant because his ex-girlfriend (whom he
perhaps hates) is a Protestant.
2. The speaker is a Protestant – though not because of his Protestant
ex-girlfriend, but because of another reason (say, conviction).
 Technically though, if what is meant is interpretation number 1,
then the statement is correctly constructed. But if what the speaker
means is interpretation number 2, then the sentence should have
been, “I am a protestant not because my ex-girlfriend is.” The general
rule is that the word ‘not’ should be placed before the term it
supposedly negates.
APPLICATION
The practicability of this topic had been conveyed when it taught
the various ways to avoid ambiguity and vagueness. But there are
more practical things which we could learn from this topic.
Though ambiguity and vagueness could indeed create
confusion, they are sometimes advantageous and even
essential in diplomacy and polite conversation. For example,
instead of specifying the students who did not do their
project, sometimes the teacher just diplomatically says, “Some
were not able to submit their projects.” The use of the term
‘some’I s indeed unclear for it does not identify those referred
to – yet is more polite and not offending.