LOGIC AND CRITICAL

THINKING
MODULE 2
CONCEPTS AND TERMS
FORMATION OF CONCEPTS AND TERMS

PEOPLE BEGIN THINKING WHEN THEY FEEL AND SEE THINGS

AROUND THEM. FOR INSTANCE, AN INDIVIDUAL SEES A TREE
UNDER NORMAL CONDITIONS: HIS EYESIGHT HEALTHY, THERE
WAS NORMAL LIGHT, NORMAL HEALTH, NORMAL WEATHER,
ETC. THE TREE HE SEES PRODUCES AN IMAGE IN THE OPTIC
NERVE OF THE SEEING INDIVIDUAL THROUGH THE EYEBALLS OR
EYES. THE TREE’S IMAGE IS REGISTERED AND REMAINS
IMPRINTED IN THE BRAIN SO THAT EVEN IF A PERSON LEAVES
THE TREE BEHIND, SUCH TREE CAN STILL BE REMEMBERED AT
WILL, OR WHEN A STIMULUS IS PRESENTED AND ASSOCIATED
WITH THE IMPRINTED IMAGE IN THE MIND.
SUCH “MENTAL IMAGE” IS CALLED CONCEPT, IDEA OR
THOUGHT. THIS MENTAL IMAGE IS ONLY A
REPRESENTATION OF THE SENSED TREE BUT NOT THE
REAL TREE ITSELF THE SENSING INDIVIDUAL MAY
“ERASE” THE IMAGE FROM HIS NERVE, OR FROM
MEMORY IN THE COURSE OF TIME. THIS MENTAL
ERASURE IS CALLED “FORGETTING”.
THIS IS THE MENTAL PROCESS O SENSATION,
IMAGINATION, CONCEPTUALIZATION OR SIMPLE
APPREHENSION OF OBJECTS.
THE MENTAL IMAGE OR CONCEPT REMAINS AS SUCH
IN THE MIND UNTIL IT “GETS OUT” OF THE BRAIN. IN
OTHER WORDS, THE CONCEPT WILL HAVE TO BE OR
GIVEN BIRTH TO, THAT IS, TO BE COMMUNICATED
AND EXPRESSED TO OTHER PEOPLE. AND AS THE
INDIVIDUAL WHO POSSESSES THE IDEA WISHES TO
COMMUNICATE IT OUT, HE FINDS WAS AND MEANS
TO EXPRESS IT. HE LOOKS FOR SIGNS OR SYMBOLS
FOR THE COMMUNICATION. THE SIGN OR SYMBOL IS
CALLED TERM. THE TERM MAY BE IN THE FORM OF A
WORD, ACTION, OR SOUND CONVEYING THE IDEA.
FACULTY OPERATION AND PRODUCT
THE HUMAN MIND GENERALLY OPERATES IN THE
FOLLOWING SEQUENCE: SENSATION (BY THE FIVE
SENSES), IMAGINATION (IMAGE MAKING),
APPREHENSION OR INTELLECTION, THEN
VERBALIZATION (ORAL OR WRITTEN). EACH
FACULTY CATEGORY HAS ITS OWN OPERATION
FOLLOWED BY ITS OWN PRODUCT. THIS MENTAL
PROCESS IS CALLED THE INTELLECTUAL EVOLUTION
OF CONCEPT OR IDEOGENESIS (REYES, 1988).
AUTHORS OF LOGIC BOOKS COMMONLY ILLUSTRATE THE
FACULTY OPERATION WITH THE FOLLOWING DIAGRAM
(REYES, 1988).
Subject Faculty Operation Product
Sense Sensation Sense image- Sense knowledge
Imaginati Imagination Phantasm-- Internal sense
on knowledge
Intellect Simple Concept - Intellectual knowledge
Apprehension
Speech Meaningful Oral-verbal expression
sound/
Oral-Verbal Term
Writing Written term Written expression
BALDEMECA (1984), ILLUSTRATES THE SAME IN A SIMILAR BUT
MORE DISTINCT WAY:
Knowing Powers Operation Product Language
expression
External Sensation Sense image

Animal sense

Internal Imagination Phantasm

Man
Simple
Rational intellect Apprehension Concept Term
SIMPLE APPREHENSION

THE MENTAL ACT DESCRIBED ABOVE USUALLY HAPPENS IN

US WHEN CONFRONTED WITH THINGS AROUND US. IF THE
THING IS YET UNKNOWN TO US, WE INSTINCTIVELY ASK “WHAT
IS IT:” ACCOMPANIED WITH CURIOSITY TO DISCOVER, THE MIND
IS URGED TO PENETRATE INTO THE ESSENCE OF THE OBJECT IN
ORDER TO COMPREHEND IT. HERE, KNOWLEDGE BEGINS WHEN
WE START GRASPING THE WHITENESS OF QUIDDITY OF THE
OBJECT. WHEN THE MIND GRASPED THE QUIDDITY, THE
MENTAL ACT IS CALLED “SIMPLE APPREHENSION” OR
INTELLECTION. THIS IS THE RATIONAL POWER OF THE
KNOWING PERSON, AS YOU NOTE IN THE DIAGRAM ABOVE.
LET US RECAPITULATE THE SALIENT POINTS FOR FURTHER AND
CLEARER UNDERSTANDING:

IDEA, CONCEPT, OR THOUGHT IS A MENTAL IMAGE OF AN OBJECT.

TERM IS A CONVENTIONAL SIGN ( A SYMBOL, WRITTEN OR SOUNDED
WORD) BY WHICH THE CONCEPT OR IDEA IS EXPRESSED AND
COMMUNICATED. WITHOUT WORDS, SENTENCES AND STATEMENTS
CANNOT BE CONSTRUCTED. WHEN EMPLOYED TO EXPRESS AN IDEA
OR GROUP OF IDEAS (CONCEPT), A WORD OR GROUP OF WORDS
(PHRASES) IS CALLED TERM. THEREFORE, A TERM IS THE ORAL OR
WRITTEN REPRESENTATION OF AN IDEA OR CONCEPT. A TERM IS ALSO
THE BASIC COMPONENT OF A STATEMENT. THE PROPOSITION “THE
FORMER PRESIDENT OF THE PHILIPPINES IS A WOMAN,” FOR
INSTANCE, CONTAINS TWO TERMS: “THE FORMER PRESIDENT OF THE
PHILIPPINES” AND “WOMAN.”
“WOMAN” IS AN EXAMPLE OF A WORD USED TO EXPRESS
AND IDEA. AS A TERM, IT IS CLASSIFIED AS A SINGLE TERM -
THAT IS, A SINGLE-WORD TERM. THE PHRASE “THE FORMER
PRESIDENT OF THE PHILIPPINES” IS A GROUP OF WORDS
USED TO EXPRESS AN IDEA OR CONCEPT. THIS EXEMPLIFIES
A COMPLEX TERM - A TERM WHICH IS A GROUP OF WORDS
REPRESENTING ONE CONCEPT.
WHILE TERMS ARE AUTOMATICALLY WORDS, WORDS ARE
NOT NECESSARILY TERMS. IN OUR EXAMPLE, “IS” IS A WORD
BUT NOT A TERM. MANY OTHER WORDS HAVE NO
REFERENTS, AND HENCE ARE WORDS BUT NOT TERMS, SUCH
AS “OR”, “ONLY”, FROM”, ‘THROUGH’, AND ‘BUT.’
WORD THEREFORE IS NOT SYNONYMOUS WITH TERM FOR
NOT ALL WORDS ARE TERMS. AND AS DISTINCT FROM
CONCEPT, WORD IS MADE UP OF LETTERS WHEREAS
CONCEPT IS MADE UP OF IDEAS.

SENSATION IS THE ACT OF OUR FIVE SENSES IN PERCEIVING

EXTERNAL OBJECTS. SENSE IMAGE IS THE PRODUCT OF THE
OPERATION OF THE SENSES STIMULATED BY THE PRESENCE
OF AN OBJECT. IMAGINATION IS A MENTAL ORGANIC
FACULTY WHICH REPRODUCES A PREVIOUSLY SENSED
IMAGE INTO A PHANTASM (BALDEMECA, 1984).
PHANTASM. A PRODUCT OF THE IMAGINATION,
IS A SENSIBLE AND CONCRETE IMAGE OF AN
OBJECT (BALDEMECA, 1984).

SIMPLE APPREHENSION. ALSO CALLED

INTELLECTION, SIMPLE APPREHENSION IS THE
MENTAL ACT OF INTERPRETING THE IMAGINED
PHANTASM, PUTTING A MEANING TO IT. ITS
PRODUCT IS CALLED CONCEPT OR IDEA.
INTENTION AND EXTENSION OF TERMS

OUR MIND HAS THE ABILITY AND FUNCTION TO

ABSTRACT THE COMMON QUALITIES OR FEATURES PRESENT
IN THINGS PERCEIVED BY OUR SENSES. IN OUR
OBSERVATION, FOR EXAMPLE, WE SEE SOME ANIMALS
EXHIBITING DISTINCT ATTRIBUTES COMMON TO ALL ALIKE.
WE CLUSTER THE MORE NOTICEABLE OF THESE
CHARACTERISTICS INTO A CONCEPT - FOR INSTANCE, THAT
OF A DOG. EVERY TIME WE ENCOUNTER AN ANIMAL
DISPLAYING SUCH QUALITIES, WE TERM IT A DOG.
THE SET OF ATTRIBUTES OR TRAITS THAT MEMBERS OF A TERM
POSSESS IS CALLED THE INTENSION OR COMPREHENSION OF A TERM.
DOG, FOR EXAMPLE, IS AN ANIMAL, A MAMMAL, A LIVING
ORGANISM, AND A SENTIENT BEING. THE INTENSION INCLUDES NOY
ONLY THE ESSENTIAL QUALITIES BUT ALSO THOSE DEDUCIBLE FROM
THEM. BEING AN ANIMAL, A DOG, FOR INSTANCE, CAN MULTIPLY.
BEING A LIVING ORGANISM, SOMEDAY IT WILL DIE.

THE EXTENSION OF A TERM, ON THE OTHER HAND, REFERS TO

THE TOTALITY OF INDIVIDUALS OR CLASSES TO WHICH THE
INTENSION IS APPLICABLE. DALMATIANS, CANINES, ASKAL, ETC.,
AND ANY LITERAL DOG, ARE EXTENSION OF THE SIMPLE TERM DOG.
MANY PHILOSOPHERS ARE NOW USING THE WORDS
CONNOTATION AND DENOTATION TO SIGNIFY
INTENSION AND EXTENSION, RESPECTIVELY.

THE INTENSION AND EXTENSION OF TERMS ARE

INVERSELY RELATED TO EACH OTHER. THE GREATER
THE INTENSION OF A TERM, THE LESSER IS ITS
EXTENSION, AND VICE VERSA. A YOUNG DOG FOR
INSTANCE, STANDS AS AN INTENSION OF THE TERM
PUPPY.
IF WE ADD DALMATIAN TO THE INTENSION (YOUNG
DALMATIAN DOG), THEN THE EXTENSION IS REDUCED,
FOR IT DOES NOT INVOLVE NON-DALMATIAN PUPPIES. IF
WE FURTHER INCREASE THE INTENSION BY ADDING
NEWLY BORN (NEWLY BORN YOUNG DALMATIAN DOG),
THE EXTENSION THEN DECREASES ALL THE MORE FOR IT
NOW EXCLUDES THOSE YOUNG DALMATIAN DOGS THAT
ARE NOT NEWLY BORN. REVERSELY, IF WE LESSEN THE
INTENSION, THE RESULT WOULD BE THE INCREASE IN THE
EXTENSION. THE INVERSE OF COMPREHENSION OR
INTENSION AND EXTENSION IS DIAGRAMMED BELOW
(AGAPAY, 1991).
 Comprehension or Intension Extension

Substance Spirits, minerals, plants, animals, men

Material substance Minerals, plants, animals, men

Living material substance Plants, animals, men

Sentient living material substance Animals, men

Rational sentient living material men

substance
SUCCINCTLY PUT BY AGAPAY (1991), “THE CLARITY AND PRECISENESS
OF A CONCEPT DEPENDS UPON THE SUM TOTAL OF NOTES INCLUDED
IN ITS COMPREHENSION. THE MORE NOTES A CONCEPT HAS, THE
CLEAR AND DEFINITIVE DOES IT BECOME AND, THEREFORE, TO FEWER
INFERIORS WILL IT APPLY.”

AVOIDING LINGUISTIC CONFUSION IS ONE OF THE PRACTICAL

LESSONS WE COULD LEARN FROM THE TOPIC. VAGUENESS OR
AMBIGUITY IN OUR SPEECHES OR WRITINGS CAN BE PREVENTED BY
CLARIFYING THE INTENSION OF THE TERMS WE USE, THAT IS, BY
SUPPLYING LIMITING ATTRIBUTES. FOR INSTANCE, INSTEAD OF JUST
SAYING, “MOVIES ARE FRIGHTENING,” IT WOULD BE ”BETTER TO SAY,
“HORROR MOVIES ARE FRIGHTENING.” BY PUTTING THAT
QUALIFICATION, THE STATEMENT BECOMES AGREEABLE.
KINDS OF TERMS

PRACTICALLY, A LOT OF IMPORTANT THINGS CAN BE LEARNED FROM

THIS TOPIC. FOR ONE THING, IT TEACHES PROPER USAGE OF MANY WORDS
AS IT CLARIFIES WHAT VARIOUS TERMS, ARTICLES, QUANTIFIERS, AND
MODIFIERS ACCURATELY MEAN OR INDICATE. FURTHERMORE, IT PROVIDES
CORRECT UNDERSTANDING OF MANY CONCEPTS AND WORDS IN VARIOUS
PARTS OF THE SPEECH. THE APPLICATION OF THIS MODULE THEREFORE
RESTS MAINLY ON WHAT IT SIGNIFICANTLY CONTRIBUTES TO PROPER USE OF
WORDS.

IN THE FOLLOWING VARIOUS CLASSIFICATIONS OF TERMS, A TERM MIGHT

RECEIVE A PLACE IN EACH OF THE CLASSES SINCE CATEGORIZATIONS ARE
BASED ON DIFFERENT ASPECTS; ACCORDING TO QUANTITY/EXTENSION,
QUALITY, ORIGIN, NATURE OF REFERENCES, DEFINITENESS OF MEANING,
AND RELATION.
A. ACCORDING TO QUANTITY/EXTENSION: SINGULAR,
PARTICULAR , UNIVERSAL, AND COLLECTIVE
1. SINGULAR TERM - REFERS TO ONE INDIVIDUAL OR THING. THE
INDICATORS OF SINGULARITY ARE:
a.PROPER NOUNS/PROPER NAMES, SUCH AS TOKYO, MICHAEL
JORDAN, TAJ MAHAL
b.SUPERLATIVES, SUCH AS THE BEST ACTOR, THE MOST CORRUPT
OFFICIAL, THE HIGHEST SCORER
c. DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES/PRONOUNS, SUCH AS THIS BOOK,
THIS ROOM, THAT BOY, THIS STUDENT
d.PERSONAL PRONOUNS: I, HE, SHE, HER, ETC., )AS LONFG AS
THEY DEFINITELY STAND FOR ONE SPECIFIC PERSON)
e. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE “THE” AND SPECIFIC MODIFIERS SUCH AS,
THE LADY IN RED, THE SENATE PRESIDENT
2. PARTICULAR TERM - TERM THAT STANDS FOR AN INDEFINITE PART
OF A WHOLE. IN LOGIC, A TERM IS CONSIDERED PARTICULAR IF IT
REPRESENTS “AT LEAST ONE” OF THE INDIVIDUALS COMPOSING A
CLASS. THE FOLLOWING INDICATES PARTICULARITY:
a.INDEFINITE PRONOUNS/ADJECTIVES (SOME, MANY, FEW, SEVERAL,
MOST. EX. SOME SINGERS, MANY QUESTIONS, FEW STUDENTS
b.INDEFINITE ARTICLES ‘A’ AND ‘AN’ USED IN PARTICULAR CONTEXT
• EX., A HELIPAD, AN AIRPLANE
a.NUMBER MODIFIERS, E.G., 7 DWARFS, 2 STUDENTS\
b.MODIFIERS SUCH AS MAJORITY, ALMOST ALL, GENERALLY ALL,
NEARLY ALL. EX. MAJORITY OF THE MEMBERS, ALMOST ALL
STUDENTS, NEARLY ALL TEACHERS
c. SUBJECT TERMS IN PROPOSITIONS THAT ARE TRUE TO ONLY SOME OF
THE DENOTATIONS OF THE TERM; EX., FILIPINOS ARE RESPECTFUL,
MEN HAVE SENSE OF CHIVALRY
3. GENERAL OR UNIVERSAL TERM - REFERS TO ALL OR VIRTUALLY ALL
INDIVIDUALS SIGNIFIED BY THE TERM. THE FOLLOWING INDICATES
UNIVERSALITY:
a.UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATIVE QUANTIFIERS SUCH AS ALL, EACH, EVERY,
ANY, EVERYTHING, EVERYONE, ANYTHING, ANYONE, WHATEVER,
WHICHEVER, WHENEVER, WHEREVER, WHOEVER. EX. ALL MEN,
EACH BLOGGER, ANY AMOUNT WHATEVER NEW, EC.
b.UNIVERSAL NEGATIVE MODIFIERS - SUCH AS NO, NONE, NO ONE,
NOTHING, NOBODY, NEVER. EX. NO MAN, NONE OF THE ABOVE,
NOTHING SMALL, NOBODY WISE
c. INDEFINITE ARTICLES ‘A’, ‘AN’ (WHEN TAKEN TO REFER TO ALL
DENOTATIONS OF THE TERM). EX, A MAN IS A RATIONAL BEING
4. COLLECTIVE TERM - REFERS TO A GROUP OF INDIVIDUALS
CONSIDERED AS A SINGLE UNIT. COLLECTIVE NOUNS SUCH AS
AUDIENCE, COMMITTEE, CROWD, FLOCK, GOVERNMENT, JURY,
GANG, ORCHESTRA ARE COLLECTIVE TERMS.
A COLLECTIVE TERM MAY BE UNIVERSAL, (E.G., SQUAD, ALL
SQUADS, EVERY SQUAD); PARTICULAR (E.G., SOME FAMILIES,
SEVERAL CROWDS); OR SINGULAR (E.G., THIS JURY).

COLLECTIVE TERM IS NOT APPLICABLE TO THE OBJECTS

TAKEN SINGLY AND INDIVIDUALLY, UNLESS USED
FIGURATIVELY. THE TERM FAMILY, AS AN EXAMPLE, IS
COLLECTIVE, SICNE IT IS PREDICTABLE OF THE FAMILY MEMBERS
TAKEN COLLECTIVELY, AND NOT INDIVIDUALLY.
B. ACCORDING TO QUALITY; AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE

1. AFFIRMATIVE TERM - OR POSITIVE - TERM THAT EXPRESSES

WHAT IS REAL, TRUE, OR ESSENTIAL OF A THING, E.G.,
EXISTENCE, LIFE, AND OPTIMISM. A TERM IS ALSO
AFFIRMATIVE WHEN IT AFFIRMS THE PRESENCE OF
DESIRABLE TRAITS, E.G., JUST, HONEST, AND ACTIVE. THERE
ARE TWO KINDS OF AFFIRMATIVE TERM: A) POSITIVE IN
FORM, POSITIVE IN MEANING (THE ABOVE-MENTIONED
EXAMPLES FALL UNDER THIS KIND); AND B)NEGATIVE IN
FORM, POITIVE IN MEANING, E.G., BLAMELESS, SPOTLESS,
UNBLEMISHED, UNTARNISHED, INFINITE, IMMORTAL,
GUILTINESS.
2. NEGATIVE TERM - TERM THAT INDICATES TE
NON-APPEARANCE OF SOME TRAIT, E.G., UNJUST,
SICKLY, INACTIVE, DEATH, AND IMMORTALITY.
THERE ARE TWO KINDS OF NEGATIVE TERM:
A) NEGATIVE IN FORM, NEGATIVE IN MEANING,
E.G., UNJUST, INACTIVE, IMMORAL, IMPOTENT;
AND B) POSITIVE IN FORM, NEGATIVE IN
MEANING, E.G., MISTAKE, DEATH, EVIL,
OPPRESSION, AND CHAOS.
C. ACCORDING TO ORIGIN: IMMEDIATE AND
MEDIATE

1.IMMEDIATE TERMS ARE FORMED THROUGH

DIRECT PERCEPTION OF THINGS, E.G.: BAG,
PENCIL, BALL PEN PAPER, CELL PHONE.
2.MEDIATE TERMS ARE FORMED INDIRECTLY,
THAT IS, THROUGH THE MEDIATION OF OTHER
IDEAS. EX., GOD, SOUL, SPIRIT, UNIVERSE
D. ACCORDING TO THE NATURE OF REFERENTS:
CONCRETE, ABSTRACT, LOGICAL, AND NULL

1. A TERM IS CONCRETE IF ITS REFERENT IS TANGIBLE

OR CAN BE PERCEIVED BY THE SENSES, LIKE TREE,
CHALK, SPOON, BELT, PANTS, AND ARMS.
CONCRETE TERM ALSO REFERS TO THAT WHICH
INDICATES A QUALITY OR CHARACTERISTIC AS
INHERENT IN A SUBJECT, LIKE BLACK, BIG AND
TALL.
2. A TERM IS ABSTRACT IF ITS REFERENT IS INTANGIBLE OR CAN BE
UNDERSTOOD ONLY BY THE MIND AND CANNOT BE PERCEIVED BY
THE SENSES, E.G., FREEDOM, DEMOCRACY, FAITH, LOVE, PATRIOTISM,
COMPASSION, AND SACRIFICE. ABSTRACT TERM ALSO REFERS TO THE
QUALITY OR CHARACTERISTIC CONSIDERED INDEPENDENTLY FROM
THE SUBJECT IN WHICH IT INHERES, E.G., BLACKNESS, REDNESS,
KINDNESS.
3. A TERM IS LOGICAL IF IT IS FORMULATED TO SERVE AS LINGUISTIC
DEVICE TO AID LEARNING, E.G., COPULA, ADVERB, PREDICATE,
VELOCITY, MOMENTUM, PHYLUM, JURISPRUDENCE.
4. A TERM IS NULL OR EMPTY IF IT HAS NO ACTUAL OR REAL
REFERENTS BUT IS IS ONLY IMAGINARY, E.G., UNIFORM, FAIRY, ELF,
DRAGON, BATMAN, SPIDERMAN, SUPERMAN, X-MEN.
E. ACCORDING TO DEFINITENESS OF MEANING: UNIVOCAL,
EQUIVOCAL, AND ANALOGOUS

1. A TERM IS UNIVOCAL IF IT EXHIBITS EXACTLY IDENTICAL SENSE

AND MEANING IN DIFFERENT INCIDENTS. FOR EXAMPLE, WE
SAY “CANINES ARE DOGS” AND “DALMATIANS ARE DOGS.” THE
TERM “DOGS” IS UNIVOCAL, UNLESS WE GIVE A DIFFERENT
MEANING IN ANY OF THE TERM DOGS IN THE STATEMENTS.

OTHER EXAMPLES: PETER IS A MAN. - PAUL IS A MAN; TEACHER’S

TABLE - DINING TABLE; LEAVES OF COCONUT - LEAVES OF
MAHOGANY
2. A TERM IS EQUIVOCAL WHEN IT INDICATES ENTIRELY DIFFERENT
MEANINGS IN DIFFERENT OCCURRENCES. IN THE STATEMENTS, “STARS
ARE HEAVENLY BODIES” AND “NICOLAS CAGE AND BRAD PITT ARE
STARS,” THE TERM ‘STARS’ IS EQUIVOCAL FOR THE MEANING OF THE
TERM ‘STARS’ IN THE FIRST STATEMENT IS DIFFERENT FROM THAT OF
THE SECOND. AN EQUIVOCAL TERM THUS IS NOT ONE BUT TWO TERMS
WITH DIFFERENT MEANINGS.

OTHER EXAMPLES: PITCHER (PLAYER) - PITCHER (WATER

CONTAINER)
BASE (CAMP) - BASE (LOWER PART)
SPRING OF WATER - SPRING OF A MACHINE
BARK OF A TREE - BARK OF A DOG
3. A TERM IS ANALOGOUS WHEN IT SHOWS PARTLY
IDENTICAL AND PARTLY DISTINCT MEANINGS IN
DIFFERENT MEANINGS. IN THE PHRASES “HEAD OF A
MAN” AND “HEAD OF A FAMILY”, THE TERMS ‘HEAD’
IN SOME SENSE ARE SIMILAR BUT NONETHELESS
DIFFERENT IN SOME ASPECTS.

OTHER EXAMPLES: HEALTHY MAN - HEALTHY DIET

LEG OF A MAN - LEG OF A CHAIR
FOOT OF A MAN - FOOT OF A MOUNTAIN
F. ACCORDING TO RELATION: COMPATIBLE, AND
INCOMPATIBLE (CONTRADICTORY, CONTRARY, RELATIVE,
AND PRIVATIVE)

1. COMPATIBLE TERMS - ARE TERMS THAT CAN CO-EXIST IN

A SUBJECT, THAT IS, THERE IS NO LOGICAL OBSTACLE
FOR THEM TO BE PRESENT IN A SUBJECT AT THE SAME
TIME.

EXAMPLES: TALL AND HANDSOME, DARK AND RICH,

SLOWLY BUT SURELY, SIMPLE AND ELEGANT, SWEET AND
SOUR
2. INCOMPATIBLE TERMS - ARE TERMS THAT CANNOT CO-
EXIST IN A SUBJECT FOR THEY RULE OUT EACH OTHER. THE
FOLLOWING ARE KINDS OF INCOMPATIBLE TERMS:
a.CONTRADICTORY TERMS ARE TWO TERMS, ONE OF
WHICH NEGATES THE OTHER. CONTRADICTORIES ARE SO
MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE THAT THERE IS NO MIDDLE
GROUND OR THIRD POSSIBILITY BETWEEN THEM.

EXAMPLES: EDIBLE - NO-EDIBLE

EXISTENT - NON-EXISTENT
LIFE - LIFELESS
B. CONTRARY TERMS - ARE TERMS THAT BELONG TO THE
SAME CLASS BUT DENY EACH OTHER. BETWEEN THESE
TERMS, THERE IS/ARE MIDDLE GROUND/S. WHEN ONE
SAID THAT HER BOYFRIEND IS BLACK, IT IS NOT SAFE TO
CONCLUDE THAT HE MUST BE WHITE, FOR HE MAY BE
BROWN OR YELLOW. ‘WHITE AND BLACK’ THEREFORE
ARE CONTRARY (NOT CONTRADICTORY TERMS).
OTHER EXAMPLES ARE: ELATED - DEPRESSED
HARD - EASY
HOT - COLD
HAPPY - SAD
LONG - SHORT
c. PRIVATIVE TERMS - ARE TERMS WHEREIN ONE INDICATES THE
PRESENCE OF A QUALITY OR PERFECTION WHILE THE OTHER SIGNIFIES
THE ABSENCE OR LACK OF IT.
EXAMPLES ARE: GOOD - EVIL, TRUTH - FALSITY, HEALTH - SICKNESS
WEALTH - POVERTY, SIGHT - BLINDNESS

d. CORRELATIVE TERMS - ARE TOO OPPOSING TERMS WHEREIN ONE

CANNOT BE UNDERSTOOD WITHOUT THE OTHER. IN THEIR MEANING,
THEY IMPLY REFERENCE TO ONE ANOTHER.
EXAMPLES ARE: HUSBAND - WIFE, INTERVIEWER - INTERVIEWEE
PARENT - CHILD, MASTER - SERVANT,
TEACHER - STUDENT, LEADER - FOLLOWER
THE SUPPOSITION OF TERM

IN THE STATEMENT, “BELLA IS A DOG;” “DOG IS SPELLED D - O - G,”

“DOG HAS THREE LETTERS;” AND “A DOG SLEEPS UNDER THE TABLE,” THE
COMMON DENOMINATION IS THE TERM ‘DOG.’ YET, IT HA DIFFERENT
MEANINGS BECAUSE IT IS USED IN DIFFERENT WAYS IN THE
PROPOSITIONS.

THE VARIOUS FUNCTIONS OF A TERM IN THE PROPOSITION REFER TO

WHAT IS CALLED SUPPOSITION OF TERM. MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHERS
DEVELOPED SUPPOSITION THEORY IN THE LATE 20TH CENTURY TO
IDENTIFY THE SPECIFIC USAGE AND MEANING OF A TERM IN VARIOUS
PROPOSITIONAL CONTEXTS. LATIN LOGICIANS CALLED THE DIFFERENT
USES OF THE TERM ITS SUPPOSITIONS (FROM SUPPONERE, ‘TO STAND
FOR’).
A.COLLECTIVE AND DISTRIBUTIVE SUPPOSITION
THE PEOPLE ASSEMBLED THEMSELVES TOGETHER IN THE CHAPEL.
THE PEOPLE MARCHED TOWARDS THE PALACE.

BOTH OF THESE STATEMENTS HAVE THE COLLECTIVE TERM ‘PEOPLE’ AS

THEIR SUBJECT. THE TERMS ‘PEOPLE’ HOWEVER DIFFER IN SUPPOSITION.

IN A SENTENCE WITH PLURAL OR COLLECTIVE SUBJECT (E.G., PEOPLE),

WHEN THE PREDICATE APPLIES TO THE MEMBERS OF THE SUBJECT, TAKEN
SEPARATELY, THE SUBJECT TERM IS SAID TO HAVE DISTRIBUTIVE
SUPPOSITION (SUPPOSITIO DISTRIBUTIVA). SUCH IS THE CASE WITH THE
FIRST STATEMENT. WHEN THE PREDICATE APPLIES TO MEMBERS OF THE
SUBJECT TAKEN AS A GROUP, AS IN THE SECOND STATEMENT, THE
SUPPOSITION IS COLLECTIVE ( SUPPOSITIO COLLECTIVA).
B. REAL AND LOGICAL SUPPOSITION

WHEN THE TERM IS USED TO REFER TO THE OBJECT AS IT IS IN THE

REAL ORDER, THE SUPPOSITION IS REAL (SUPPOSITIO REALIS). WHEN
USED TO DENOTE THE OBJECT AS IT IS IN THE CONCEPTUAL ORDER,
THE TERM HAS LOGICAL OR FORMAL SUPPOSITION (SUPPOSITION
LOGICA).

THUS, THE TERM “THE PRESIDENT OF THE PHILIPPINES” IN THE

STATEMENT “THE PRESIDENT OF THE PHILIPPINES IS AT MALACANAÑG”
HAS REAL SUPPOSITION. WHEREAS IN “THE PRESIDENT OF THE
PHILIPPINES IS THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE,” THE TERM HAS
LOGICAL SUPPOSITION.
C. PERSONAL AND MATERIAL SUPPOSITION

A TERM HAS PERSONAL SUPPOSITION WHEN IT IS

EMPLOYED TO TALK ABOUT THE OBJECT OR PERSON IT
REPRESENTS, LIKE THE TERM ‘DOG’ IN “RUFINA IS
FEEDING THE DOG.” WHEN A WORD IS TAKEN TO
SIGNIFY SIMPLY ITS INSCRIPTION OR UTTERANCE, IT IS
IN ITS MATERIAL SUPPOSITION (SUPPOSITIO
MATERALIS) AS IN, “DOG HAS THREE LETTERS.”