Kantipur Engineering College: Department of Civil Engineering

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Kantipur Engineering College

(Affiliated to Tribhuvan University)


Department of Civil Engineering
Dhapakhel, Lalitpur, Nepal

Lab Manual On

HYDRAULICS
(BCE II/II)

Prepared By:
Er. Pratichhya Pradhan
Er. Kirti Dhungana

Jan, 2021
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Head Loss in Pipe
2. Determination of Manning’s Coefficient for Different Surfaces.
3. Flow Through Open Sluice Gate
4. Hump and Constricted Flow Analysis
5. Hydraulic Jump Analysis
HEAD LOSS IN A PIPE

Objective:

To study the loss due to friction in pipes i.e. major losses and minor losses (loss due to bend,
contraction, expansion etc) and to compare the values existing data.

Apparatus:
1) Pipe Network
2) stop watch
3) Jug of known volume

Theory:
There is always in head in pipes when water flows through it. Head losses are mainly categorized in
two classes: namely major head losses (leading due to friction of pipe) and minor head losses (head
loss due to sudden contraction and expansion, due to fittings and valves, due to bends etc). Major
loss in a pipe is calculated by using Darcy- Weisbach equation and is given by:
fLV 2
hf=
2 gD
Where, f= Darcy- Weisbach friction factor
L= length of pipe
V= average flow velocity in pipe
D = diameter of pipe

Reynolds number, Re = ρvd/µ Where,


ρ = density of water at given temperature
V = velocity of water
D= diameter of pipe
µ = dynamic viscosity
Variation of Reynolds number with friction factor for a given pipe can be studied using Moody’s
chart.

Minor losses
V2
1. Head loss due to sudden contraction hc =0.5
2g
2
2.
( V −V 2 )
Head loss due to sudden enlargement he = 1
2g
2
V
3. Head loss due to bend hb = k where k=bend coefficient = 1.2 for 90° bend
2g
4. Total head loss= sum of major and minor head losses
Figure 1.2 Physical Properties of water (SI units)
Observation
Temperature of water =
Density of water, ρ =
Dynamic viscosity of water, µ=

Observation table 1: For major head loss


SN No of portions of pipe Time to Pipe Diameter
fill 2 litre 0.5” 1”
vessel, sec hf = h2-h1 (m) hf = h2 – h1 (m)
1 1st portion L1= 2m
2nd portion L2= 57cm
3rd portion L3= 84cm
2 1st portion L1= 2m
2nd portion L2= 57cm
3rd portion L3= 84cm
3 1st portion L1= 2m
2nd portion L2= 57cm
3rd portion L3= 84cm

Observation table: For minor head losses


Loss due to sudden expansion:
Diamter before expansion = 0.5 inch
Diameter after expansion = 1 inch

S Head before expansion, m (h1) Head after expansion, m (h2)


N
1
2
3

Loss due to sudden contraction:


Diameter after contraction = 0.5 inch

S Head before contraction, m (h1) Head after contraction, m (h2)


N
1
2
3

Loss due to bend:


Diameter of pipe that bends = 0.5 inch
Bend angle = 90 degrees

S Head before bend, m (h1) Head after bend, m (h2)


N
1
2
3

Calculation:
1. Discharge in cumecs
2. Velocity in m/s
3. Viscosity of water at given temperature
4. Reynolds number, Re
5. Friction factor, f
6. Show the figure of the apparatus and simple description

Presentation:
1. Show a sample calculation
2. Present the result in tabular form

Loss due to friction


1. Plot Discharge through the pipe Q, versus head loss hf
2. Plot friction factor versus Reynolds number, Re in the supplied Moody’s chart

Friction
No of Discharge V Reynolds Head loss, m Friction
observation (m3/s) (m/s) number, fLV2 factor, f
Re = ρvd/µ hf=
2 gD

1
2
3

Loss due to sudden expansion:

S Q, cumecs V1 V2 2 he
he
( V −V 2 )
= 1
N
2g

1
2
3

Loss due to sudden contraction:

SN Discharge V V2 hc
(m3/s) hc =0.5
2g
1
2
3

Loss due to bend:

SN Discharge V V2 hb
(m3/s) hb =k
2g
(k= 1.2 for 90ᵒ bend)
1
2
3
Comments:
Comment on the result and the variation of Re with f for friction loss.
Discuss significance of minor losses in line designs.

2 DETERMINATION OF MANNING’S COEFFICIENT

Objective:
To determine the Manning’s coefficient of the flume or bed of the channel with the flow of water.

Scope:
Manning’s coefficient helps us to determine the roughness of a channel which influence the flow in
open channel.

Apparatus:
1. Long length flume
2. stop watch
3. Jug of known volume

Theory:
The formula proposed by Robert Manning, an Irish engineer , for the uniform flow in open channel
is
1 2/3
Q= R A Sb1/2
n
Where,
n= a roughness coefficient known a Manning’s n
R= hydraulic radius
Sb = bed slope
A = water area
Q= discharge
Here
1 2/3
n= R A Sb1/2
Q

Procedure:
1) Start the pump and allow water to flow through the flume
2) Operate the flow control valve to give a certain depth in the flume and allow the condition to
settle.
3) After the condition is settled, find the flow rate by timing a known volume (m 3) passing
through the flow meter at the bottom.
4) Note down the depth at start, middle and end of the flume.
5) Repeat the procedure by decreasing or increasing depth of flow with the help of flow control
valve.
6) Measure the horizontal distance from start and end of the flume. Also measure the vertical
height from floor to flume bed at start and end.

Observation:
Width of the channel (b) =
Horizontal distance (x) =
Vertical distance at start (z1)=
Vertical distance at end (z2)=

No of obs Depth of flow Volume Time (s)


Y1 Y2 Y3 (m3)
1
2

Calculation:
No Area (A) Hydraulic Discharg 1 2/3 n
of radius (R) e (Q) n= R A
Q mean
obs Sb1/2

Y1 Y2 Y3 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y Y Y3
1 2
1
2

1. Area (A) = by
2. Perimeter (P) = B + 2y
3. Hydraulic radius (R) = A/P
4. Discharge= volume/time
z1 −z2
5. Sb =
x
1
6. n= R2/3A Sb1/2
Q
n 1+ n 2+ n 3
7. nmean=
3

Comment:
3. FLOW THROUGH OPEN SLUICE GATE
Objective:
To investigate operating characteristics of a sluice gate in open channels

Scope:
To study of the characteristics of sluice gate this provides information essential for their hydraulic
designs.

Apparatus:
1) Open channel flume
2) Stop watch
3) Jug of known volume

Theory :
A sluice gate is traditionally a wood or metal barrier sliding in grooves that are set in the sides of the
waterway. Sluice gates commonly control water levels and flow rates in rivers and  canals. They are
also used in wastewater treatment plants and to recover minerals in mining operations, and in
watermills.
"Sluice gate" refers to a movable gate allowing water to flow under it. When a sluice is lowered,
water may spill over the top, in which case the gate operates as a weir. Usually, a mechanism drives
the sluice up or down. This may be a simple, hand-operated, chain pulled/lowered, worm drive
or rack-and-pinion drive, or it may be electrically or hydraulically powered.
Flow through a rectangular orifice is

Qth = A√ 2 gH
Where,
Qth= theoretical discharge
A= Area of gate opening
H= head

Qa
Again , Cd=
Qth
Where ,
Cd= coefficient of discharge
volume
Qa = actual discharge=
time
Hence, Qa = Cd x Qth

Procedure
1) Start the pump and allow water to flow through the flume
2) Set the gate opening
3) Operate the flow control valve to give a head (upstream) in the tank and allow the condition
to settle.
4) After the condition is settled, find the flow rate by timing a known volume (m 3) passing
through the flow meter at the bottom.
5) Note down the inlet head
6) Repeat the procedure at the heads in the tank of different measurement for the sluice gate
opening.
7) Now increase the gate opening at while and repeat the same procedure. Measure discharge at
each step.

Observation
Width of the flume = ………..

No of Gate Head(mm) Volume (m3) Time (sec)


obs Opening(mm
)

Calculation
No of Gate opening Head(mm) Theoretical Actual Coefficient
obs (mm) discharge discharge of discharge
(m3/s) (m3/s) (Cd )
1

1) Area = A= width x gate opening; Theoretical discharge (Q th) = A√ 2 gH


volume
2) Actual discharge (Qa)=
time
Qa
3) Coefficient of discharge= Cd=
Q th
4) Plot the graph of actual discharge ( Qa ) vs. head (H) for each gate opening

Comment:
Comment on value of Cd. Explain uses of sluice gate in actual practices in irrigation system
HUMP AND CONSTRICTED FLOW ANALYSIS

Objective:
To analyze the flow characteristics through the hump in open channel and to determine the specific
energy diagram

Scope :
Flow over a hump in an open channel is a problem that can be successfully modeled in order to make
predictions about the behavior of the fluid. This experiment involves making appropriate
measurements for such a system, and relating flow to critical depth. It is also used to analyze the
effect of water velocity in downstream due to supercritical flow and also the upstream profile of
water.

Apparatus:
1) Open channel flume
2) Installed hump
3) Stop watch
4) Jug of known volume

Theory:
Flow in a channel is modeled in terms of a parameter called the specific energy head (or just specific
energy) of the flow, E. The specific energy head is defined as
Q2
E= y+ …………………………………………………. (1)
2 gy 2 b2

Where, y is the depth of the flow


Q is the volume flow rate
G is the acceleration of gravity
B is the channel width.
The dimension of the specific energy head is [L] (ft or m).
Figure 1 is a sketch of flow over a hump, with flow from left to right. Shown is the channel bed and
the hump. Upstream of the hump, the flow is critical; downstream the flow is supercritical. Just at the
highest point of the hump, the low is critical. Also shown in the figure the total energy line, which
we assume is parallel to the flow channel bed, i.e. the total energy remains constant in the flow.
Upstream of the hump, the total specific energy head of the flow is denoted by E1, and the liquid
height is y1, as shown graphically in figure 1. At any location z on the hump before z c, the energy
head is E, and the depth is y. A this same height z, downstream of z c, the liquid depth is h’ , but the
energy head is still E. At the highest point of the hump z c, the energy head Ec and the liquid depth is
hc. The total specific energy head and the liquid depth anywhere are related according to equation 1.
As water flows over the hump, the initial specific energy head E1 is reduced to a value E by an
amount equal to the height of the hump. So at any location along the hump, the specific energy head
is E1 -z, where z is the elevation above the channel bed. At the point where the flow is critical, the
1
Q2 2 Ec
depth hc is given by zc =
( )
b2 g
3
=
3

Analysis of flow for hump


y1 = flow depth at section 1, y 2 = flow depth at section 2, y c = flow depth at section for critical
condition.
First compute Zc by computing E1 and E2 which is equal to Ec at section 2. So, ∆ Z c =E1−E C

Case I: Z Zc


Flow profile:
 y1 = constant for both subcritical and supercritical flow
 y2 reduces for subcritical flow and increases for supercritical flow until y 2 is equal to yc.

Case II: Z= Zc


Flow profile:
 y1 = constant for both subcritical and supercritical flow
 y2 = yc for both subcritical and supercritical flow

Case III: Z > Zc


In this case, (E1-Z=E2)<Ec which is physically not possible. The flow cannot take place with the
available specific energy (choking condition). The flow will be critical at section 2 (E 2= Ec, y2=yc) and
the upstream depth will be changed.

Flow profile:
 y2 remains constant at yc for both subcritical and supercritical flow.
 y1 increases for subcritical flow and decreases for supercritical flow.

Observation
Width of the channel=………………..

1st observation

Volume = 2 lit and time t= ……………………….

Station 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Depth of the flow
Height of hump
above channel bed
Distance from
hump

2nd observation

Volume = 2 lit and time t= ……………………….

Station 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Depth of the flow
Height of hump
above channel bed
Distance from
hump
Calculation
Station 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Velocity (v) for 1st
observation
Specific energy
head for 1st
observation (E)
Froude number
(Fr)
Velocity (v) for
2nd observation
Specific energy
head for 2nd
observation (E)
Froude number
(Fr)

1) Discharge Q= volume /time


2) Velocity= discharge/ (breadth x depth of flow) = Q/By
Q2
3) Specific energy= E= y+
2 gy 2 b2
4) Hydraulic depth = D= Area/ Top width; As for rectangular cross-section , area= By and top
width =B hence D= y
v
5) Calculate Froude number for each depth as Fr=
√ gD
6) Draw flow profile as shown in figure above.
7) Plot the specific energy graph for both observations.
8) Determine which of the flow profile case prevails for the two observations.

Discussion and conclusion

Precautions
5. HYDRAULIC JUMP ANALYSIS

Objective:
To compare the experimental value of depth before a hydraulic jump to that calculated from theory
and calculated energy loss in hydraulic jump.

Scope:
The formation of the hydraulic jump is associated with a sudden rise in the water depth large scale
turbulence and dissipation of energy. It is employed at the foot of spillways and other hydraulic
structure to dissipate energy for the protection of bed against scour. This experiment helps to
understand the feature of hydraulic jump.

Apparatus:
1) Open channel flume
2) Stop watch
3) Jug of known volume

Theory:
When liquid at high velocity discharges into a zone of lower velocity, a rather abrupt rise occurs in
the liquid surface. The rapidly flowing liquid is abruptly slowed and increases in height, converting
some of the flow's initial kinetic energy into an increase in potential energy, with some energy
irreversibly lost through turbulence to heat. In an open channel flow, this manifests as the fast flow
rapidly slowing and piling up on top of itself similar to how a shockwave forms.
The phenomenon is dependent upon the initial fluid speed. If the initial speed of the fluid is below
the critical speed, then no jump is possible. For initial flow speeds which are not significantly above
the critical speed, the transition appears as an undulating wave. As the initial flow speed increases
further, the transition becomes more abrupt, until at high enough speeds, the transition front will
break and curl back upon itself. When this happens, the jump can be accompanied by violent
turbulence, eddying, air entrainment, and surface undulations, or waves.

The hydraulic jump equation for the rectangular horizontal channel is

2q 2
y1y2 (y1+y2) = ……………………..(i)
g
Where
Y1= depth before jump
Y2= depth after jump
q= Discharge per unit width
g= acceleration due to gravity

Now, Energy loss equation in hydraulic jump is

v 21 v2
(
∆ E=E1-E2= y 1 +
2g )( )
- y 2 + 2 ……………… (ii)
2g

Solving equation (i) and (ii) we get


3
( y −y )
∆ E= 2 1
4 y1 y 2

This equation is used in calculating energy loss during the hydraulic jump.

Specific force

Q2
F= + Ź A
gA

where A1 and A2 are cross-sectional area, and Ź1 and Ź2 are the distances of centroids of the areas
below the surface of flow.

The first term is the momentum flux per unit weight and the second term is the force per unit weight
of the liquid. The sum of these two terms is known as specific force. The equation shows that the
specific force is a function of depth.

Specific force curve


y

Subcritical

y2 yc
Supercritical
y1
F
Fmin
Specific force curve

Procedure
1) Start the pump.
2) Adjust the flow rate to give head above the weir.
3) Raise the adjustable flume to perform a hydraulic jump.
4) Note the depth before and after the jump.
5) Measure the flow rate and head.
6) Repeat for a different head above the sluice gate and repeat the above steps.

Observation
Channel width = ……………….

No of Head in mm Depth y1 Depth y2 Volume Time (sec)


obs (mm) (mm) (V) m3
1
2
Calculation
No Discharge per Theoretical Experimental y1 (m) From y1 (m) From
of unit width (q) ∆E ∆E theoretical practical
obs
1
2

volume
1. Discharge =
time
Q
2. Discharge per unit width = q =
B
3
3.
( y − y1 )
Actual energy loss = ∆ E= 2
4 y1 y 2
v 21
4. Specific energy in section 1 = E1 = y 1 +
( 2g )
v 22
5. Specific energy in section 2 = E2 = y 2 +
(2g )
6. Theoretical Energy loss= ∆ E = E1 - E2
7. To check for y1
2q 2
Put value of y2 in, y1y2 (y1+y2) = to find y1
g
8. Plot specific forces diagram for the discharges taken.

Discussion and conclusion

Precaution

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