Performance

Decision Speed (V1) The maximum speed at which the pilot

can abort the take-off within the accelerate-stop distance
or continue the take-off, following a failure of the critical
engine at VEF, and achieve the required height above the
take-off surface within the take-off distance.
Definitions
Dry Runway Neither wet nor contaminated; and paved
Absolute Ceiling Altitude at which the rate of climb (all
runways prepared with grooves or porous pavement to
engines operating) is reduced to zero feet per minute
retain ‘effectively dry’ braking action.
Accelerate-stop Distance Available (ASDA) Distance from
En Route The en route phase extends from 1500ft above
the point at which the aeroplane can commence its take-off
the take-off surface level to 1000ft above the landing
run to the point where the aeroplane cannot roll over the
surface level for Class B aeroplanes or to 1500ft above the
surface and be brought to rest in an emergency - TORA +
landing surface level for Class A aeroplanes.
stopway
Engine Failure Speed (VEF) The calibrated airspeed at which
Aerodrome Elevation Elevation of the highest point of the
the critical engine is assumed to fail (used for performance
landing area.
calculations). It is never less than VMCG.
Aerodrome Reference Point (ARP) Geographical location of
Ground Minimum Control Speed (V MCA) The minimum
the aerodrome and the center of its traffic zone where an
speed at which the aeroplane can be controlled on the
ATZ is established.
ground using only the primary flight controls with the most
Aerodynamic Ceiling Altitude, in level flight, where the critical engine inoperative and the remaining engines are at
Mach number for the low speed and high-speed buffet are take-off thrust.
coincident – coffin corner.
Landing Distance Available (LDA) Distance from the point
Air Minimum Control Speed (VMCA) Minimum speed at where the aeroplane can commence its landing to the
which directional control can be demonstrated when nearest point at which the surface is incapable of bearing
airborne with the critical engine inoperative and the the weight of the aeroplane under normal operating
remaining engines at take-off thrust. Max. 5o of bank away conditions.
from the inoperative engine; may not exceed 1.2VSI or
Landing Minimum Control Speed (V MCL) The minimum
1.13VSR.
speed (one engine inoperative) where it is possible to
Balanced Field A runway for which the Accelerate-stop decrease thrust to idle or increase to maximum take-off
Distance Available is equal to the Takeoff Distance without encountering dangerous flight characteristics.
Available.
Maneuver Ceiling The pressure altitude that provides a 0.3
Baulked Landing A landing maneuver that is unexpectedly g margin to both the high-speed buffet and the low speed
discontinued. buffet.
Clearway An area beyond the runway, not less than 152 m Maximum Brake Energy Speed (V MBE) The maximum speed
(500 ft) wide, centrally located about the centerline of the on the ground from which an aeroplane can safely stop
runway, extending from the end of the runway with an within the energy capabilities of the brakes.
upward slope not exceeding 1·25%, above which no
Minimum Control Speed (VMC) The minimum speed at
obstacle protrudes.
which the aeroplane is directionally controllable with the
Contaminated Runway More than 25% of the runway critical engine inoperative and the remaining engines at
surface area is covered by surface water, more than 3mm take-off thrust.
deep.
Minimum Unstick Speed (VMU) The minimum speed for
Continuous One Engine Inoperative Power/Thrust The
each combination of weight, thrust, and configuration at
power/thrust identified in the performance data for use
which a safe take-off has been demonstrated.
after take-off when an engine has failed or been shut down.
Reference Landing Speed (VREF) The speed of the aeroplane,
Critical Engine The engine whose failure would most
in a specified landing configuration, at the point where it
adversely affect the performance or handling qualities of an
descends through the landing screen height in the
aircraft.
determination of the landing distance for manual landings.
 Performance
Rejected Take-off (RTO) A situation or event in which it is EU-OPS Performance Classification
decided, for safety reasons, to abandon the take-off of an Performance Class A Multi-engine aeroplanes powered by
aircraft. turbo-propeller engines with a maximum passenger seating
Rotation Speed (VR) The speed at which, during the take- of more than 9 or a maximum take-off mass exceeding 5700
off, rotation is initiated with the intention of becoming kg, and all multi-engine turbojet powered aeroplanes.
airborne.
Performance Class B Propeller driven aeroplanes with a
Screen An imaginary barrier, located at the end of the Take- maximum passenger seating of 9 or less, and a maximum
off Distance Available (TODA) or the beginning of the take-off mass of 5700 kg or less.
Landing Distance Available (LDA).
Performance Class C Aeroplanes powered by reciprocating
Service Ceiling The pressure altitude at which the rate of engines with a maximum passenger seating of more than 9
climb is reduced to a specified minimum value or a maximum take-off mass exceeding 5700 kg.
(approximately 300 ft/min).
Unclassified This class is given to those aeroplanes whose
Specific Fuel Consumption Fuel flow per unit thrust. The
performance characteristic is unique and special
lower the value, the more efficient the engine.
performance consideration is required. For example, the
Stopway Area designated by the airport authorities beyond Unclassified class includes supersonic aeroplanes and sea
the take-off runway, no less wide than the runway and planes.
centered upon the centerline, able to support the
Performance Expressions
aeroplane during an aborted take-off, without causing
Measured Performance Performance achieved by the
structural damage to the aeroplane.
manufacturer under test conditions for certification. It
Take-off Distance Available (TODA) TORA plus clearway utilizes new aeroplanes and test pilots and is therefore
and cannot be more than 1.5x TORA, whichever is the less. unrepresentative of the performance that will be achieved
by an average fleet of aeroplanes.
Take-off Power/Thrust The output shaft power/thrust
identified in the performance data for use during takeoff, Gross Performance Average performance that a fleet of
discontinued approach and baulked landing. aeroplanes should achieve if satisfactorily maintained and
 for piston engines, no more than 5 minutes of continuous flown in accordance with the techniques described in the
use; manual. Equivalent to measured performance reduced by a
 for turbine engines, no more than 10 minutes of set margin to reflect average operating performance.
continuous use with OEI.
Net Performance Gross performance diminished to allow
Take-off Run Available (TORA) Distance from the point on for various contingencies that cannot be accounted for
the surface at which the aeroplane can commence its take- operationally (piloting technique, temporary below average
off run to the nearest point at which the surface is performance, etc.).
incapable of bearing the weight of the aeroplane under This level of performance is approximately 5 standard
normal operating conditions. deviations from gross performance. Therefore, 99.99994%
of the time, the aeroplane will achieve net performance or
Take-off Safety Speed (V2) A referenced airspeed obtained
better.
after lift-off at which the required one engine-inoperative
climb performance can be achieved.
Taxiway A defined path on a land aerodrome established
for the taxiing of aircraft and intended to provide a link
between one part of the aerodrome and another.
Wet Runway Surface is covered with water, or equivalent Take-off Distance from the brake release point (BRP) to the
moisture on the runway surface to cause it to appear point at which the aircraft reaches a defined height (screen
reflective, but without significant areas of standing water. height) and varies from 35 ft for Class A aeroplanes to 50 ft
for Class B aeroplanes.
Windshear Change in wind speed and/or direction over a
short distance, resulting in a tearing or shearing effect that Available Distances
can cause a sudden change of airspeed with occasionally Clearway Area beyond the runway, not less than 152 m
disastrous results if encountered when taking off or landing. (500 ft) wide, centrally located about the extended
 Performance
centerline of the runway, and under the control of the Take-off Speed When calculating the take-off run required,
airport authorities. It extends from the end of the runway account must be taken of the effect of density on TAS and
with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25%, above which no of the effect of wind on GS.
object or terrain protrudes. The speed to be reached at the screen (Take-off Safety
Threshold lights may protrude above the plane if their Speed – V2) is determined by the Regulations, and is
height above the end of the runway is 0.66 m (26 inches) or required to be a safe margin above the stall speed and the
less and if they are located to each side of the runway. minimum control speed, a speed that gives adequate climb
performance, and that takes account of the acceleration
Stopway Area beyond the take-off runway, usually paved
that will occur after lift-off. It is very important to ensure
(but not as strong), no less wide than the runway and
this speed is achieved by the screen height.
centered upon the extended centerline of the runway, able
to support the aeroplane during a Rejected Take-off (RTO), Effect of Variable Factors on Take-off Distance
without causing structural damage to the aeroplane. Mass Increasing mass has four detrimental effects on the
take-off distance:
• An aeroplane with higher mass will have more inertia. As
mass increases, acceleration will decrease, increasing the
take-off distance.
• Because of the increased wheel friction, wheel drag will
increase, acceleration is reduced and the take-off distance
will increase.
• An aeroplane with a higher mass will have a greater force
of weight, requiring greater lift. To gain this extra lift, the
aeroplane must be accelerated to a higher speed,
increasing the take-off distance.
• A higher mass reduces the angle of initial climb to the
screen height. The aeroplane will use a greater horizontal
distance to get to the screen height.
Air Density
• Reduced density will reduce combustion inside the engine
and the thrust/power generated. Acceleration will be less
Forces During Take-Off Phase For all aeroplanes during the and the take-off distance will increase.
take-off, thrust decreases and drag increases. The • Reduced density will increase the true airspeed for a given
acceleration force is determined by subtracting the total indicated airspeed. Getting to a higher true speed will
drag from the total thrust. When thrust is more than drag require more distance.
the term “excess thrust” is used. Excess thrust is what is • With less thrust/power in low density, the angle of climb
needed to accelerate the aeroplane and it decreases during will reduce. Therefore, getting to the screen height will
the take-off. require a longer horizontal distance.
Wind Headwinds will reduce the ground speed at the
required take-off airspeed and reduce the take-off distance.
Another benefit is that headwinds also increase the angle of
the initial climb which will further reduce the required
distance.
A tailwind does the opposite to a headwind. Tailwinds will
increase the ground speed and increase the take-off
distance.
For calculating the take-off distance, no more than 50% of
the headwind component and no less than 150% of a
tailwind component is assumed.
Runway Slope If the runway is sloping, a component of the
weight will act along the longitudinal axis of the aeroplane.
 Performance
A downhill slope will increase the accelerating force, and distance may not give the maximum possible take-off mass.
reduce the take-off distance, whereas an uphill slope will If close-in obstacles are not cleared, using a lower flap angle
reduce the accelerating force and increase the take-off will use a greater proportion of the Take-off Distance
distance. Available but may give a sufficiently improved gradient to
clear the obstacles.
Runway Surface Any contamination will increase the drag
and hence increase the take-off distance. This drag will
increase with speed, until a critical speed is reached, the
hydroplaning speed, above which the drag will start to
decrease.
If the take-off is rejected and braking is required, the
coefficient of braking friction is severely reduced on a
runway which is wet, icy or contaminated by snow or slush.
Thus, the stopping distance is greatly increased.
Airframe Contamination It is a requirement that at the
commencement of take-off the aeroplane must be free of
ice or snow. Snow and ice on the airframe will increase the Angle of Climb The larger the
drag, reduce the lift and increase the weight of the angle of climb, the larger the
aeroplane. Therefore, if any of these contaminants are backward component of
present, the performance of the aircraft will be reduced, Weight acting backwards
and the take-off distance will be increased. along the flight path and
Flap Setting Increasing flap angle increases CLMAX, which added to Drag. If this situation
reduces stalling speed, take-off speed and distance. It also were left unchanged the
increases drag, reducing acceleration and increasing the aircraft would decelerate.
take-off distance. The net effect is that take-off distance will Excess Thrust To maintain a
decrease with increase of flap angle but above a certain flap steady speed along the flight
angle the take-off distance will increase again. path in a climb, additional Thrust is required to balance the
The flap setting will also affect the climb gradient and this backward component of Weight.
will affect the Maximum Mass for Altitude and Excess Thrust is the Thrust available from the engine(s)
Temperature. Increasing the flap angle increases the drag after aerodynamic Drag is balanced.
and reduces the climb gradient for a given aircraft mass. To maintain a steady climb with no loss of speed, Thrust
The maximum permissible mass will therefore be reduced. must balance not only the aerodynamic Drag, but also the
In hot and high conditions, this could make the Mass- backward component of Weight.
Altitude-Temperature requirement more limiting than the The greater the Excess Thrust, the larger the backward
field length requirement if the flap setting for the shortest component of Weight that can be balanced. In other words,
take-off distance is used. A greater take-off mass may be the more Excess Thrust available, the steeper the angle of
obtained in these conditions by using a lower flap angle. climb or the greater the weight at the same climb angle.
Effect of Weight on Climb Angle If the aircraft tries to use
the same climb angle but at a higher weight, the backward
component of weight will be greater and there is
insufficient Excess Thrust to balance it. In addition, it will
also generate increased Drag (Induced), which will further
reduce Excess Thrust. Increased weight therefore decreases
the maximum climb angle.
Calculating Climb Gradient Climb gradient is merely the
percentage of the backward component of Weight to the
aircraft Weight.

T - D
Gradient of Climb% = x 100
If there are obstacles to be considered in the take-off flight W
path, the flap setting that gives the shortest take-off
 Performance
Climbing after an Engine Failure Losing 50% of the Thrust temperature the turbine blades can withstand. The more
Available reduces Excess Thrust by approximately 75% heat resistant the material of the blades, the more efficient
because the same value of aerodynamic Drag must still be the blade cooling and the higher the maximum turbine inlet
balanced. temperature and therefore the greater the Thrust the
engine can safely develop.
Effect of Flaps on Climbing Flaps reduce the climb angle
because they increase aerodynamic Drag and therefore
decrease Excess Thrust.
The Climb Angle – Gamma is the symbol used for climb
angle. Note that the angle between the horizontal and the
flight path (climb angle) is exactly the same as the angle
between the Weight vector and the transposed Lift vector.

For a given engine, the higher the OAT the lower the mass
air flow and therefore the lower the fuel flow before the
maximum turbine inlet temperature is reached and
consequently, the lower the Thrust the engine is able to
develop – this is known as EGT limited Thrust.
When an aeroplane is in a steady climb there will be a gain
in height after a given horizontal distance travelled. This Region of Reverse Command To maintain unaccelerated
relationship is the % climb gradient. This is a fundamental flight at an IAS slower than V MD, Thrust Available must be
concept. increased. This is because at speeds below V MD, Thrust
For example: an aircraft with a climb gradient of 15.7% all Required (Drag) increases. The speed region slower than
engines operating, will be 314ft higher after travelling VMD is known as “speed unstable region” or “region of
2000ft horizontally (15.7 units higher for 100 units of Reverse Command”, because to maintain unaccelerated
horizontal), but the one engine inoperative climb gradient flight at an IAS slower than V MD, Thrust must be increased –
of 3.7%, will only give a height gain of 74ft in the same the reverse of what is “Normally” required.
distance.
Thrust is the force required to balance aerodynamic Drag;
plus the backward component of Weight when the aircraft
is in a steady climb. The variation of Thrust Available with
forward speed is relatively small and the engine output is
nearly constant with changes in IAS.
Thrust Available = Mass Flow × Acceleration (Exhaust
velocity - Intake velocity)
Variation of Thrust with Density Altitude Increasing
Density Altitude (lower air density) will reduce the mass
flow through the engine and Thrust Available will decrease.
This will have an effect when climbing, but also when Best Angle of Climb Speed (VX) To maximize the climb
operating at airfields with a High Pressure Altitude and/or a gradient, Excess Thrust must be a maximum. Maximum
high Outside Air Temperature. Excess Thrust is obtained by flying at the IAS where the
Variations of Take-off Thrust with Air Temperature (OAT) distance between the Thrust and the Drag lines is maximum
Thrust of any turbojet engine is restricted by the maximum and that is available only at one particular IAS - VX. At any
 Performance
other speed, faster or slower, the distance between the
Effect of Accelerating on Climbing If the aircraft is
Thrust and Drag curves is smaller and Excess Thrust is less.
accelerated while climbing, some of the Excess Thrust must
Therefore, climbing at an IAS other than V X will give a climb
be used for the acceleration and the maximum climb angle
gradient less than the maximum possible.
will be reduced.
Effect of Bank Angle on Climbing Any increase in bank
angle beyond 15 degrees will significantly increase the
amount of Lift that needs to be generated. Increased Lift
will generate more Induced Drag, so Excess Thrust and
maximum climb angle will be reduced.
Effect of Wind on Climbing
Air Gradient is the vertical distance gained in a body of air
divided by the horizontal distance travelled through the
same body of air. Wind has NO effect on Air gradient.

Factors Affecting Angle of Climb

Weight Increased Weight reduces maximum climb gradient
and increases VX. More weight requires more Lift and
Induced Drag will be greater. This moves the Total Drag
curve up, but also to the right. Thrust Required is increased
and VX is a faster IAS. Because Thrust Required has Ground Climb Gradient A tailwind decreases the Ground
increased, Excess Thrust is decreased, so maximum climb gradient. Because the body of air is moving over the ground
gradient is decreased. in the direction of flight, the Ground gradient is smaller
than the Air gradient.
Flaps (or Gear) Flaps or gear reduce maximum climb
gradient and decrease VX. If flaps (or gear) are extended,
Parasite Area is increased, hence Parasite Drag will be
greater. This moves the Total Drag curve up, but also to the
left. Thrust Required is increased and V X is a slower IAS.
Because Thrust Required has increased, Excess Thrust is
decreased, so maximum climb gradient is decreased.
Air Density Air density affects the mass flow of air into the
engine. Any variation in atmospheric pressure or
temperature will change air density. A decrease in air
density reduces Thrust Available, thus Excess Thrust is also
decreased. Therefore, the ability to climb decreases with
decreasing air density. A headwind increases the Ground gradient. Because the
body of air is moving over the ground opposite to the
direction of flight, the Ground gradient is larger than the Air
gradient.

The only time wind is used to calculate climb gradient is

when obstacle clearance is being considered. In all other
 Performance
cases of climbing, still air is used, even if a wind value is
supplied.
Calculating Ground Gradient It is possible to calculate the
Ground gradient by using a “wind factor” to correct the Air
gradient for wind. Any gradient is the vertical distance
divided by the horizontal distance.
Example: An aeroplane has an Air Gradient of 12%, its TAS
is 100kt and the headwind is 20kt. Calculate the Ground
Gradient.
AG% 12% GS = TAS – (HW*0,5) = 90kt
TAS 100kt WF = TAS/GS = 100/90 = 1.11
Wind 20kt GG% = AG%*WF = 12*1.11 = 13,32%
Note: It the Ground gradient is to be used for the
The greatest amount of Excess Power available will be
calculation of obstacle clearance, it must include the 50%
found where the distance between the curves is at its
headwind and 150% tailwind rule.
maximum. The speed for the best rate of climb is called V Y.
Rate of Climb Rate of climb is the vertical speed of an For a jet aeroplane VY occurs at a speed higher than VMD. VY
aeroplane measured in feet per minute; it is displayed in is the airspeed to use to climb to the cruise or en route
the cockpit on the vertical speed indicator (VSI). altitude as it will give the greatest height gain per unit time.
Another way to think of rate of climb is to consider it as the
Excess Power Available (Propeller) For a propeller
TAS of the aeroplane along a gradient.
aeroplane, the greatest amount of Excess Power available
(T - D) occurs at a speed higher than VMP. At any other speed, the
Rate of Climb = x TAS =Gradient% x TAS
W Excess Power is less and the rate of climb less. Therefore,
for a propeller aeroplane, VY occurs at a speed higher than
Thrust and Drag are both forces and TAS is distance over VMP.
time. Force multiplied by distance gives work and work
divided by time gives power. This means that instead of
Thrust multiplied by velocity, the formula now contains the
expression Power Available, and instead of Thrust Required
multiplied by velocity, the formula now has Power
Required.
(Excess Power Available)
Power Available - Power Required
Rate of Climb =
Weight
For any given Weight, the greater the Excess Power
Available, the greater the rate of climb. In order to
maximize the rate of climb, we need to maximize Excess
Power.
Factors Affecting Rate of Climb
Excess Power Available (Jet) The speed found at the Weight An increase in Weight creates more weight
bottom of the Power Required curve is called the velocity apparent Drag which reduces the angle of climb and also
for minimum power or VMP. There was another speed, the rate of climb. More weight will require an increase in
slightly faster than VMP called VMD. This speed is the velocity Lift, increasing Induced Drag which causes the Drag curve to
for minimum drag and is found at the point of contact of move up and right. With higher Weight, the rate of climb is
the tangent from the origin to the Power Required curve. decreased but VY is increased.
Configuration If the gear and flaps are deployed then the
profile drag of the aeroplane will increase. This increases
total Drag and the Drag curve moves upwards and to the
 Performance
left (Parasite Drag). With the gear and/or flaps deployed, balance Excess Drag. Drag (DA) is being balanced by the
the rate of climb is decreased and VY is decreased. thrust (T) and the weight apparent thrust (W sin γ).
Density Power Available: decreased density will decrease DA = T + W sin γ
the Thrust but it will also increase the true airspeed. The (D - T)
Gradient of Descent (%) = x 100
overall effect is that the Thrust loss is more than the TAS W
gain, meaning that the Power Available decreases.
Power Required: decreased density will increase the true Maximum Angle of Descent If thrust is reduced to zero, the
airspeed but have no effect on the Drag, so the Power excess drag area is a maximum. But to obtain the maximum
Required will increase. excess drag, the aeroplane needs to be accelerated to a
Although VY as TAS increases with decreasing density or very high speed. This can be achieved by closing the
increasing altitude, VY as an IAS decreases. In fact, V Y will throttles, and continuously lowering the nose of the
eventually fall to become the same value as V X. So reduced aeroplane to cause the increasing amount of weight
density decreases the IAS of VY and decreases the rate of apparent thrust to accelerate the aeroplane. As speed rises
climb. even more, both the excess drag and the angle of descent
will increase. The angle of descent is a function of excess
The Excess Power available diminishes with higher altitude drag; the greater the excess drag the steeper the angle of
and the maximum rate of climb decreases. descent.
There will be an altitude where the Excess Power available
decreases to zero, as well as the rate of climb. This altitude
is known as the absolute ceiling.

Absolute ceiling is a rather abstract concept for a pilot. It is Minimum Angle of Descent Following an engine failure the
more useful for a pilot to know his aeroplane’s service aim is to ensure that the aeroplane will cover the greatest
ceiling - defined by the manufacturers and aviation horizontal distance so that the pilot has a large area in
authorities as the maximum altitude where the best rate of which to select a suitable landing field. This can only be
climb airspeed will still produce a positive rate of climb at a achieved by using the smallest possible angle of descent
specific number of feet per minute. The recommendation is sometimes referred to as the minimum glide angle. To
to not exceed this altitude because the performance descend at the smallest possible angle, excess drag must be
envelope of the aeroplane is very small. minimum.

Wind is generally considered as horizontal movement of air.

It cannot oppose or add to the vertical forces on the
aeroplane. As such, wind has no effect on the rate of climb
and therefore has no effect on the time to climb.

Angle of Descent To initiate a steady descent, Thrust is

reduced below Drag and the aircraft slows down. The value At VMD, drag is at a minimum. Therefore, to descend at the
of Drag that exceeds Thrust is called Excess Drag. In order minimum possible angle, the aeroplane must be flown at
to balance the forces and maintain speed, the nose is VMD since VMD is the speed that gives minimum excess drag.
lowered until Weight provides enough forward force to One of the other ways to examine glide performance is to
consider the lift drag ratio. The lift drag ratio is maximum
value at 4o angle of attack and is always at the speed V MD.
 Performance
Therefore, VMD is the speed for the minimum angle of
descent or the minimum glide angle. VMD is also known as
the speed for L/D Max. The angle of attack at V MD is fixed at
4o. At any speed other than V MD your glide angle will be
steeper than the optimal glide angle.
Rate of Descent is a function of descent angle and velocity.
Rate of Descent =
Power Required (DV) - Power Available (TV)
W

In straight and level flight, thrust is equal to drag. With

thrust greater than drag the aeroplane will accelerate. As
the aeroplane accelerates, drag will increase. When drag
For any given weight, the rate of descent is proportional to reaches a value which is the same as the thrust,
excess power required. To achieve the greatest excess of acceleration will cease and the aeroplane will have
power required, power available must be reduced to zero. achieved balanced flight once more, but now at a higher
Power required is a function of speed and drag, therefore speed. Therefore, the highest level flight speed that can be
the aeroplane needs to be configured for high drag and flown by the aeroplane will be at a speed where thrust is
high speed in order to achieve maximum power required maximum and drag is maximum.
(maximum rate of descent).
To descend at the lowest rate of descent, the aeroplane
would need to fly at minimum excess power required. This
speed is called VMP. The lowest rate of descent is also known
as maximum descent endurance (maximum glide
endurance), which means the aeroplane will take the
greatest time to descend.
Factors Affecting Descent
Weight has no effect on the minimum angle of descent,
but it will increase the speed along that descent gradient The speed at the left of the graph represents the slowest
and therefore it will increase the rate of descent. speed that can be maintained. In level flight it would be
Configuration with gear and flaps deployed the angle and impossible to fly any slower at this thrust setting since the
rate of descent increase but the speeds for minimum angle rearward force of drag would exceed the force of thrust.
and minimum rate of descent decrease. At high altitude, the thrust produced by the engine
decreases, thus the range of speeds is narrower than at
Wind Headwinds steepen the glide angle and decrease the lower altitudes.
descent range whereas tailwinds decrease the glide angle
but increase the descent range. Wind has no effect on the Indicated Airspeed (IAS) Pitot probes and static probes
rate of descent. suffer from errors. Without any correction to the errors, the
speed obtained when dynamic pressure is being sensed is
called the Indicated Airspeed (IAS).
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) If the pressure probes are
corrected for instrument and position errors, the speed is
called Calibrated Airspeed (CAS).
Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) If the probes are corrected for
the compressibility error as well as position and instrument
 Performance
errors, the speed obtained is called Equivalent Airspeed Factors Affecting Endurance
(EAS). Equivalent airspeed is the most accurate of the Weight For jet aeroplanes at higher weights, the aeroplane
speeds, which are obtained from dynamic pressure. has more drag, which will require more thrust and more
fuel flow. In this situation, the endurance will decrease. V MD
True Airspeed (TAS) True airspeed is the EAS corrected for
will also be higher.
density error and is the true speed of the aircraft relative to
the air through which the aeroplane is flying. Configuration With the gear and flaps deployed, the
aeroplane has more drag and therefore requires greater
True Ground Speed (TGS) is the aeroplane’s velocity over
fuel flow, but the speed for maximum endurance (V MD) is
the ground. The true ground speed is equal to the TAS plus
lower.
or minus the wind component. If there is a tailwind, the
aeroplane’s speed over the ground will increase. Wind and Altitude Wind does not affect the fuel flow into
Conversely, if there is a headwind, the aircraft’s speed over the engine and it has no effect on endurance. Endurance is
the ground will be reduced. about time in the air, not distance covered.
Mach Number is not an actual speed. it is the ratio of the Altitude does affect endurance. Jet aeroplanes achieve
true speed of the aeroplane to the local speed of sound. maximum endurance at or above the tropopause; turbo-
The speed of sound varies with temperature. As altitude propeller aeroplanes reach maximum endurance at about
increases, the reducing temperature causes the local speed 10000ft and piston engine aeroplanes have their maximum
of sound to fall. endurance at sea level.
Endurance The endurance of an aeroplane is the time it can Range Maximum range can be defined as being the
remain airborne on a given quantity of fuel and can be maximum distance an aeroplane can fly for a given fuel
expressed as fuel used over a given airborne time. The only quantity consumed or the minimum fuel used by an
time an aeroplane will be flown by the pilot for maximum aeroplane over a given distance.
endurance is when the aeroplane is in a holding pattern
SPECIFIC RANGE (SR) = TAS ÷ FUEL FLOW
over its destination.
Jet Aeroplane Range To maximize the range, the TAS must
Jet Aeroplane Endurance Fuel flow is a function of the fuel
be high and the specific fuel consumption and the drag
used per unit of thrust, multiplied by the total number of
must be low.
thrust units. Fuel used per unit thrust is known as specific
The speed at which the speed over drag ratio is maximized
fuel consumption (SFC).
is 1.32VMD. Whilst drag has increased a little, which is bad
FUEL FLOW = SFC × TOTAL THRUST for range, the airspeed has increased significantly, which is
good for range. The overall effect is that there is an increase
Reducing SFC in a jet engine occurs when ambient
in specific range.
temperature is very low and engine rpm is very high. This
can only occur at high altitude. So, flying at high altitude,
minimizes the fuel used per unit of thrust.
To minimize thrust, the jet aeroplane simply flies at the
velocity for minimum drag. Therefore, V MD is the speed to
fly for maximum endurance for a jet aeroplane.
In summary, for a jet aeroplane to maximize its endurance
by minimizing its fuel flow, the pilot would fly the aeroplane
at VMD and fly as high as possible.
Propeller Aeroplane Endurance The situation with
endurance and fuel flow for a propeller aeroplane is very Propeller Aeroplane Range To maximize the specific range,
similar to that for the jet aeroplane. the TAS must be high and the specific fuel consumption and
FUEL FLOW = SFC × TOTAL POWER the power required must be low.
The point at which the speed power ratio is at a maximum
Since specific fuel consumption is more or less fixed, the is the point of contact of the tangent from the origin to the
only other way to minimize fuel flow is to use the minimum curve (VMD). Therefore, VMD is the speed for maximum range
amount of power. This can be achieved by flying at the for a propeller aeroplane.
speed for minimum power required, or VMP.
Factors Affecting Range
 Performance
Weight For higher weights, the aeroplane is subject to a
higher drag force and requires a higher rate of fuel flow.
This will decreases specific range and increases speed for
maximum range (1.32VMD for jet; VMD for propeller).

Payload vs Range

Optimum Altitude is defined as being the pressure altitude

which provides the greatest specific range or fuel mileage at
a given weight and speed. Flying higher or lower than the
optimum altitude will decrease the range of the aeroplane.
The optimum altitude is not fixed. Over time, as the weight
decreases with fuel burn, the optimum altitude increases.
This fact allows the aeroplane to climb a little. As the
aeroplane climbs, the Mach number and drag will increase
A to B: full payload up to ZFM (max. payload; tanks empty) back to its previous value. But more importantly the higher
B to C: fuel up to MTOM (tanks not full) altitude has decreased the specific fuel consumption.
C to D: swap payload for fuel up to full tanks Step Climbs The aeroplane climbs to about 2000ft above
D to E: remove payload (no payload; full tanks; max range) the optimum altitude and levels off. As fuel is used and
Configuration With the gear and flaps deployed, the weight falls, the optimum altitude will increase to a point
aeroplane has more drag and needs more thrust, which where it is again 2000ft above the current level but it can
requires greater fuel flow. This will decrease the range. take up to 3 hours. The aeroplane can then climb 4000ft
The speed for maximum range, (1.32V MD for jet; VMD for and level off so that it will once again be 2000ft above the
propeller), is now lower. optimum altitude. But, if the last step climb is within
200NM of the top of descent, then the fuel saving is
Wind Headwinds will cause the aircraft to travel slower negated and the aeroplane should remain level.
over the ground, covering less distance for a given level of
fuel consumption. Thus, in headwinds range is reduced. Carrying out step climbs in this way will increase fuel
Tailwind will increase the ground speed and increase the consumption and decrease the maximum range by 1%. If an
distance covered for a given level of fuel consumption, aeroplane simply remained at a constant altitude during the
increasing range. cruise, it would increase its fuel consumption by 10%
compared to flying constantly at the optimum altitude.
Altitude (Jet Aeroplanes) As aeroplane operating altitude
increases, the colder air and requirement for increasing rpm Altitude (Propeller Aeroplanes) The effect of altitude on
cause the specific fuel consumption to decrease which will the turbo-propeller is very similar to the jet aeroplane.
help to increase the specific air range. Piston engine aeroplane has a more or less fixed specific
The effect of increasing altitude and therefore increasing fuel consumption even though specific fuel consumption is
true airspeed acts together with the reducing specific fuel lowest at high manifold pressures, low rpm and with the
consumption to help increase the specific range. Therefore, mixture correctly set.
specific range increases with altitude.
As altitude increases, if the Mach number is allowed to get
too high, the penalty due to drag will start to outweigh the
benefits of increasing TAS and reducing specific fuel
consumption. It is at this point that the specific air range
will start to reduce.
 Performance

The landing can be divided into two parts:

Airborne section: starts from the landing screen height
(50ft) and ends when the main wheels touch the landing
surface.
As the aeroplane operates at higher altitudes the power On descending through the screen height, thrust is reduced
required (drag) to maintain the range speed will increase. to zero and the aeroplane pitch attitude is increased slightly
However, true airspeed increases for any given indicated nose-up. This helps arrest the rate of descent and the
airspeed and this is good for range. This fact slightly offsets reduction in thrust to zero reduces the speed. This “landing
the increase of power required and the specific range flare” will allow the aeroplane to touch down onto the
slowly increases with altitude. runway using the main wheels first.
Full throttle height Beyond this altitude, power and Ground/Landing roll: distance covered from touchdown
airspeed cannot be maintained and the aeroplane will slow until the aeroplane comes to full stop.
down. The true airspeed will also start to fall despite the Once the main wheels have settled, reverse thrust and lift
decreasing density. This fact, combined with the constantly spoilers can be activated and the nose wheel will then settle
increasing amount of power required, means that the onto the landing surface. Braking force is now applied and
specific range will decrease. As a result, maximum specific the aeroplane will slow to a stop. However, in normal
range will be attained just after full throttle height. operations, the aeroplane does not stop on the runway; it is
slowed to a safe speed where it can then be steered off the
Long Range Cruise (LRC) Maximum range cruise speed (1.32
runway and taxied to the disembarkation point or ramp.
VMD) is seldom flown. Usually, a higher speed is used. A
significant speed increase can be achieved with only a small The combined length of the ‘airborne section’ and the
compromise in range - Long Range Cruise (LRC). It is about ‘ground/landing roll’ is known as the “landing distance
4% higher than 1.32 VMD and as such the specific range required” - LDR.
reduces by about 1%. The reason for using this higher speed
Landing Distance Available (LDA) Distance from the point
is simply that there are costs other than fuel which need to
on the surface above which the aeroplane can commence
be considered in commercial operations.
its landing to the nearest point at which the surface is
incapable of bearing the weight of the aeroplane under
normal operating conditions.
Reverse Thrust During landing, to bring the aeroplane to a
stop, the thrust force must be reduced to zero. Large
Landing Distance Stage of flight commencing from 50ft aeroplane engines have the capability of redirecting the
above the landing threshold and terminating when the force of thrust in order to generate a braking effect on the
aeroplane comes to a complete stop. aeroplane. Reverse thrust helps to reduce the forward
The landing screen height (50ft) is fixed for all classes of speed. It is especially important in conditions where braking
aeroplane unlike the take-off screen height - 35ft Class A; force is reduced due to contamination on the runway.
50ft Class B. Wheel and Brake Drag Wheel drag is the friction force
At landing screen height, the aeroplane must have attained between the wheel and the runway; brake drag is the
the landing reference speed - VREF: friction force between the brake discs and the brake pads.
Class A > 1.23VS0 and VMCL; Wheel drag will come into play as soon as the aeroplane
All other classes > 1.3VS0 touches down on the runway, increases throughout the
landing roll and will reach a maximum value just before the
aeroplane comes to rest.
 Performance
Brake drag provides the greatest retarding force. However, A wet runway is one whose moisture level makes the
it is only effective if there is also sufficient wheel drag runway appear reflective, but there are no areas of
between the tires and the runway. As the lift reduces and standing water in excess of 3 mm deep. Wet runways can
more weight is placed on the wheels, brake drag becomes cause the average dry landing distance to increase by as
more effective in slowing down the aeroplane. Therefore, much as 50%.
brake drag increases as the landing roll progresses. A contaminated runway is one where more than 25% of the
runway is covered in a layer of moisture, whose specific
Effect of Variable Factors on Landing Distance
gravity is equivalent to a depth of 3 mm or more of water.
Weight Increased mass increases stalling speed and reduces
the deceleration, increasing the landing distance. Increased Hydroplaning When an aircraft lands on a wet runway with
mass increases the brake drag available and this decreases at least 3mm of standing water, inertial effects prevent
the landing distance. The net effect is that the landing water escaping from the footprint area and the tire is
distance will increase with increasing mass. buoyed off the pavement by hydrodynamic force.
The danger from hydroplaning is the nil braking and
Density Low density (high temperature, low pressure or
steering effect. Methods of prevention include grooving the
high humidity) will give an increase in the landing distance
tires, transversely groove the runway, ensure the runway
due to the higher TAS.
pavement is convex from the centerline and ensure the
Wind During a headwind, the forward speed over the runway has a macro-texture.
landing surface is much less and the landing distance
Microbursts and Windshear are the single most hazardous
required is decreased. During a tailwind, the forward speed
weather phenomenon to aeroplanes close to the ground,
over the landing surface is much greater and the landing
particularly during the landing phase. Landing when
distance required is increased.
windshear is observed or forecast should be avoided, but if
When calculating actual landing distances, assume only 50%
conditions are within limits, landing at a higher speed
of the headwind and 150% of the tailwind.
should be used but caution should be exercised since the
Flap Setting With no flap the aircraft will have a faster higher landing speed will greatly increase the landing
approach speed and little aerodynamic drag, therefore the distance.
landing distance will be large. With some flap selected, the
approach speed is less, aerodynamic drag is greater and the
landing distance will be smaller. With full flap, the approach
speed is minimized and the aerodynamic drag is maximized.
Having full flap selected for landing allows the aeroplane to
maximize its landing mass.
Runway Slope When the aircraft is on an upslope, there is a
component of weight acting in the direction of drag,
Initially there will be an increase in airspeed and a rise
increasing the deceleration and decreasing the landing
above the approach path caused by the increasing
distance. On a downslope, the weight component acts in
headwind. Without hesitation, the power should be
the direction of thrust, decreasing the deceleration and
increased to go-around power, the nose raised and the
increasing the landing distance.
aeroplane flown in accordance with the missed approach
For every 1% slope, the landing distance is affected by 5%,
procedure. The nose attitude will be about 15° and the
or a factor of 1.05. No factorization is permitted for
control column should be held against the buffet or stick
downslope.
shaker. Airspeed will fall and the aeroplane may start to
Runway Surface descend despite high power and high pitch angle.
Grass runways will increase the landing distance (factor The point at which the tailwind starts to be encountered
1.15) may be the most critical. The rate of descent may reduce,
but the airspeed may continue to fall and any height loss
Contaminations will substantially reduce the wheel friction
may now break into obstacle clearance margins. Maximum
and increase the landing distance.
thrust is now usually needed and the nose attitude kept
A runway is considered to be damp when there is moisture
high on the stall warning margins to escape the effects of
which changes its color but insufficient moisture to produce
the tailwind.
a reflective surface.
 Performance

Performance Class B Propeller driven aeroplanes with En Route Section From 1500 ft above the airfield from
maximum passenger seating of 9 and a MTOM of 5700kg. which the aeroplane has taken off to 1000 ft above the
destination airfield.
Take-off Distance From the start of take-off to a screen
height of 50ft, with take-off power set, rotating at V R and En Route and Descent Requirements An operator must
achieving the specified speed at the screen. ensure that the aeroplane is capable of reaching a place at
which a safe forced landing can be made, in the expected
VR must not be less than VS1.
meteorological conditions and in the event of engine
The take-off safety speed V 2 (screen height speed) must not
failure.
be less than 1.2VS1.
For this, an operator must know the safe forced landing
Take-off Requirements / Field Length Requirements
areas. Next, the operator needs to know whether his
There is only one take-off requirement: the take-off must
aeroplane will be able to reach these areas if the engine
be complete within the field length available.
were to fail while en route.
No Stopway/Clearway available:
It will depend on two things;
TOD x1.25 must not exceed TORA
• the altitude chosen for the flight;
Stopway and/or Clearway available: • the descent gradient of the aeroplane following engine
TOD must not exceed the TORA; failure.
TOD ×1.3 must not exceed the ASDA;
We can work out the horizontal distance travelled or
TOD ×1.15 must not exceed the TODA.
descent range by taking the height of the aeroplane above
This rule ensures that, once the aeroplane has completed
the ground, dividing this by the gradient and then
the take-off, there should be at least 25% of the runway
multiplying by 100.
remaining.
Horizontal Distance = Vertical/Gradient × 100
Surface Condition Factors Most performance data in the
No, we know that the aeroplane must not pass further
aeroplane flight manual assumes a level, dry and hard
away than the calculated range from any safe forced
runway. Therefore, correction factors must be applied to
landing locations. So then draw a circle around each of the
the gross take-off distance when the runway conditions are
safe forced landing locations. Then draw a track line from
different.
Airfield A to Airfield B that is within each circle. If the flight
track falls outside of the circles then, following engine
failure, the aeroplane will not make it to a safe forced
landing area.

There is no requirement for a single-engine Class B

aeroplane to demonstrate that it can clear an obstacle
within the take-off flight path. However, the pilot must, at
all times, have visual contact with the ground.
Consequently, the pilot will be able to identify the obstacle
within the takeoff path and avoid it.
There is no minimum climb gradient for a single-engine
Class B aeroplane.
When complying with the safe forced landing rule the
aeroplane must not be assumed to be flying with the engine
 Performance
operating at maximum continuous power at an altitude If not, the aeroplane may be dispatched only if an alternate
exceeding that at which the aeroplane’s rate of climb compliant aerodrome is designated.
equals 300 ft per minute.
The way to simplify the dispatch rule is to always consider
This limits the maximum altitude that can be used in order
the greatest mass in still air and the greatest mass in the
to comply with the forced landing rule. An aeroplane may
forecast wind conditions and, of the two, take the lesser
operate at a higher altitude than this regulation prescribes
mass as the dispatch mass.
but the operator may not use the higher altitude in his
calculation of glide range to a safe landing area. Reference Landing Speed (VREF) no less than 1.3VS0
In order to comply with the safe forced landing rule the
assumed en route gradient shall be the gross gradient of
descent, increased by a gradient of 0.5%.

Gradient Requirement
All Engines Operating Minimum climb gradient of 4% with:
• take-off power on each engine;
• landing gear extended (if it can be retracted in not more
than 7 seconds, it may be assumed to be retracted);
• flaps in the take-off position;
• climb speed not less than the greater of 1.1V MC and 1.2VS1
One Engine Inoperative
Climb gradient above 400ft must be positive with:
• critical engine inoperative (propeller in minimum drag);
• remaining engine at take-off power;
• landing gear retracted;
• flaps in the take-off position;
• climb speed equal to that achieved at 50ft.
Landing Requirement There is only one regulation
requirement for landing a single-engine Class B aeroplane: Climb gradient above 1500ft no less than 0.75% with:
the landing distance must not exceed the landing distance • critical engine inoperative (propeller in minimum drag);
available; the aeroplane must be able to land within the • remaining engine at not more than maximum continuous
length of the runway. power;
• landing gear retracted;
The operator must ensure that the landing mass of the • flaps retracted;
aeroplane allows a full stop landing from 50ft above the • climb speed no less than 1.2VS1.
threshold within 70% of the landing distance available at
the destination aerodrome and at any alternate aerodrome. (Field Length Requirements and Surface Condition Factors
The factor to use for such calculation is LDA / 1.43. same as before)

Correction Factors Take-off Speeds VR (rotation speed) must not be less than:
Grass up to 20 cm: LDA * 1.15 • 1.05VMC
Wet LDA * 1.15 • 1.1VS1
Slope no allowance for upslope The speed at 50ft (V2 - take-off safety speed) must not be
Every 1% downslope: LDA*1.05 less than:
• a speed that is safe under reasonably expected conditions
Dispatch Rules state that for dispatching an aeroplane, it • 1.1VMC
must be assumed that: • 1.2VS1
• The aeroplane will land on the most favorable runway
(the runway which would accommodate the largest VMC for take-off must not exceed 1.2VS1.
possible landing mass) at the destination airfield in still air, Obstacle Clearance Requirements Multi-engine Class B
• The aeroplane will land on the runway most likely to be aircraft must demonstrate clearance of obstacles after take-
assigned considering the probable wind speed and
direction.
 Performance
off up to a height of 1500ft. Obstacles must be cleared by a Distance (ft) = Aircraft True GS (ft/min) × Time (min)
vertical margin of at least 50 ft.
Construction of the Flight Path The flight path profile will
depend on whether or not visual reference is lost before
reaching 1500ft.
VISIBILITY CLEAR TO 1500ft
En Route Requirements An operator shall ensure that the
• Determine the TOD required for the take-off mass
aeroplane, in the meteorological conditions expected and in
• Determine the all engines net gradient (gross gradient ×
the event of the failure of one engine, is capable of
0.77)
continuing flight at or above the relevant minimum
• Divide the height gain (1450 ft) by the gradient to
altitudes for safe flight to a point 1000ft above an
determine the distance travelled (feet) from 50 ft to 1500
aerodrome at which the performance requirements for
ft.
landing can be met.
The descent range with one engine inoperative must be
known as well as the one engine inoperative cruise range.
Once these have been calculated, a flight track must be
plotted that will ensure an airfield is always within the total
one engine inoperative descent distance.
The aeroplane must not use the extra altitude above the
300 feet per minute altitude to gain extra range to help
If the obstacle is not cleared by 50 ft, a lower take-off mass comply with landing at an airfield after engine failure.
must be assumed and a revised height calculated. The
maximum mass can then be determined by interpolation. When calculating the descent range to work out if the
aeroplane can make it to an airfield, the gross gradient of
CLOUD BASE BELOW 1500ft If visual reference is lost before descent must be increased by 0.5%.
1500ft, the flight path will consist of two segments.
The Drift Down The gradient of descent of a twin-engine
Segment 1 (From 50ft to cloud base)
aeroplane following engine failure is constantly changing.
50ft to cloud base = height ÷ all engine net gradient × 100 After engine failure in the cruise, the aeroplane is forced to
Height = cloud base - 50ft
descend by lowering the nose and balancing excess drag
with enough weight apparent thrust. However, as it
Segment 2 (From cloud base to 1500 ft)
descends, the air density increases and the aeroplane can
Distance = height gain ÷ gross gradient with one engine
slowly reduce the descent angle (and the weight apparent
inoperative × 100
thrust) until the remaining engine generates sufficient
thrust to balance the drag by itself and the aeroplane can
once more fly level. This procedure is known as the drift
down procedure

As before, if the required clearance is not achieved, the

maximum permissible weight may be determined by
interpolation.
If the climb data is given in terms of rate of climb, this can
be converted to gradient:
Gradient% = Rate of Climb (ft/min) ÷ Aircraft True GS× 100 Construction of the Drift Down Profile The only feasible
way of calculating the descent range is to break down the
Alternatively the time on each segment can be calculated:
profile into segments and carry out several calculations.
Time (mins) = Height Gain (ft) ÷ Rate of Climb (ft/min)
and the distance on each segment obtained from:
 Performance
Each of these calculations will need the net descent at any alternate aerodrome. The factor to use for such
gradient at that attitude and the vertical interval of that calculations is 1.43.
segment. This will give the horizontal distance covered for
Correction Factors
that segment. To find the descent range, simply add all the
Grass (up to 20cm) LDA*1.15
horizontal distances.
Wet LDA*1.15
After the descent range has been calculated and the
Slope 5% for each 1% downslope
aeroplane is able to fly straight and level, the last thing to
No allowance permitted for upslope.
do is find out the one engine inoperative cruise range. Once
known, it can be added to the descent range of the drift Reference Landing Speed (VREF) A multi-engine aeroplane
down profile to give the total range of the aeroplane must be above 1.3VS0 and VMCL during the approach and
following engine failure. landing phase to ensure that the aeroplane has sufficient
Therefore, at any point along the flight there must be an rudder and aileron authority to maintain directional and
airfield at which a landing can be made within the range of lateral control.
the aeroplane after engine failure.

Class A aeroplanes are any multi-engine jet or any turbo-

Landing Climb/ Gradient Requirements The landing propeller aeroplane with a mass of more than 5700
distance must not exceed the landing distance available. In kilograms OR 10 seats or more.
other words, the aeroplane must be able to land within the
Operational Requirements To determine the maximum
length of the runway.
permissible mass for take-off, consider the limits set by:
If, for whatever reason, a landing was not possible, then the
• aerodrome distances available (Field Limit Mass)
aeroplane should have a level of performance that would
• climb requirements (Climb Limit Mass)
enable it to climb safely away from the airfield. This must
• obstacle clearance (Obstacle Limit Mass)
be possible with both engines operating or with one engine
• brake energy limitations (VMBE)
inoperative.
• tire speed limitations (Tire Speed Limit Mass)
All Engines Operating / Baulked Landing Requirement • runway strength limitation (ACN/PCN)
Gradient of climb must be at least 2.5%. This gradient must • maximum structural mass
be achieved with:
Field Length Requirements
• power developed 8 seconds after moving the power
Net Take-off Run Required is the greatest of:
controls to the take-off position.
• All power units operating (dry and wet runway) Gross
• landing gear extended.
distance from the start of TO run to when VLOF is reached,
• flaps at the landing setting.
plus 50% of the distance from VLOF to 35ft screen, all
• climb speed equal to VREF.
factored by 1.15 to obtain the net TORR.
One Engine Inoperative / Missed Approach Requirements • One power unit inoperative (dry runway) Horizontal
Gradient of climb must not be less than 0.75% at an altitude distance from the brake release point (BRP) to a point
of 1500ft above the landing surface. This gradient must be equidistant between VLOF and the point at the 35ft screen
achieved with: with the critical power unit inoperative.
• critical engine inoperative (propeller feathered) • One power unit inoperative (wet runway) Horizontal
• live engine set at maximum continuous power distance from the brake release point (BRP) to the point at
• landing gear retracted which the aeroplane is 15ft above the take-off surface,
• flaps retracted achieved in a manner consistent with the attainment of V 2
• climb speed not less than 1.2VS1 by 35 ft, assuming the critical power unit inoperative at V EF.
Landing Distance Requirements An operator must ensure Net Accelerate-stop Distance Required is the greatest of:
that the landing mass of the aeroplane allows a full stop • All engines operating Sum of the distances from BRP to
landing from 50ft above the threshold within 70% of the the highest speed reached during RTO, assuming the first
landing distance available at the destination aerodrome and action to reject the take-off at the V 1 (wet runway) and to
 Performance
decelerate to a full stop, plus a distance equivalent to 2 The only factor that controls V MCG is thrust, and since take-
seconds at the V1 for take-off from a wet runway. off thrust is more or less constant, then the only variable on
• One engine inoperative Sum of the distances from BRP to the amount of take-off thrust generated is air density.
the highest speed reached during the RTO, assuming the The higher the air density, the more thrust can be
critical engine fails at VEF and the first action to reject the generated and the more yaw that is generated when the
take-off at the V1 (wet runway) with all engines operating engine fails, therefore the airflow over the rudder must be
and to decelerate to a full stop with one engine inoperative, faster to make the rudder effective enough to counteract
plus a distance equivalent to 2 seconds at the V 1 for take-off the yaw. As density increases, VMCG increases.
from a wet runway.
VMBE (Maximum Brake Energy Speed) represents the
• Accelerate-stop distance on a dry runway.
maximum speed on the ground from which an aeroplane
Net Take-off Distance Required is the greatest of: can safely stop within the energy capabilities of the brakes.
• All engines operating Horizontal distance travelled, with If the take-off was rejected at a speed higher than V MBE, the
all engines operating, to reach a 35ft screen multiplied by brakes would not be able to safely bring the aeroplane to a
1.15 stop and would most probably catch fire, melt and/or
• One engine inoperative (dry runway) Horizontal distance disintegrate.
from BRP to the 35ft height, assuming the critical power The variables that affect V MBE are pressure altitude, ambient
unit fails at VEF on a dry, hard surface. air temperature, mass, slope and wind.
• One engine inoperative (wet runway) Horizontal distance
Relationship between VMCG, V1 and VMBE
from BRP 15ft height, assuming the critical power unit fails
V1 cannot be allowed to be less than VMCG because engine
at VEF on a wet or contaminated hard surface, achieved in a
failure below VMCG means the aeroplane is uncontrollable
manner consistent with the achievement of V2 by 35ft.
and the definition of V1 is that the take-off can be continued
V Speeds following engine failure.
V1 - Decision Speed This is by far the most important speed
V1 must not be greater than V MBE. At V1 the aeroplane must
in the take-off for Class A aeroplanes. V 1 is called the
be able to stop or continue the take-off, but above V MBE it is
decision speed and is defined as the maximum speed at
impossible to bring the aeroplane safely to a stop.
which the pilot must take the first action in order to stop
the aeroplane within the remaining accelerate-stop VMCA - Air Minimum Control Speed Minimum flight speed at
distance and also the minimum speed following engine which the aeroplane is controllable, with a maximum of 5°
failure that the pilot is able to continue the take-off within bank, when the critical engine suddenly becomes
the remaining take-off distance. inoperative with the remaining engine(s) at take-off thrust.
• may not be less than VEF plus the speed gained with the VR - Rotation speed is the speed at which the pilot initiates
critical engine inoperative for the time between engine action to raise the nose gear off the ground, with the
failure and the point at which the pilot applies the first intention of becoming airborne.
means of retardation VR may not be less than:
• must not exceed VR • V1
• must not exceed VMBE • 1.05VMC
• must not be less than VMCG • a speed such that V2 may be attained before 35 ft.
Factors Affecting V1 Factors Affecting VR
Mass - Increasing mass increases V1 Mass - Increasing mass increases V1
Configuration - Increasing the flap angle decreases V1 Configuration - Increasing the flap angle decreases V1
Density - As density decreases, V1 increases Density - As density decreases, V1 increases
Slope and Wind – downslopes/tailwinds reduce V1 and
VLOF - Lift-off Speed is the calibrated airspeed at which the
upslopes/headwinds increase V1
aeroplane first becomes airborne (when the main wheels
Two other influences on V1 are VMCG and VMBE. have left the runway). VLOF should be faster than the
minimum unstick speed VMU.
VMCG is the minimum speed on the ground at which the
take-off can be continued, when the critical engine V2 - Take-off Safety Speed is the target speed to be attained
becomes inoperative with the remaining engine(s) at take- with one engine inoperative. V2 must be reached at or prior
off thrust. to the screen height.
 Performance
V2 is considered a “safety speed” because it is the slowest Field Limit Brake Release Mass / Field Limit Mass The field
speed which will enable the aeroplane to have sufficient limit brake release mass is the maximum mass that will
excess thrust to climb above the minimum acceptable climb allow the aeroplane to meet its field length requirements at
gradients. the airfield concerned. CAP 698, section 4, page 9
Balanced Field A balanced field exists if the take-off Climb Gradient Limit Mass (WAT - Weight Altitude
distance is equal to the accelerate-stop distance. An Temperature or MAT - Mass Altitude Temperature limit) is
aerodrome with no stopway or clearway has a balanced the maximum mass that will enable the aeroplane to
field. For an aeroplane taking off, if an engine failure occurs, achieve a certain minimum climb performance. In other
the later the engine fails, the greater will be the accelerate- words, if the mass of the aeroplane was greater than the
stop distance required but the less will be the take-off climb limit mass then the aeroplane may still be able to
distance required. climb, but it will not achieve the minimum air gradients that
the authorities have laid down. CAP 698, section 4, page 11
Unbalanced Field The balanced field V1 represents
optimum performance, since the TODR and the ASDR are Tire Speed Limit Mass The greater the wheel speed and/or
equal. In some circumstances, however, this V 1 will not be the load on the wheel, the greater the heat generated. Too
acceptable, as V1 must lie within the limits of V MCG, VR and much heat will disintegrate the tire and it may also expand
VMBE. the air within the tire and over pressurize it. This may result
in a tire blow out. CAP 698, section 4, page 13
At low weights and altitudes V 1 for the balanced field may
be less than VMCG (unbalanced field). In this case, V1 would Brake Energy Limit The energy capacity of the brakes is
have to be increased to V MCG and so the TODR would be less limited. So, for a given mass, there will be a limiting speed
and the ASDR would be greater than the balanced field from which a stop can be made. This will be a TGS, so the
length. The field length required would be equal to the corresponding IAS will vary with altitude, temperature and
ASDR at VMCG. wind. Runway slope will also affect the speed, as a change
At high weight, altitude and temperature, the balanced field in height involves a change in potential energy. CAP 698,
V1 may exceed the VMBE (unbalanced field). V1 would have to section 4, page 15
be reduced to VMBE giving a TODR greater and an ASDR
Brake Cooling The value of VMBE assumes that the brakes
which is less than the balanced field length. The field length
are at ambient temperature before the start of take-off. If a
required would be equal to the TODR at VMBE.
take-off is rejected or after prolonged taxiing, the brakes
For aircraft with good braking capabilities, the stopping
will already be at a high temperature and their ability to
distance will be short, giving a high balanced field V 1. If this
absorb further energy will be reduced. Data is given in the
exceeds VR for the weight, V1 will have to be reduced to VR
manual to show the time to be allowed for the brakes to
and the field length required will be equal to the TODR at
cool. CAP 698, section 4, page 50
VR .
V1 Range VGO is the first speed at which the take-off can be Runway Strength The operating mass of the aircraft may be
completed and VSTOP is the last speed at which the limited by runway strength considerations. The bearing
accelerate-stop could be completed. The V 1 speed can strength of a pavement is expressed by a PCN (Pavement
therefore be chosen anywhere between VGO and VSTOP. Classification Number) and this is compared to the ACN
(Aircraft Classification Number). Operation on the
pavement is permissible if the ACN is less than or equal to
the PCN. A 10% increase of ACN over PCN is generally
acceptable for pavements that are in good condition and
occasional use by aircraft with ACNs up to 50% greater than
the PCN may be permitted.
Maximum Take-off Mass MTOM will be the lowest of the
masses given by the above limitations. This mass is called
the performance limited mass (PLM). The performance
limited mass must then be compared to maximum
structural mass (MSM) and the lower of the two masses is
then selected as the take-off mass. This mass is known as
the regulated take-off mass (RTOM).
 Performance
Calculating Take-off Speeds and Thrust Settings
Take-off Speeds - CAP 698, section 4, page 17
Mass: 57 900 kg
OAT: 25o C
Pressure altitude: 2000 ft
Upslope: 2%
Headwind: 20 knots

Non-standard Take-off Procedures

CAP 698, section 4, page 18/19 – Tables for 5 o/15o flaps
Contaminated Runways A runway is considered to be
contaminated when more than 25% of the runway surface
area is covered by surface water, more than 3mm deep or
by equivalent amount of slush or loose snow.
Slush, loose snow or standing water on the runway will
increase both the take-off distance required (due to
additional wheel drag and impingement drag) and the
Through interpolation:
accelerate-stop distance required (due to increased
V1: 142knots
distance to stop resulting from the reduced runway
VR: 145 knots
coefficient of braking friction). The maximum take-off mass
V2: 152 knots
and V1 will therefore be reduced. The greater the depth of
contamination, the greater the mass reduction and the less
the V1 reduction.
Take-off with Increased V2 Speed This is used when the
performance limited mass is the climb limit mass. V 2 is
slower than the best angle of climb speed (V X). Therefore,
climbing out at V2 produces a climb angle much less than if
the aeroplane were to climb out at VX.
What the improved climb procedure aims to achieve is to
2% upslope = +1.79 knots increase V2 to be closer to VX. When the climb limit mass is
headwind 20 knot = +0.5 knot significantly lower than the field limit mass and the runway
Total: +2.29 knots can allow a far greater mass, taking off with too low a mass
V1 = 144 knots would mean there would be a significant proportion of the
runway left. With all the excess of runway it would be
possible to stay on the runway for longer during the take-
off to build up more speed; this will ensure that at rotation
and at the screen height, a faster V 2 will be reached and this
faster V2 will be much closer to VX, improving climb
performance. As a result, the climb limit mass can increase,
which would increase the performance limited take-off
mass and provide an improved regulated take-off mass.
VMCG = 112 knots
Take-off with Reduced Thrust The main reason for this
VMCG < V1 ✓
procedure is to preserve engine life and reduce noise. The
Correction for Stopway and Clearway procedure can be used any time the actual take-off mass is
 Performance
less than the maximum permissible take-off mass and there
is an available distance that greatly exceeds that which is
required. The maximum reduction in thrust from the full
rated take-off thrust value is 25%.
Take-off with reduced thrust is not permitted with:
• icy or very slippery runways
• contaminated runways
• anti-skid inoperative
• reverse thrust inoperative
• increased V2 procedure
Segment 1 The take-off flight path starts 35ft with the
• PMC off
aeroplane at V2 with one engine inoperative. The strategy is
Reduced thrust take-off procedure is not recommended if to retract the gear and flaps as soon as possible. Since
potential windshear conditions exist. retracting flaps at low speeds close to the ground is
dangerous, the only option is to retract the gear.
Take-off with Anti-skid Inoperative Class A aeroplanes
Once the gear is up and locked then the first segment is
must be able to stop within the confines of the runway, in
finished. During this segment the steady gradient of climb
the event of engine failure. Therefore, the accelerate-stop
must be positive.
distance required must be less than or equal to the field
available. If the anti-skid system does not work, then the Segment 2 The second segment starts at the end of the first
stopping ability will be severely reduced and will cause the segment (gear up). Flap retraction is not permitted below
accelerate-stop distance to increase dramatically. 400ft, so the pilot must climb, at V2, until 400ft is reached.
To solve the problem, V1 is reduced. However, reducing V1 Once 400ft is reached and flap retract can commence,
decreases the accelerate-stop distance but increases the segment 2 ends. Since the aeroplane has had the main
take-off distance. To resolve this, the mass of the aeroplane source of drag removed, the minimum gradient
is reduced, which will decrease both the accelerate-stop requirement is more severe at no less than 2.4%.
distance and take-off distance required so that they remain
Segment 3 starts at or above 400ft with flaps retracted.
within the available field lengths.
Retracting the flaps increases stall speed. Therefore, the
In summary then, with the anti-skid system inoperative, V1
aeroplane must accelerate during flap retraction from V 2 to
and aeroplane mass must be decreased.
the zero-flap speed and then to the final segment speed,
intended to be the one engine inoperative best angle of
climb speed.
Once this has happened, thrust can be reduced from
maximum take-off thrust (TOGA) to maximum continuous
thrust (MCT). TOGA is limited to only 10 minutes, so
Take-off Climb The take-off climb or take-off flight path acceleration and flap retraction must be complete by then.
extends from 35ft to 1500ft above the take-off surface. The excess thrust available would be equivalent to a
However, with a contaminated runway take-off, the takeoff minimum climb gradient of 1.2%.
climb begins at 15ft and not 35ft. The point on the ground
Segment 4 starts when the flaps are retracted, the final
directly below the 35ft screen is called “reference zero”.
segment speed is achieved and the thrust is set to MCT.
There are two main requirements that must be met within
From this point the aeroplane has climbed to above 1500ft
the takeoff climb:
where the take-off flight path ends. The pilot will either
 the aeroplane must be able to achieve the minimum climb
recover to the airfield or continue to his take-off alternate.
gradients;
The climb gradient for this last stage must not be less than
 the aeroplane must be able to maintain sufficient obstacle
1.2%.
clearance.
During the take-off climb the aeroplane must:
Segments of the Take-off Climb
a. Attain the most severe gradient requirement of the take-
off net flight path;
b. Avoid all obstacles in the obstacle accountability area by
the statutory minimum vertical interval.
 Performance
Obstacle Clearance An operator must ensure that the net Maximum Operating Speed – VMO(IAS)/ MMO(Mach)
take-off flight path must clear all obstacles by a vertical Flying beyond these speeds in a commercial operational
margin of at least 35 ft. If the aeroplane is unable to do so, context is not permitted and may cause structural damage
it must turn away from the obstacle and clear it by a or a high-speed stall.
horizontal distance of at least 90 m plus 0.125 × D, where D Maximum Range Cruise speed (MRC) changed to MMR
is the horizontal distance the aeroplane has travelled from (Mach number for Maximum Range)
the end of the take-off distance available. Long Range Cruise speed (LRC) changed to MLRC (Mach
number for long range cruise)
In order to work out the obstacle clearance of the
aeroplane, the climb gradient must be the net climb Plotting cost and speed, flying at the maximum range speed
gradient. will use the least amount of fuel and therefore have the
The net gradient is the gross gradient reduced by: least fuel cost for a given distance. However, operationally,
0.8% for 2-engine aircraft the faster “long range cruise” is used. This speed is used
0.9% for 3-engine aircraft because by getting to destination more quickly, more
1.0% for 4-engine aircraft revenue earning flights can be carried out in any given
Using the net gradient instead of the gross gradient in the period. Over a given time period, 4% more flights can be
take-off flight path will produce a net take-off flight path, carried out with only a fuel consumption increase of 1%.
which must clear all obstacles by 35 ft.
Cost Index is used to take into account the relationship
Headwinds increase the ground gradient and improve between fuel-related costs and time-related costs. With
obstacle clearance, whereas tailwinds decrease the ground time-related costs, the faster the aircraft is flown, the more
gradient and deteriorate the obstacle clearance. No more miles can be flown for time-related components. It also
than 50% of the headwind and no less than 150% of the means that more miles can be flown between inspections
tailwind must be used when adjusting for wind. when considering maintenance costs. These costs are
minimum at the maximum operating speed VMO/MMO.
Turns on the Flight Path
However, if the aircraft is flown at such a high speed, the
• Turns are not allowed below a height of half the wingspan
fuel burn increases and total fuel cost for the trip increases.
or 50ft, whichever is greater.
Fuel costs on the other hand will be minimum at the
• Up to 400ft, bank angle may not be more than 15°.
maximum range cruise speed (MRC).
• Above 400ft, bank angle may not be more than 25°.
Adding the time-related costs and fuel-related costs
If any turn of more than 15° is required at any point in the
together produces a total operating cost. The FMS uses the
take-off flight path, then the vertical clearance is increased
time and fuel-related costs to select the best speed to fly.
to 50ft instead of 35ft.
Cruise Altitudes Once the aeroplane has reached the top of
the climb, it will level off at the appropriate altitude. This
cruise altitude should ideally coincide with optimum
altitude (maximum specific range or maximum fuel
mileage). As weight decreases during the flight from fuel
consumption, the optimum altitude increases.
En Route Phase starts at 1500ft above the departure
To constantly fly at the optimum altitude, the aeroplane will
aerodrome and ends 1500ft above the intended destination
not actually fly level but will slowly be climbing in the
aerodrome.
cruise. Due to ATC restrictions, the aircraft must fly by
Climb Profile The climb profile involves the aeroplane segments of constant altitude which must be as close as
initially climbing at a constant indicated airspeed, and then possible to the optimum altitude (step climb). Remaining
at the crossover altitude, the aeroplane climbs at a constant within 2000ft of the optimum altitude ensures the range is
Mach number. ICAO limits the maximum indicated airspeed 99% of the maximum specific range.
to 250 knots below 10 000 ft. As the aeroplane climbs, the As the aeroplane altitude increases, the thrust required to
Mach number will increase and when the Mach number maintain a given speed increases. Eventually, there will be
reaches 0.74, the aeroplane maintains a climb speed of 0.74 an altitude where the thrust is increased to its maximum
until the en route cruise altitude. cruise value and it would not be possible to climb any
If the indicated airspeed is increased in the climb profile, higher without exceeding the thrust limits - maximum
the crossover altitude decreases to a lower altitude. altitude.
Cruise Speeds
 Performance
The hotter the atmosphere, the lower this altitude becomes
and in exceptionally hot atmospheres the maximum
altitude is almost the same as the optimum altitude.
Aerodynamic Ceiling and Manoeuvre Ceiling

If at any point ATC asks the pilots to expedite the descent,

then the only action by the pilots would be to deploy the
speed brakes, increasing drag.
Depressurization In order to achieve a maximum rate of
descent, excess power required has to be as large as
possible. Therefore, drag must be high and speed must be
For a given weight and configuration, the aeroplane will high. As a result, the first actions of the pilots are to don the
always stall at the same IAS but the equivalent Mach oxygen masks, close the throttles, apply the speed brakes
number for the low speed buffet (M MIN) and stall increases and then lower the nose to allow the aeroplane to
with altitude. accelerate to maximum operating speed (V MO or MMO). This
A similar buffet can occur at high speed. At speeds close to configuration is maintained till 10000ft or minimum safe
the speed of sound, the compressibility of the air leads to enroute altitude, where there is sufficient oxygen to
the formation of shock waves that create a disturbance to breathe.
the flow of air over the wing, causing it to separate and
create turbulent eddies. Similar to the low speed buffet, Engine Failure and Drift Down In the case of an engine
these eddies will buffet the elevator - high speed buffet. failure during flight, the remaining thrust is no longer
The Mach number for the high-speed buffet (MMAX) sufficient to balance the drag force. The only solution is to
decreases with increasing altitude. descend to a lower flight altitude, where the remaining
engine can provide enough thrust to balance the drag and
This speed range between the Mach numbers for the low allow level flight once more.
speed stall and high speed stall is called the buffet margin. To achieve this, the aeroplane is flown level to allow the
This margin decreases with increasing altitude. There is an aeroplane to decelerate. At VMD, the nose is lowered to
altitude where the low speed and high speed buffets are maintain VMD, which can now be thought of as the “speed
equal under 1g conditions and it is impossible to fly higher for minimum excess drag”. As the aeroplane descends, the
than this altitude - aerodynamic ceiling or coffin corner. To remaining engine can develop more thrust due to increase
prevent aeroplanes from operating too close to this in air density, which will eventually equal drag; this is the
altitude, an operational limit is set below this point - 1.3g GROSS level-off altitude, but would give no performance
buffet limit altitude or maneuver ceiling (about 4000- margin, so the DRIFT DOWN PROCEDURE is continued to a
6000ft below). lower altitude, the NET level-off altitude.
Normal Descent When the aeroplane gets close to the
destination airfield it will reach a point which marks the
beginning of the descent - top of descent.
The descent profile is almost the reverse of the climb
profile. Initially at constant Mach 0.74, then at the
crossover altitude the speed is kept constant and, below
10000ft, it is reduced further to a constant value.

Obstacle Clearance Requirements During the drift down

procedure, terrain, such as mountains, may present a flight
hazard. Therefore, a safety margin must be introduced
when planning the flight profile. It is not the gross flight
 Performance
profile that is used, but rather the net flight profile. The • 2.7% for 4 engine aircraft
safety factor is based on assuming a gradient of descent With:
that is worse than the aeroplane can actually achieve. For • Critical engine inoperative and remaining engines at TOGA
two-engine aeroplanes with one engine inoperative the • Landing gear retracted
gross gradient of descent is increased by 1.1%. This • Flaps in the approach configuration, provided that the
increases to 1.4% for 3-engine aeroplanes and 1.6% for approach flap VSR does not exceed 110% of landing flap VSR
four-engine aeroplanes. • Aerodrome altitude
• Ambient temperature
Range Limit Following Engine Failure After engine failure,
• Speed: Normal but not greater than 1.4VSR
the lower operating altitude decreases the engine’s
• Maximum landing weight
efficiency. So much so that the fuel-flow on the remaining
engine is almost as much as the fuel flow with both engines Discontinued Approach Instrument Climb For instrument
operating at high altitude. This means that the specific approaches with decision heights below 200 ft, an operator
range is dramatically decreased and it may not be possible must verify that the approach mass of the aeroplane, taking
to reach the destination airfield and the priority is to find an into account the take-off mass and the fuel expected to be
alternate airfield to land before the fuel runs out. consumed in flight, allows a missed approach gradient of
Twin engine aeroplanes must be no further away from a climb, with the critical engine failed and with the speed and
aerodrome than 60 minutes using the one engine operative configuration used for go-around of at least 2.5%, or the
cruise speed as TAS in still air. For aeroplanes with 3 or published gradient, whichever is the greater.
more engines the time is 90 minutes.
Landing Distance Requirements The landing distance
ETOPS - Extended-range Twin-Engine Operational required on a dry runway for destination and alternate
Performance Standards The extension to the 60 minute aerodromes, from 50ft to a full stop must not exceed:
rule is called “ETOPS”. It must be applied for by the airlines • 60% of the LDA for turbojet aeroplanes
concerned and approval gained from the appropriate • 70% of the LDA for turboprop aeroplanes
aviation authority.
The landing distance required is based on:
To gain ETOPS approval, a greater range of performance
• the aeroplane in the landing configuration
parameters must be known and these accompany the
• the speed at 50ft not less than 1.23VSR0 or VMCL
application and are eventually published in the operating
• aerodrome pressure altitude
manual.
• standard day temperature (ISA)
• factored winds (50% headwind, 150% tailwind)
• the runway slope if greater than ± 2%
Runway Selection / Despatch Rules Landing must be
considered both in still air and in the forecast wind.
a. Still air: The most favourable runway in still air may be
Landing Climb Requirements
selected.
Landing Climb (All engines operating)
b. Forecast wind: The runway most likely to be used in the
A gradient of not less than 3.2% with:
forecast wind.
• All engines operating at the power available 8 seconds
The lower of the two masses obtained from a. and b. above
after movement of the thrust control to take-off position
must be selected as the limiting mass for the field lengths
• Landing configuration
available.
• Aerodrome altitude
• Ambient temperature expected at the time of landing Non-compliance
• A climb speed of VREF If the still air requirement cannot be met at an aerodrome
with a single runway, the aircraft may be dispatched if 2
VREF:
compliant alternate aerodromes are designated.
• not less than VMCL
If the forecast wind requirement cannot be met, the
• not less than 1.23VSR0
aeroplane may be dispatched if a suitable alternate is
Discontinued Approach Climb (One engine inoperative) designated.
A climb gradient not less than:
• 2.1% for 2 engine aircraft
• 2.4% for 3 engine aircraft