Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120636

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Combined effects of supplementary cementitious materials (silica fume,

GGBS, fly ash and rice husk ash) and steel fiber on the hardened
properties of recycled aggregate concrete
Liaqat Ali Qureshi a, Babar Ali b,⇑, Asad Ali c
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Swedish College of Engineering and Technology (SCET), Wah Cantt 47060, Pakistan
b
Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad (CUI), Sahiwal Campus, Sahiwal 57000, Pakistan
c
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology (UET), Taxila 47050, Pakistan

h i g h l i g h t s

Overall performance of RC is upgraded by using mineral admixtures and steel fiber.

Studied mineral admixtures include silica fume, fly ash, rice husk ash and GGBS.

Studied mechanical parameters include compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, modulus of elasticity.

Studied durability parameters include, water absorption, chloride ion penetration and acid attack.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) is now getting much more attention than ever as a likely substitute for
Received 30 April 2020 natural aggregate concrete, credited to the growing interest of many countries towards the sustainable
Received in revised form 1 August 2020 environment and economy. To increase the goodwill of RAC its performance in terms of strength and
Accepted 14 August 2020
durability needs to be optimized. This research article presents the effects of combined incorporation
of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) and hook-ended steel fibers (HSF) on compressive
behavior and durability of RAC. In this study, four different SCMs (i.e. silica fume (SF), ground granulated
Keywords:
blast furnace slag (GGBS), fly ash (FA), and rice husk ash (RHA)) were used in RAC with 0% and 1% HSF,
Supplementary cementitious material
Mechanical properties
respectively. SF, GGBS, FA, and RHA were respectively used as 10%, 30%, 20%, and 15% by mass replace-
Tensile strength ment of ordinary Portland cement (OPC). Studied properties included compressive strength, elastic mod-
Durability ulus, splitting tensile strength, water absorption (WA), chloride penetration (CP), and acid attack
Steel fiber resistance (AAR). The results of testing indicate that mechanical strength and durability of RAC can be
Recycled aggregate concrete improved substantially by the combined incorporation of SCMs and HSF reinforcement. SCMs show more
contribution towards the development of durability properties of RAC, whereas, HSF shows more contri-
bution towards the development of mechanical properties and AAR. 10%SF + 1% HSF and 15%RHA + 1%
HSF helped in the production of RAC having superior mechanical and durability properties compared
to that of the plain RAC. Moreover, the benefits of combined addition of HSF and SCMs are notably higher
than the sum of the benefits achieved through individual incorporation of HSF and SCMs.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction of aggregates and cement, conveyance of these materials to the

construction site, construction wastes. To maintain the quality of
Construction and cement industries have many elements the environment, many environmental agencies around the globe
responsible for environmental pollution and sustainability issues. are urging cement and aggregate industries to lessen their
These elements include mining of raw materials, manufacturing demands for raw materials. These environmental agencies are
inspiring construction industries to utilize recycled aggregates
and supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs).
⇑ Corresponding author.
In 2023, global demand for construction aggregates is forecast
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L.A. Qureshi), babar.ali@scet-
wah.edu.pk, [email protected] (B. Ali), [email protected]
to reach 47 billion metric tons annually [1]. Negative effects of
(A. Ali). aggregate mining on the environment are (1) destruction of the

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120636
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 L.A. Qureshi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120636

natural habitat of flora and fauna, desertification, air nuisance, different levels of FA considering mechanical and durability perfor-
changes in the outlook of a region [2]. On the other side, due to mance. FA reduced the early age strength but it improved the later-
the enormous rise in urbanization, construction and demolition age strength properties of RAC [9,22]. FA improved the rheological
wastes (CDW) have also increased over the past few years. CDW properties of RAC and it also reduced the demand for water-
disposal has several negative impacts on the environment, as it reducing admixtures to achieve desired workability [15]. Kou
leads to a shortage of landfilling space, loss of fertile land and habi- et al. [17] showed that despite decreasing early age strength prop-
tats, and it can also create a crisis of solid waste management. A erties, FA was extremely helpful in enhancing the durability of RAC
study has shown that land disposal of CDW can increase the toxi- at both early and later ages. Researchers [9,17,25,33] have also
city levels of soils [3]. Experiencing huge urbanization and indus- shown that RAC has a better environment for pozzolanicity than
trial development, China alone produced 15 billion tons of CDW NAC; therefore, FA contributes more to the strength and durability
in 2016 [4]. European countries also produce 320–380 million met- properties of RAC. Economy analysis has suggested that despite a
ric ton of CDW per annum [5]. A significant proportion of CDW very high transportation cost (for a distance more than
reduced by recycling it to make construction aggregates, also 1100 km), FA is still a cheaper material than near-site available
known as recycled aggregates (RA). Researchers [6-8] have shown OPC (available at a distance of 45 km) and it also decreases the cost
that sustainability issues can be tackled using RA concrete (RAC) in of both normal concrete and RAC by reducing the need of water-
the construction industry. Sustainability benefits of using RAC reducing admixtures [15].
comes at the cost of some loss in mechanical and durability perfor- RHA is obtained from the burning of rice hulls or husk (hard pro-
mance of product concrete [9-13]. The use of RAC can also reduce tective shell of rice grain) well below the temperature of 780 °C.
the greenhouse gas emissions associated with the processes of con- RHA is rich in SiO2 and possesses pozzolanic properties. RHA did
crete production [9,14]. not show any effect on early age mechanical properties but it con-
Using RAC has some drawbacks when compared to normal con- tributed to later age strength [34]. Very little information is avail-
crete in terms of mechanical and durability performance. The high able on the use of RHA in RAC. Koushkbaghi et al. [35] studied the
porosity of RA is the main reason why RAC shows low strength and mechanical and durability properties of RAC with 20%RHA. They
durability compared to that of the NAC [12,15]. Researchers have reported that at both 28, 90, 236-days, RHA-RAC showed superior
proved that the performance of RAC can be enhanced by using sup- mechanical and durability performance compared to RAC with no
plementary materials i.e. SCMs and chemical admixtures [9,11,16- RHA. Another study reported [36] that RAC having 20–35%RHA
25], fibers [12,19,20,23,26-28] and mix design modifications showed higher compressive strength than RAC without RHA.
[9,10,29]. Cheapest and environment-friendly approach to impro- Demands for sustainable, durable, and ductile (having high ten-
vise RAC is the utilizations of SCMs like silica fume (SF), ground- sile to compressive strength ratios) concrete composites have
granulated blast slag (GGBS), fly ash (FA), rice husk ash (RHA). increased over the past few years. Overview of the literature sug-
All of these SCMs are industrial waste products and their cost gests that SCMs can greatly improve the durability of RAC, but
and carbon footprint depends upon the cost of transportation SCMs especially FA and GGBS cannot cause any meaningful
and additional refining processes i.e. heating, grinding, etc. improvement in the mechanical performance of RAC. This
SF is ultrafine silica (SiO2) which is an industrial waste by- demands the development of new techniques that can resolve both
product of silicon and ferrosilicon alloy production. SF is rich in the durability and strength issues of RAC simultaneously. Fiber-
amorphous silica content which helps in the faster consumption reinforcement is a very useful tool to enhance the overall mechan-
of portlandite (CH) in pozzolanic reactions and contributes to the ical performance of concretes i.e. tensile strength [37,38], flexural
strengthening of cement paste. The mechanical and durability prop- strength [39,40], and toughness [41,42]. Simultaneous utilization
erties of RAC has been tested using SF as SCM. Dilbas et al. [19] have of fiber-reinforcements and SCMs in RAC can help to produce sus-
reported that with 5–10% SF, RAC showed compressive strength tainable, durable, and ductile composites. Although very little
comparable to that of the conventional natural aggregate concrete. information is available on the coupling effects of SCMs (SF [20]
Kou et al. [25] reported that RAC made with 50%RA and 10%SF and GGBS [43]) and fiber-reinforcements on properties of RAC. This
showed mechanical performance comparable to that of the natural is the first study that provides a deep insight into the benefits of
aggregate concrete. In terms of mechanical properties, the superior- the coupling effects of SCMs and fiber-reinforcements on the prop-
ity of SF was proved over other SCMs like FA, GGBS, and metakaolin erties of RAC. This is also the first study that compares the perfor-
[25]. SF is also very effective in controlling the durability of RAC [30]. mances of fiber-reinforced RAC with different types of SCMs.
GGBS is a finely ground powder of stone-like industrial waste of Therefore, in this study, two families of RAC were produced
refining (or smelting) process of ores (iron, copper, nickel, etc.). namely plain RAC (PRAC) and hooked steel fiber (HSF) reinforced
GGBS mainly contains silica (SiO2), calcium oxide (CaO), and alu- RAC (FRAC). To produce FRAC, a 1% volume fraction of HSF was
mina (Al2O3) and it possesses good pozzolanicity. The effect of used. Both families (i.e. PRAC and FRAC) were studied with 10%
GGBS has been studied on RAC. Wang et al. [31] reported that SF, 30%GGBS, 20%FA, and 15%RHA as SCMs. Compressive strength,
RAC made 50%RA and 10%GGBS showed better compressive splitting tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity were studied as
strength than natural aggregate concrete. 10%GGBS-RAC also the mechanical properties at 28 and 90-days. Water absorption
showed less permeability than natural aggregate concrete. Another (WA), chloride penetration (CP), and acid attack resistance (AAR)
study [32] reported that GGBS strengthened the interfacial transi- were studied to evaluate the durability performance of each mix.
tion zone between binder matrix and RA and recovered some loss The outcomes of this research will be useful towards expanding
in strength and durability. Kou et al. [25] studied the effect of high the use of RAC in the structural application as high strength, sus-
volume incorporation of GGBS (up to 55%) on mechanical and tainable and ductile material.
durability performance of RAC. It was shown that RAC incorporat-
ing 55%GGBS experienced a significant decrease in mechanical per- 2. Experimental program
formance compared to that of the RAC or natural aggregate
concrete made without GGBS. Despite decreasing the mechanical 2.1. Materials
performance, GGBS was most effective among all SCMs (i.e. FA,
2.1.1. Binders
SF, and metakaolin) in controlling chloride ion penetration [25]. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) was used as the primary binder in all mixes.
FA is a waste product of coal-powered electricity generation This OPC is Type I General Purpose Cement according to ASTM C150 [44]. Silica
plants and it has pozzolanic properties. RAC has been studied with fume (SF) a by-product of ferrosilicon alloy production was used in this study hav-
 L.A. Qureshi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120636 3

ing 98.4% SiO2 content. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) used in this Table 2
research was obtained from the smelting process of iron in a local steel mill. Low Physical properties of fine aggregate and RCA.
calcium fly ash (FA) of DIRK Pozzoplast was used and it qualified as Type F coal
ash according to ASTM C618 [45]. Rice husk ash (RHA) was obtained from GM rice Aggregate 24-hour water Dry rodded Particle
mill. RHA was used after grinding in a ball mill to a passing size of 200 mm. Results absorption (%) density (kg/m3) density (kg/m3)
of chemical analysis and other important physical properties of cement and SCMs Fine aggregates 0.71 1624 2670
are given in Table 1. (ASTM C128)
RCA (ASTM C127) 5.31 1374 2350
2.1.2. Fine and coarse aggregates
Natural siliceous pit or quarry of sand Lawrancepur was used as fine aggregate.
To manufacture recycled coarse aggregates (RCA), specimens of concrete having
compressive strength 35–40 MPa were manually crushed. The maximum size of
CONTROLS UTM machine having 3000 kN load capacity in compression at a loading
RCA was 12.5 mm. Properties of fine aggregates and RCA are provided in Table 2.
rate of 200 kPa/s. Mechanical properties of all mixes were evaluated after 28 and
RCA was kept stored in water-proof plastic bags until the day of casting. Granulom-
90-days of casting.
etry of fine aggregates and RCA is shown in Fig. 1.

2.3.2. Testing of durability properties

2.1.3. Hook-ended steel fibers (HSF)
To assess durability performance, water absorption (WA), chloride penetration,
HSF were cold-drawn steel fibers glued together having single hooks at both of
and acid attack resistance (AAR) of each mix were evaluated. All durability tests
the ends. The overview of HSF is shown in Fig. 2. These glued HSF were easily
were performed on 100  100 mm concrete cylinders. WA test was conducted on
detached in mixing water. The length and diameter of HSF were 35 mm and
specimens 100  100 mm cylinders cured for 28 and 90-days following ASTM
0.9 mm, respectively. The tensile strength of these fibers was around 1200 MPa.
C948 [49]. Eq. (1) was used to calculate WA.
These fibers weighed 7750 kg/m3.
W1  W2
WA ¼  100 ð1Þ
2.1.4. Superplasticizer (SP) W2
SP used in this study was Viscocrete 3110. Viscocrete is an ultra-high range
where, W1 = weight of saturated-surface dry specimen (0.1 g); W2 = weight of oven-
water-reducing admixture.
dried specimen (0.1 g).
To determine CP resistance, 100 mm  100 mm cylindrical specimens of all
2.2. Composition of concrete mixes mixes were cured for 28-days. Subsequently, these specimens were dried in the
oven for 3-days at 60 °C. After oven-drying, these specimens were submerged in
Two types of RAC families namely plain-RAC (PRAC) and fiber reinforced-RAC a 10% sodium chloride (NaCl) solution. After 28 and 90-days of submersion, speci-
(FRAC). FRAC was produced using a 1% volume fraction of HSF i.e. 78 kg/m3. The mens were taken out of the NaCl solution and cut along the diameter using table
Control RAC mix was designed for cylindrical compressive strength of 40 MPa using stone cutter. After that, the cut-surface was air-dried and sprayed with 0.1 N AgNO3
an absolute volume approach. All four SCMs i.e. SF, GGBS, FA, and RHA were incor- solution to observe CP. CP was recorded at six different points (shown in Fig. 3) in
porated as by mass replacement of OPC. Because of smaller incorporation levels of each specimen as explained by authors [26]. Average CP of three specimens is
all SCMs, the effects of their different densities were ignored. Incorporation levels of reported in this research at each age of testing.
SF, GGBS, FA, and RHA were 10%, 20%, 30%, and 15%, respectively. Water to binder To determine AAR, 100 mm  100 mm cylindrical specimens of all mixes were
ratio in all mixes was kept 0.35 for all mixes. RCA was used in saturated surface dry cured for 28-days. Subsequently, specimens were oven-dried at 60 °C for 3-days.
(SSD) condition. Superplasticizer (SP) was used to achieve the desired slump After drying, specimens were submerged in 5%H2SO4 solution. Loss in the mass of
between 80 and 110 mm. Details of all concrete mixtures are provided in Table 3. all specimens was calculated after 28 and 90-days of submersion. Bulk mass of
The Mixing of concretes was done in a mechanical mixer with adjustable rota- specimen after curing at 28-days was considered as initial mass. The final mass
tional speed. In the first stage, aggregates, and binders (including OPC and SCMs) of the specimen was taken after the removal of white deposits formed due to the
were dry mixed at 60 revolutions/min for 2 min. In the second stage, half the attack of acids. Loss in mass was found by noting the percentage difference between
amount of water and SP were added and mixing continued at 80 revolutions/min the initial and final mass of the specimen. The loss in mass of the specimen was
for 2 min. Subsequently, HSF and remaining half of water and SP were added, estimated using Eq.(2).
and mixing continued at the speed of 100 revolutions/min for 4 mins. The total
duration of mixing was 10 mins. AB
M Loss ¼  100 ð2Þ
A

2.3. Testing of specimens where, MLoss = loss in mass due to acid attack; A = initial mass of the specimen
(0.1 g); B = final mass of specimen after exposure to acid attack (0.1 g).
All samples were cast in steel molds. After casting, molds were covered in poly-
thene to prevent the loss of water from drying. Freshly cast specimens were allowed
for the 24-hrs setting. Subsequently, all specimens were cured in normal water
3. Results and discussion
until the age of testing.
3.1. Mechanical properties
2.3.1. Testing of mechanical properties
To assess the mechanical performance of concrete mixes, compressive strength, 3.1.1. Compressive strength
elastic modulus, and splitting tensile strength tests were conducted. For all tests, Results of compressive testing of PRAC and FRAC mixes with
cylindrical specimens of 100 mm diameter and 200 mm height were used. The com-
pression test was conducted according to ASTM C39 [46]. Elasticity modulus was
different SCMs are shown in Fig. 4. Improvements in the compres-
calculated following ASTM C469 [47]. Splitting tensile test was performed accord- sive strength of RAC due to the inclusion of HSF and SCMs are
ing to ASTM C496 [48]. All tests of mechanical properties were conducted in the shown in Fig. 5. The overview of results shows that HSF slightly

Table 1
Chemical and physical properties of ordinary Portland cement (OPC), silica fume (SF), fly ash (FA) and rice husk ash (RHA).

Chemical property OPC SCMs

SF FA GGBS RHA
Lime (CaO) 64.5% 0.3% 4.3% 43.5% 1.7%
Silica (SiO2) 20.5% 98.4% 57.3% 36.7% 90.6%
Alumina (Al2O3) 7.2% 29.5% 14.3% 0.3%
Magnesia (MgO) 2.7% 0.6%
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 3.3% 11.7% 1% 0.4%
Sulfur trioxide (SO3) 1.5% 0.2%
Loss in ignition (800 °C) 3.1% 0.8% 4.6% 3.2% 5.4%
Specific surface area (m2/kg) 325 27,000 365 365 450
Specific gravity 3.11 2.23 2.45 2.96 2.16
4 L.A. Qureshi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120636

Fig. 1. Granulometry of (a) RCA and (b) fine aggregates.

improves (5–7.5%) the compressive strength of RAC. On the other

hand, SCMs cause a notable increase in the compressive strength
of RAC. SCMs also improve the net gain in compressive strength
due to HSF reinforcement.
The compressive strength of FRAC is 5.9% and 7.5% higher than
that of the PRAC at 28 and 90-days, respectively. HSF can increase
the stiffness of the binder matrix by providing a confinement effect
on the matrix of the concrete. HSF owing to its very high tensile
strength, elasticity modulus, and hooked ends can confine the
spread of cracks, change the cracking tendency of material, which
in turn increases the compressive strength [37].
All SCMs increase the compressive strength of RAC by 2–19%
depending upon the type of SCM and age of curing. Among all
SCMs, the maximum improvement in compressive strength of
RAC is caused by 10%SF which is followed by 15%RHA. 10%SF
increases the compressive strength by 11% and 19% at 28 and 90-
days. Whereas, 15% of RHA improves the strength of RAC by 7–
13%. 20%FA and 30%GGBS increase the compressive strength of
RAC by 2–10% and 5–12%, respectively. SF caused maximum
improvement in compressive strength because of its ultrafine reac-
tive particles. SF can react with free CH faster than other SCMs.
Moreover, its fine particle size improves the packing of binder par-
ticles [50] which improves the overall stiffness of concrete. Ultra-
fine particles of SF can also improve the ITZ of RCA with binder
matrix more efficiently than the other SCMs. Better performance
Fig. 2. Overview of HSF. of RHA compared to FA and GGBS can be attributed to the higher
fineness of its particles which increases the reactivity of silica par-

Table 3
Composition and nomenclature of mixes.

Family Mix IDs Binder (kg/m3) Aggregates (kg/m3) Water (kgm3) HSF (kg/m3) SP (kg/m3)
Primary SCMs Fine aggregates RCA
OPC SF GGBS FA RHA
Plain-RAC PRAC-OPC (CON) 510 865 915 178.5 0 4.5
PRAC-10%SF 459 51 865 915 178.5 0 4.5
PRAC-30%GGBS 357 153 865 915 178.5 0 4.5
PRAC-20%FA 408 102 865 915 178.5 0 4.5
PRAC-15%RHA 434 77 865 915 178.5 0 4.5
Fiber reinforced-RAC FRAC-OPC 510 852 902 178.5 78 6
FRAC-10%SF 459 51 852 902 178.5 78 6
FRAC-30%GGBS 357 153 852 902 178.5 78 6
FRAC-20%FA 408 102 852 902 178.5 78 6
FRAC-15%RHA 434 77 852 902 178.5 78 6
 L.A. Qureshi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120636 5

Fig. 3. Chloride ion penetration observation and calculation.

Fig. 4. Compressive strength of (a) Plain RAC (PRAC) and (b) Fiber-reinforced RAC with different types of SCM.

ticles of RHA with CH. Chindaprasit and Rukzon [51] also attribu- use of 1% HSF and 15%RHA increases the compressive strength
ted high reactivity of RHA to its high specific surface area com- by 18% and 24% at 28 and 90-days, respectively. Similarly, combi-
pared to that of the FA. They also reported that RHA showed a nations of 1% HSF + 30%GGBS and 1% HSF + 20%FA improve the
more filler effect than FA, which means that RHA can improve compressive strength by more than 11–13% and 18–20% at 28
the packing density of binder better than FA. The main reason for and 90-days, respectively. Inclusion of SCMs in binder improves
the low contribution of FA and GGBS towards strength develop- the bond of fibers with binder matrix, subsequently, the net gain
ment is their larger particle sizes than those of the SF and RHA. in compressive strength due to fiber-reinforcement is improved.
FA and GGBS particles react slowly and can take more time to com- For example, individual use of 10%SF and 1% HSF causes improve-
plete a pozzolanic reaction. SF and RHA mix achieve most of their ments of 11% and 6%, respectively at 28-days, see Fig. 5. But their
strengths up to 28-days, whereas, GGBS and FA [25] containing combined incorporation leads to an improvement of 22% in com-
mixes show more net gain between 28 and 90-days owing to their pressive strength, which means combined incorporation of HSF
slower pozzolanic reactions. and SF gives an additional 5% improvement. These additional
Coupling fibers and SCMs has a huge potential to upgrade the improvements in the net gain of compressive strength are also
compressive strength of RAC by 12–25% depending upon the type noticed when other SCMs like RHA, GGBS, and FA are incorporated
of SCM and age of testing (see Fig. 5). The combined use of 1% in RAC with fibers. This can be ascribed to improvement in bond
HSF + 10%SF improves the compressive strength of RAC by 22 strength of fibers with binder matrix when SCMs contribute to
and 25% at 28 and 90-days, respectively. Similarly, the combined the development of addition C-S-H [33]. Moreover, the improved
6 L.A. Qureshi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120636

Fig. 7. Improvement in Elastic Modulus of RAC with the addition of 1% HSF and
SCMs (10%SF, 30%GGBS, 20%FA and 15%RHA) w.r.t control RAC.
Fig. 5. Improvement in Compressive Strength of RAC with the addition of HSF and
SCMs (10%SF, 30%GGBS, 20%FA and 15%RHA) w.r.t control RAC.
HSF is not very significant in compression because the tensile
strength of fibers cannot be well-utilized under compression loads.
packing density of binders with SCMs can also enhance the bond Among all SCMs maximum improvement (9–15%) in elastic
strength of fibers by refining the interface between fibers and bin- modulus is caused by 10%SF and 15%RHA. Owing to their very fine
der matrix. particle size, both SF and RHA can contribute significantly to the
strengthening of the microstructure of RAC. Previous research
[56] has attributed the notable contribution of SF to elastic modu-
3.1.2. Elastic modulus lus to its efficiency in pozzolanic reaction and pore-size refinement
Elastic modulus of each RAC mix with HSF and varying types of (filler effect). FA and GGBS cause minor improvements (2–4%) in
SCM is shown in Fig. 6. Net improvement in elastic modulus of RAC elastic modulus at 28-days. On the contrary, at 90-days, FA and
caused by the addition of 1% HSF and different SCMs is shown in GGBS cause more than 9% increase in elastic modulus. That is
Fig. 7. The trends in the results of compressive strength and elastic because FA and GGBS particles take more time to develop C-S-H
modulus are very similar to the varying HSF and changing types of in pozzolanic reactions. Siddique [57] showed that high volume
SCM. incorporation of FA decreases the elastic modulus. In this study,
HSF inclusion in RAC increases its elastic modulus by 2–4%. This a low volume of FA is used which proves to be beneficial to the
slight increase in elastic modulus can be attributed to increased elastic modulus of RAC. The high volume of FA incorporation leads
stiffness of concrete against compression loads. Discrete steel to the reduction in calcium oxide (CaO) content of concrete and
fibers provide sporadic 3D-reinforcement, that picks up and dis- decreases the pozzolanic potential of binder matrix [9]. On the
tributes stresses at the level of micro-cracks. HSF reinforcement other hand, the increase in elastic modulus of RAC due to 20%FA
improves tensile capacity in the lateral dimensions and provides incorporation can be also be caused by the additional pozzolanic
crack control before the development of noticeable macro cracks, reactions between SCM and CH present in RCA. Kou et al. [58] have
eventually improving the stiffness of concrete [52]. Insignificant shown that SCMs contribute more towards the properties of RAC
improvement in elastic modulus due to the addition of steel fibers than they do towards the properties of natural aggregate concrete.
have also been reported by some past studies [53-55]. The role of Berndt [59] has also shown the positive effect of GGBS on the elas-

Fig. 6. Elastic modulus of (a) Plain RAC (RPCA) and (b) Fiber reinforced RAC (FRAC) with different types of SCMs.
 L.A. Qureshi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120636 7

tic modulus of both natural aggregate concrete and RAC. GGBS reinforcement increases substantially in enhancing the tensile
densifies the microstructure and hardness of ITZ between binder strength. For example, 15%RHA and 1% HSF individually improve
matrix and aggregates [60]. tensile strength by 10% and 28%, respectively, but their combined
Coupling effects of SCM and HSF can improve the elastic modu- incorporation improves tensile strength by 42% (i.e. coupling effect
lus of RAC by more than 10–23% depending on the type of SCM and of RHA and HSF gives 4% additional net gain in splitting tensile
age of testing. RAC having 1% HSF and 10%SF shows the maximum strength). This can be ascribed to increased pullout strength of
improvement of 23% in elastic modulus over the control RAC at 90- fibers due to the addition of SCM. Stronger and denser binder
days (see Fig. 7). The net gain in elastic modulus due to HSF addi- matrix of SCM-RAC than that of the blank-RAC (having no SCM),
tion improves with the addition of SCMs. For example, at 28-days, can increase the required amount of splitting tensile load to pull-
individually 10%SF and 1% HSF improve elastic modulus by 10% out fibers out of the binder matrix. Wu et al. [61] have reported
and 2%, respectively, but the combined incorporation of SF and that the pullout and bond strength of steel fibers increases with
HSF causes a net improvement of about 15%. Similarly, RHA and the inclusion of SF in the binder. They attributed this development
HSF cause improvements of 8.3% and 2% in elastic modulus, respec- to an increase in the amount of C-S-H and improvement of ITZ
tively, but their combined incorporation increases elastic modulus around steel fibers, which guaranteed higher micro-hardness in
by more than 14.5%. Similarly, additional improvements in the net binder matrix and improved the bond strength of steel fiber.
gain of elastic modulus are also noticed when other SCMs like
GGBS and FA are used in RAC with 1%HEST. This usefulness of 3.2. Durability properties
the combined effect of SCM and HSF is already credited (in Sec-
tion 3.1.1) to the improvement in bond strength of fiber- 3.2.1. Water absorption (WA)
reinforcement with the concrete. WA capacity of PRAC and FRAC mixes with varying SCM and age
is shown in Fig. 10. Improvements in WA resistance of RAC due to
3.1.3. Splitting tensile strength the separate and combine inclusion of SCMs and HSF are also
Splitting tensile strength of PRAC and FRAC with different types shown in Fig. 11. RAC shows high water absorption because of
of SCMs is shown in Fig. 8. Improvements in the tensile strength of the presence of low-density (or porous) mortar present inside
RAC with the addition of SCMs and 1% HSF are presented in Fig. 9. RCA. Overview of results shows that WA resistance significantly
In results, it can be observed that the tensile strength of RAC expe- improves with the addition of SCMs. WA does not significantly
riences a useful boost of 26–28% with the addition of 1% HSF. Fur- change with the addition of HSF, only minor improvements in
thermore, combined incorporation of SCMs and 1% HSF improves WA resistance are observed with fiber-reinforcement.
the tensile strength by more than 31–44% depending upon the type 1% HSF improves the WA resistance of RAC by 1.5% and 2.5% at
of SCM and age of testing. 28 and 90-days, respectively. It is suggested that fiber-
Due to fiber-reinforcement, splitting tensile strength experi- reinforcement affects the porosity of concrete in two ways (1)
ences more improvement than compressive strength and elastic introduction of additional ITZs in the matrix of concrete increases
modulus. RAC reinforced with 1% HSF shows 26–28% more split- the WA [12] (2) restriction of microcracks due to drying shrinkage
ting tensile strength than that of the plain RAC. Significant [62] and hydration heat of cement may decrease the WA. In the
improvement in the tensile strength of concrete due to fiber- present research, the effect of HSF on the microcracks’ restriction
reinforcement is attributed to the high tensile strength of steel may be dominant over the effect of HSF on total ITZs in concrete,
fibers. HSF can efficiently bridge micro-cracks before peak loading, which resulted in the reduction of WA. Afroughsbaget et al.
and macro-cracks after peak loading. Additionally, the anchoring [42,43] reported a significant improvement in WA resistance due
mechanism created by the hooks at the ends of steel fibers can sig- to the addition of fiber-reinforcement. They attributed this behav-
nificantly improve the pull-out strength of fibers [42]. These are ior to the reduction information of microcracks leading to
the factors that lead to the development of high splitting tensile increased permeability of concrete. Frazao et al. [63] also reported
strength associated with HSF -RAC. no significant difference in WA capacities of fiber-reinforced con-
SCMs inclusion improves the splitting tensile strength of RAC. crete and plain concrete.
RHA and SF cause maximum improvements (8–14%) in the tensile All SCMs positively affect the WA resistance of RAC. At 28-days,
strength of RAC, see Fig. 9. GGBS and FA incorporation lead to WA resistance of RAC improves by 21%, 13%, 15%, and 17% due to
improvement of 2–10% and 1–7%, respectively, depending on the incorporation of 10%SF, 30%GGBS, 20%FA, and 15%RHA, respec-
age of testing. These improvements are ascribed to the strengthen- tively. This improvement in permeability resistance of RAC due
ing of the binder matrix due to pozzolanic reactions. Strengthening to SCM addition can be ascribed to the formation of additional C-
of ITZ between RCA and binder matrix can also positively influence S-H, decreasing the size and connectivity of pores. In addition to
the splitting tensile strength of RAC. There is no significant differ- the pozzolanic reaction, the filler effect of SCM can also reduce
ence in trends of the results of splitting tensile and compressive the pore sizes, interrupting the connections between pores. SF
strength with the altering type of SCM. The microstructural (C-S- reduces WA more than other SCMs, because of its ultrafine parti-
H) developments that are responsible for the improvement in com- cles and high reactivity. All SCMs might also penetrate RCA and fill-
pressive strength are also responsible for the improvement in split- ing the cracks and porosity present inside RCA and strengthen the
ting tensile strength. Kou et al. [58] reported no significant ITZ between aggregates and binders. This also leads to a reduction
difference in trends of the results of splitting tensile strength and in the WA capacity of RAC. The positive influence of SCMs (SF [64],
compressive strength of RAC with varying types of SCM. GGBS[43], FA [33,65], and RHA [35]) on WA resistance of concrete
Using HSF and SCMs together, splitting tensile strength of RAC is mostly credited to the pozzolanic reaction and filler effect of
improves by 31–44%. Maximum splitting tensile strength (41– mineral admixtures.
44% more than that of the control RAC) is associated with RAC Together SCM and HSF can reduce the WA by more than 20–31%
made with 1% HSF and 10%SF. RAC with 15%RHA and 1% HSF also depending on the type of SCM and age of testing. Maximum
exhibits notably higher tensile strength (38–42% higher than that improvement (28–31%) in WA resistance is associated with RAC-
of the control RAC) compared to other concretes. HSF -RAC shows 1% HSF 10%SF, followed by RAC-1% HSF 15%RHA (improvement
the improvement of 34–41% and 31–39% with 30%GGBS and 20% of 26–29%). Moreover, the coupling effect of both SCM and fiber-
FA, respectively. Overview of improvements in splitting tensile reinforcement contributes to an additional improvement of 4–6%
strength caused by HSF and SCMs shows that efficiency of fiber- due to the refinement of ITZs between the HSF and binder matrix.
8 L.A. Qureshi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120636

Fig. 8. Splitting tensile strength of (a) Plain RAC (RPCA) and (b) Fiber reinforced RAC (FRAC) with different types of SCMs.

In the coupling effect of both SCM and HSF, the role of SCM is more
useful than that of the HSF as it causes the maximum improvement
in the permeability resistance of concrete.

3.2.2. Chloride penetration (CP)

Chloride ion penetration resistance is the important durability
parameter of concrete exposed to marine environments and deic-
ing salts. CP is the main cause of the deterioration of structural
steel which ultimately leads to failure of concrete structures.
Mainly due to increased porosity, RAC shows less CP resistance
than NAC [24]. The use of mineral admixtures greatly improves
the CP resistance of concrete which can increase the life of concrete
structures in chloride bearing environments. CP values of PRAC and
FRAC mix with varying types of SCM and age are shown in Fig. 12.
Reduction in CP depth with the inclusion of HSF and SCM is also
shown in Fig. 13. Both SCMs and HSF improve the CP resistance
of RAC.
Fig. 9. Improvement in Splitting Tensile Strength of RAC with the addition of 1% CP of RAC reduces by 2–7% due to fiber-reinforcement.
HSF and SCMs (10%SF, 30%GGBS, 20%FA and 15%RHA) w.r.t control RAC. Improvement in CP resistance due to HSF can be caused by a reduc-
tion in permeability of the specimen. These results are different
than those found out by Frazao et al. [63]. Frazao et al. reported

Fig. 10. 24-HR Water absorption (WA) capacity of (a) Plain RAC (RPCA) and (b) Fiber reinforced RAC (FRAC) with different types of SCMs.
 L.A. Qureshi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120636 9

Fig. 11. Reduction in Water Absorption Capacity of RAC with the addition of 1% HSF Fig. 13. Reduction of Chloride Penetration in RAC with the addition of 1% HSF and
and SCMs (10%SF, 30%GGBS, 20%FA and 15%RHA) w.r.t control RAC. SCMs (10%SF, 30%GGBS, 20%FA and 15%RHA) w.r.t control RAC.

that CP resistance of concrete reduces with the inclusion of steel to their high alumina contents than OPC binder. Higher alumina
fibers. The difference in the results of Frazao et al. and the present content leads to an increase in C3A which effectively binds chloride
study, is due to the adoption of different techniques to measure the ions [66]. Results of SF, GGBS, and FA are also in line with those of
CP resistance of concrete. Frazao et al. used rapid migration tech- Kou et al. [25]. Improvement order of CP resistance in the study of
nique that utilizes external aid of electrical charges to rapidly pass Kou et al. was (from higher to lower) GGBS, FA, and SF. Improvement
chloride ions through the specimen, whereas, in the present study, in CP resistance due to SF and RHA incorporation is largely caused by
immersion technique was used where chloride ions could pene- the growth of more C-S-H and filler effect. Whereas, in the case of FA
trate concrete slowly (given enough time) or naturally as they and GGBS concretes, in addition to pozzolanic reaction and filler
would do in the real environment. CP can increase due to the effect, chloride binding effect due to high alumina content, also con-
higher conductivity of steel fiber-reinforced concrete [43] if an tributes towards improvement in CP resistance.
external electrical charge is applied. Therefore, it is hypothesized Utilization of both HSF and SCMs improves the CP resistance of
that using rapid migration techniques can give a false interpreta- concrete by 40–67% depending upon the type of SCM and age of
tion of CP resistance of HSF reinforced concrete. testing. The maximum improvement of 63–67% in CP resistance
Using SCMs, CP resistance of RAC reduces by 21–46%. The is caused by 1% HSF and 30%GGBS. The benefits of coupling SCM
improvement order (from the lowest to highest) is 10%SF-RAC and HSF on CP resistance are more than the sum of benefits
(21–27% increase), 15%RHA-RAC (26–31% increase), 20%FA-RAC achieved due to their separate incorporation. For example, 30%
(30–40% increase), and 30%GGBS-RAC (44–46% increase). Improve- GGBS and 1% HSF individually improve the CP resistance by 44%
ment in CP resistance due to SCM is primarily ascribed to the and 7%, respectively, at 28-days, whereas, their combined incorpo-
reduced permeability of binder matrix owing to pozzolanic reac- ration improves the CP resistance by more than 63% at the same
tions and filler effect [25]. CP resistance of concrete also improves age, see Fig. 13. This shows the additional improvement of 12%
with increasing in alumina content of binder [66]. FA and GGBS achieved by coupling HSF and GGBS. Similar behavior is also
cause maximum improvement in CP resistance, this can be ascribed observed when other SCMs are coupled with HSF.

Fig. 12. Chloride Penetration (CP) after 28 and 90-days of immersion in 10%NaCl solution (a) Plain RAC (RPCA) and (b) Fiber reinforced RAC (FRAC) with different types of
SCMs.
10 L.A. Qureshi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120636

3.2.3. Acid attack resistance (AAR)

Various types of acids are present in the residential and indus-
trial wastewaters. Acids aggressively react with free portlandite
(CH) leading to the production of expansive salts in a neutraliza-
tion reaction. Unlike natural aggregate, RCA contains CH in the
adhered mortar and it has high porosity; therefore, RAC offers high
potential for acid attack deterioration (also known as calcification)
[11,67]. The loss in mass of each mix due to acid attack is shown in
Fig. 14. Improvement in AAR (or reduction in mass loss to acid
attack) due to the inclusion of HSF and SCM is also shown in
Fig. 15. Results show significant improvement in the AAR of RAC
due to the incorporation of both fibers and SCMs.
The inclusion of HSF improves the AAR of RAC by 15 and 17% at
28 and 90-days, respectively. The main reason for this improve-
ment can be ascribed to the restriction of permeation of sulfate
ions into the specimen. Moreover, expansion created by ettringite
production due to acid attack can be controlled effectively by fiber-
reinforcement. HSF also helps in maintaining the integrity of the
Fig. 15. Improvement in Acid Attack Resistance (AAR) of RAC with the addition of
concrete matrix even after deterioration caused by acid attack. 1% HSF and SCMs (10%SF, 30%GGBS, 20%FA and 15%RHA) w.r.t control RAC.
According to Bassuoni and Nehdi [68], fiber-reinforcement plays
a beneficial role in controlling cracks and improved tensile behav-
ior of binder matrix can lead to an increase in concrete’s integrity lin, on AAR of concrete, has been reported previously [69]. A study
under acidic attack. Fiber-reinforcement limits the expansion due reported [70] that slag promotes more gypsum production than FA,
to internal buildup of pressure from the production of gypsum that’s why GGBS concrete shows lesser resistance than other SCM-
and ettringite. concretes. But GGBS has lower lime content than that of the
AAR of RAC improves significantly with all types of SCMs. AAR cement; therefore, GGBS-concrete shows better AAR than OPC-
of RAC improves by 42–46%, 23–28%, 33–35%, and 36–40% with concrete. RHA concrete has also shown [35] better resistance than
the addition of 10%SF, 30%GGBS, 20%FA, and 15%RHA, respectively, that of the OPC concrete.
depending upon the age of exposure. These improvements in AAR The coupling effect of SCM and 1% HSF shows significant
can be ascribed to three main reasons (1) inclusion of SCM signif- improvement (52–83%) in AAR. Combined incorporation of 1%
icantly reduces the CaO content of binder that will ultimately pro- HSF and 10%SF improves the AAR of RAC by 74–83%. Similarly,
duce less quantity of CH compared to that of the OPC concrete (2) combined incorporation of 1% HSF and 20%FA improves the AAR
SCM inclusion causes a further reduction in CH by pozzolanic reac- of RAC by 64–81%. The composite effect of HSF and SCM again
tion and develop of durable and water-insoluble C-S-H (3) reduc- shows the conquest over the sum of the individual effects of HSF
tion in permeability due to filler effect of SCMs decreases the and SCM on the durability of RAC. Enhancement of bond strength
penetration of the aggressive acidic solution into the microstruc- of fibers with the binder matrix and reduction in permeability both
ture of RAC. Faster pozzolanic reactions in the case of SF-RAC causes phenomenal improvement in AAR of RAC.
ensure the highest AAR among all other SCM-concretes. Silica-
rich SCMs cause more improvements in AAR. For example, RHA 3.2.4. Significance of SCMs in corrosion resistance of steel fiber
owing to its high silica content causes more improvement in AAR reinforced RAC
than FA and GGBS. GGBS-concrete shows less resistance than other Loss of tensile strength of fiber-reinforced concretes exposed to
SCM-concretes due to its low silica content and high lime content. acidic and chloride environments, is an indicator of degradation of
The positive effect of mineral admixtures like FA, SF, and metakao- chemical constituents of concrete and reduction in bond strength

Fig. 14. Loss in Mass due acid attack after 28 and 90-days of immersion in 5%H2SO4 solution (a) Plain RAC (RPCA) and (b) Fiber reinforced RAC (FRAC) with different types of
SCMs.
 L.A. Qureshi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120636 11

Fig. 16. Loss in tensile strength of the specimens exposed to (a) chloride environment and (b) acidic environment after 90-days.

of steel fiber due to corrosion. The loss of splitting tensile strength 3. The tensile strength of RAC increased by 28% due to a 1% HSF
of fiber-reinforced concrete exposed to chemical environments is addition. SCM inclusion also caused improvements of 7–14%.
calculated using Eq.(3). These results depicted in Fig. 16 show that Coupling effect of 1% HSF and 10%SF increased the splitting ten-
mixes having SCMs show lesser strength degradation in chemical sile strength by 41–44%. The coupling effect of fibers and other
environments than fiber-reinforced mixes without SCM. The supe- SCMs also improved the tensile strength by more than 39% at
rior performance of SCM mixes has already been ascribed to the the age of 90-days.
strengthening of the binder matrix due to the better pore size 4. It is suggested that the addition of SCM in the binder matrix
refinements and pozzolanic reactions. Less penetration of chlorides increases the pullout and bond strength of steel fibers. There-
due to SCMs protects the alkaline layer around steel fibers which fore, the coupling effect of HSF and SCM show more benefit
helps in retaining bond strength of fibers with the binder matrix. than the sum of benefits of their individual incorporation in
RAC.
f STS Exposed
f STS Loss ð%Þ ¼ ð1  Þ  100 ð3Þ 5. In the coupling effect of SCM and HSF on water absorption
f STSNormal (WA) capacity of RAC, SCM played a more useful role in terms
fSTS_Loss = Loss in tensile strength (%). of improving the permeability resistance of concrete. On the
fSTS_Exposed = Tensile strength of steel fiber reinforced RAC after other hand, HSF inclusion slightly changed the WA resistance
exposure to chemical environment (MPa). of concrete. With the combined incorporation of SCM (SF,
fSTS_Normal = Tensile strength of unexposed steel fiber-reinforced GGBS, RHA, and FA) and HSF, WA of RAC can be reduced by
concrete (MPa). 20–31%.
6. Chloride ion penetration (CP) resistance was enhanced by 20–
4. Conclusions 46% with the SCM inclusion in the binder matrix. 1% HSF inclu-
sion improved the CP resistance by about 2–7%. In both plain
In this study, coupling effects of hook-ended steel fibers (HSF) and HSF-reinforced RAC mixes, maximum CP resistance was
(1% volume fraction) and supplementary cementitious materials noticed with GGBS. FA-RAC showed better CP resistance than
(SCMs) (10% silica fume (SF), 30% ground-granulated blast furnace that of the SF and RHA-RAC. Coupling 30%GGBS and 1% HSF
slag (GGBS), 20% fly ash (FA), and 15% rice husk ash (RHA)) were improved the CP resistance of RAC by 64 and 67% at 28 and
studied on mechanical and durability properties of recycled aggre- 90-days, respectively.
gate concrete (RAC). Following are the important conclusions 7. Acid attack resistance (AAR) was substantially increased by the
derived from the experimental results: addition of both fiber-reinforcement and SCMs. 1% of HSF
improved the AAR of RAC by 15–17%. The addition of SCMs
1. Inclusion of SCMs and HSF improved the compressive strength (without fibers) increased the AAR of RAC by 21–46%. In terms
of RAC at both 28 and 90-days. Use of 15%RHA and 10%SF was of AAR, 10%SF-RAC and 15%RHA-RAC were superior to 20%FA-
more effective in improving (7–19%) the compressive strength RAC and 30%GGBS-RAC. Coupling effect of 1% HSF and 10%
of RAC than that of the 20%FA and 30%GGBS. Inclusion of 1% SF/15%RHA improves the AAR of RAC by 66–74% and 80–82%
HSF increased (5.5–7%) the compressive strength of RAC. 1% at 28 and 90-days, respectively.
HSF + 10%SF and 1% HSF + 15%RHA improved the compressive
strength of RAC by 22–25% and 18–24%, respectively.
2. The coupling effect of SCMs and fiber-reinforcement signifi- CRediT authorship contribution statement
cantly improved the elastic modulus of RAC. A maximum
improvement of 14.5–23% in the elastic modulus was caused Liaqat Ali Qureshi: Data curation, Writing - original draft,
by the combined incorporation of 1% HSF and 10%SF. Combined Conceptualization, Methodology. Babar Ali: Data curation,
incorporation of 20%FA/30%GGBS and 1% HSF also caused Conceptualization, Writing - review & editing. Asad Ali: Validation,
improvement of 16% in elastic modulus of RAC at 90-days. Formal analysis, Resources.
12 L.A. Qureshi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120636

Declaration of Competing Interest Aggregates, Civ. Eng. J. 5 (2019) 1007–1019, https://doi.org/10.28991/cej-

2019-03091307.
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