Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 64 (2024) 103710

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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/seta

Original article

Experimental investigation into the potential of recycled concrete and

waste glass powders for improving the sustainability and performance of
cement mortars properties
Ahmed Abderraouf Belkadi a, Oussama Kessal a, Amirouche Berkouche a, Ammar Noui a,
Salah Eddine Daguiani b, Meriem Dridi c, Samir Benaniba d, e, Tahar Tayebi e, *
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Mohamed El-Bachir El-Ibrahimi University of Bordj Bou Arreridj, Algeria
b
Laboratory of Exploitation and Valorization of Natural Resources in Arid Areas (E.V.R.N.Z.A.), Department of Civil Engineering and Hydraulic, Faculty of Applied
Sciences, Kasdi Merbah University of Ouargla, 30000, Algeria
c
LARGHYDE Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering and Hydraulic, University of Mohamed Khider Biskra, Biskra, Algeria
d
Laboratory of Electro-Mechanic Systems (LASEM), National School of Engineers of Sfax (ENIS), University of Sfax, B.P. 1173, km 3.5 Soukra, 3038 Sfax, Tunisia
e
Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University Mohamed El Bachir El Ibrahimi of Bordj Bou Arreridj, El-Anasser, 34030, Algeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This comprehensive experimental investigation delves into the world of sustainable mortar mixtures by intro­
Glass powder ducing recycled concrete powder (RP) and waste glass powder (GP) as partial substitutes for conventional
Recycled concrete powder Portland cement (OPC). The primary goal is to assess how these substitutions affect the mechanical, physical, and
Durability
durability characteristics of mortar. RP and GP are individually and jointly incorporated at substitution rates of
Chemical attack
10 %, 15 %, and 20 % by weight of cement. The study encompasses a wide range of tests, including compressive
Carbon footprint
and flexural strengths, acid resistance, workability, and microstructural analysis. The study shows that replacing
10 % cement with RP increases mortar compressive strength by 13.28 % after 90 days, and a combination of 15
% GP and RP improves mortar durability against chemical attack. Economic evaluations confirm cost savings
exceeding 10 % for all blended mortars compared to OPC. The environmental perspective, explored through a
carbon footprint assessment, demonstrates substantial reductions in CO2 emissions when RP and GP are
employed in lieu of OPC. Overall, this study highlights the potential of utilizing recycled materials, to enhance
the performance and durability of cement-based concrete production.

Introduction of CDW, resulting in negative environmental and health consequences

[8,9]. Thus, it is imperative to develop sustainable approaches to
Background manage CDW, promoting recycling, reuse, and resource recovery while
minimizing waste generation [3,10].
As urbanization increases, construction and demolition wastes Furthermore, cement serves as a pivotal binding agent in the
(CDW) are a significant global issue. CDW, made up of materials like manufacturing of concrete, which ranks as the second most widely
concrete, glass, wood, plastics, and metals, is produced during building consumed material globally, following only water [11,12]. However,
construction, renovation, and demolition. The European Union esti­ cement production remains an energy-intensive and carbon-emitting
mates it accounts for over 25 % of all waste, while the United States process, primarily due to the high temperatures (1450 ◦ C) required in
accounts for 35 % [1–5]. kilns for clinker formation through limestone calcination and raw ma­
Despite the significant environmental impact and economic potential terial thermal treatment [13–16]. The calcination process alone ac­
associated with CDW, there is a lack of effective policies and strategies to counts for 50 to 60 % of the emissions generated during cement
manage this waste stream [6,7]. This situation has led to illegal dumping production [17]. Simultaneously, the concrete industry exacerbates the

Abbreviations: CDW, Construction and Demolition Waste; ACM, Alternative Cementitious Material; GP, Glass Powder; RP, Recycled Concrete Powder; C-S-H,
Calcium Silicate Hydrate; OPC, Ordinary Portland Cement; CS, Compressive Strength; FS, Flexural Strength; SEM, Scanning Electron Microscopy.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (T. Tayebi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2024.103710
Received 12 September 2023; Received in revised form 7 February 2024; Accepted 23 February 2024
Available online 26 February 2024
2213-1388/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Abderraouf Belkadi et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 64 (2024) 103710

depletion of natural resources by utilizing 10 to 15 % of globally unregulated CDW disposal and evaluating existing global policies and
extracted sand and aggregates [7]. To address these mounting envi­ strategies related to CDW management. Additionally, we seek to explore
ronmental pressures, the partial replacement of clinker with alternative the environmental challenges associated with traditional cement pro­
cementitious materials (ACMs) within binding systems has become a duction, assess the potential of ACMs in reducing the environmental
significant priority [18]. footprint, and investigate the environmental impact of glass waste
Lately, There is increasing interest in using glass waste as a substitute disposal, considering its potential use in cementitious systems.
for cement in construction materials to reduce environmental impact Furthermore, we aim to explore the incorporation of RP in concrete
and promote circular economy principles [19,20]. Glass, an inert ma­ production and investigate the individual and combined use of RP and
terial remaining chemically stable for thousands of years, lies at the GP in construction materials. The analysis will focus on their impact on
heart of this initiative. In Europe and the United States, approximately the characteristics of mortars in both fresh and hardened states,
13 million tons of glass waste are annually deposited in landfills [21,22]. considering parameters such as workability, compressive and flexural
Because of its pozzolanic activity, enhanced workability, and increased strength, and resistance to sulfuric acid attack. Additionally, we conduct
strength, recycled glass may find use in cement mortars, particularly as a an economic and environmental analysis of the various mortars pro­
fine aggregate [23–26]. Nevertheless, the incorporation of fine glass duced. Through these comprehensive research objectives, our study
particles in mortars can also alter their mechanical behavior and dura­ aims to contribute valuable insights into sustainable CDW management
bility, factors dependent on aspects like particle size, content, and sur­ and the development of eco-friendly cementitious materials.
face properties [27–30].
Islam et al. [31] found that adding glass powders to concrete im­ Materials and methods
proves its flowability and strength. They recommend a glass content of
20 % to achieve optimal results, which can reduce production costs and Materials
environmental impact.
Aliabdo et al. [32] reported a compressive strength exceeding 60 The study utilized CEMI-type Portland cement, which had a fineness
MPa after 28 days for a 25 % cement replacement rate, comparable to of 350 kg/m2 and a density of 3100 kg/m3. Standardized silica sand (0/
control samples. Particle size and the fineness of GP prove to be critical, 3) following the EN196-1 standard [45] was also employed. Glass waste
with studies recommending particles smaller than 38 μm for optimal was subjected to grinding processes, resulting in a fineness of 450 kg/m2
strength [33,34]. (GP). Similarly, demolished concrete stones were crushed to achieve a
Construction and demolition activities generate over 900 million fineness of 500 kg/m2 (RP). The appearance of glass and concrete waste
tons of concrete debris annually in the European Union and 140 million after grinding is displayed in Fig. S1. X-Ray Fluorescence was employed
tons in the United States [35,36]. Recycling procedures enable the to analyze the chemical compositions of OPC, RP, and GP materials. GP
categorization of concrete waste into recycled coarse aggregates (RCA), exhibits a substantial quantity of silicate minerals, with SiO2 accounting
recycled fine aggregates (RFA), and recycled powder (RP) [3]. Nagataki for 70.47 % of its composition, in contrast to RP, which contains 47.6 %
et al.’s study [37] reveals that 60 % of RCA and 40 % of RFA are SiO2. Conversely, RP contains a significantly higher amount of calcium
generated from one ton of concrete, with further crushing increasing oxide (CaO) at approximately 39.2 %, compared to GP, which has 8.81
RFA. % CaO.
Recycling concrete in cement production addresses two environ­ The particle size distributions of OPC, GP, and RP show distinct
mental challenges: diverting solid waste from landfills and reducing the characteristics. GP exhibits a broader spectrum of particle sizes, ranging
carbon footprint associated with cement production, as per studies from 2.16 µm (at 10 %) to 24.55 µm (at 90 %), indicating the presence of
[38,48,3,39]. fine particles. In contrast, RP demonstrates a narrower range, from 3.98
Studies have examined the impact of replacing cement with a pro­ µm (at 10 %) to 71.87 µm (at 90 %), with a higher median particle size of
portion of 10 to 50 % RP on the characteristics of new concrete mixtures. 32 µm compared to GP’s 11.81 µm.
According to Ma et al.’s study [40], the decrease in compressive strength
in comparison to the control concrete with a 10 % substitution of RP Mixtures’ preparation
ranged from only 0.4 % to 3.4 %. Thomas et al. [41] noticed alterations
in the structure of C-S-H gels following the incorporation of RP. Coppola The mortars investigated in this research were manufactured
et al.’s study [42] on RP-based concrete durability revealed that following the standard guidelines outlined in EN 196–1 [45]. The
increased RP content enhances resistance to freeze–thaw, alkali-silica experimental approach involved partial replacement of cement with GP
reaction, and reinforcement corrosion due to finer pore structure. and RP at weight percentages up to 20 %, using various ratios as indi­
Substituting RP with mineral admixtures like silica fume or meta­ cated in Table 1. To ensure consistency, a fixed water/binder ratio of
kaolin improves recycled mortar characteristics. According to Liu et al. 0.50 and a sand-to-cement ratio of 3:1 was maintained during the
[43], adding nano-silica to recycled concrete powder in mortar improves preparation of the mixtures. After molding for a duration of 24 h, the
chloride corrosion resistance by reducing ion diffusion. mortars were carefully submerged in water at a controlled temperature
According to this review, it is concluded that the introduction of an of 23 ± 2 ◦ C.
active additive with RP can significantly enhance the mechanical,
physical, and durability characteristics of cementitious materials Experimental tests
[43,44]. Previous research has not specifically examined the combined
use of RP and GP in construction, despite their significant environmental Table S1 provides an overview of the experimental tests conducted
and economic benefits. This combination bypasses screening and in this study, along with their respective fields of application and mea­
filtering processes, and GP can induce alkali-silica reactions in cemen­ surement times.
titious materials. To mitigate this, RP can be added with a small amount
of silica. GP’s high reactivity makes its presence with RP potentially Results and discussion
improve certain properties.
Fresh properties
Research objectives
Slump test
In this study, we aim to address the critical global challenge of In Fig. 1, a significant improvement in the workability of cement
effectively managing CDW by examining the environmental impact of mortars is evident with the addition of GP, proportional to the cement

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A. Abderraouf Belkadi et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 64 (2024) 103710

Table 1
The studied mixtures.
CM M10G M15G M20G M10R M15R M20R M10GR M15GR M20GR

Cement 450 405 382.5 360 405 382.5 360 405 382.5 360
RP – – – 45 67.5 90 22.5 33.75 45
GP – 45 67.5 90 – – – 22.5 33.75 45
Sand 1350 1350 1350 1350 1350 1350 1350 1350 1350 1350
Water 225 225 225 225 225 225 225 225 225 225

Fig. 1. Slump test results for different mortar mixtures.

substitution rate. CM has a slump value of 127.5 mm, while M− 10G,

M− 15G, and M− 20G exhibit slumps of 132.5 mm, 135 mm, and 137.5
mm, consistent with prior studies [31,46]. This enhancement is attrib­
uted to the surface texture of GP, reducing interparticle friction, pro­ Fig. 2. Compressive strength outcomes at 7, 28, and 90 days for different
moting particle dispersion, and increasing the surface area for mortar combinations
interaction with the cement matrix [25,47].
RP initially enhances workability with an 8 % increase at a 10 % M− 15GR and M− 20GR show a slight reduction in strength (3.2 % and
replacement rate. However, beyond this threshold, workability de­ 5.8 %), while M− 10GR exhibits a 5.1 % increase, supporting the con­
creases, still surpassing CM. M− 15R and M− 20R exhibit slumps of 130 sistency of binary blend results.
mm and 128 mm. This reduction is linked to RP’s influence on water At 90 days, M− 10G, M− 15G, and M− 20G show significant increases
demand and compaction density, consistent with other researchers [27]. (23.4 %, 13.2 %, and 2.1 %) compared to CM, linked to the fineness of
RP’s angular shape and rough texture increase interparticle friction, GP particles expediting the pozzolanic reaction. M− 10R and M− 15R
compromising workability, particularly at higher replacement rates. display increases of 19.7 % and 5.1 %, showcasing the pozzolanic
High slump in M− 10GR indicates a significant 16 % improvement behavior of RP. Ternary blends M− 15GR and M− 20GR reveal a
compared to CM, showcasing a synergistic effect between GP and RP, reduction in strength (2.3 % and 7.1 %), while M− 10GR shows a 5.2 %
mitigating RP’s negative impact on workability. M− 15GR and M− 20GR increase.
slumps are marginally greater than CM, reinforcing the idea that a
balanced GP and RP combination enhances workability. Flexural strength
Fig. 3 presents flexural strength outcomes at 7, 28, and 90 days.
Hardened properties

Compressive strength
Fig. 2 illustrates compressive strengths of mortars with GP, RP, and
combined GP and RP at various ages.
At 7 days, all mortars, including those with GP, RP, and ternary
blends, exhibit lower compressive strengths than CM (48.3 MPa) due to
increased cement substitution. Factors like lower reactivity of GP and RP
particles, incomplete cement hydration, and alkali dissolution from glass
particles contribute to this reduction [48,49].
After 28 days, M− 10G shows a slight 2 % increase (49.2 MPa)
attributed to the fineness of GP particles accelerating the pozzolanic
reaction. However, M− 15G and M− 20G experience 8.7 % and 4 % de­
creases, consistent with prior research attributing this reduction to
limited adhesion at the interface between cement and GP particles
[50,51]. M− 10R exhibits a 12.9 % increase (54.2 MPa) due to the
increased fineness of RP accelerating the pozzolanic reaction, while
M− 15R and M− 20R display 5.8 % and 9.8 % decreases, attributed to the
substantial quantity and low reactivity of RP. Regarding ternary blends, Fig. 3. Flexural strength results at different ages for various mortar mixtures.

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A. Abderraouf Belkadi et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 64 (2024) 103710

At 7 days, M− 10G and M− 15G exhibit 10.6 % and 12 % strength inclusion of these powders can reduce microcracks in mortars, thereby
increases compared to CM, attributed to GP’s filling effect [48]. M− 10R enhancing the mechanical properties of the materials. EDX spectra 4
shows a 6.2 % increase. Replacing 15 % of cement with RP leads to a 2.4 reveals a homogenous composition including Ca(OH)2 consistent with
% flexural strength increase, attributed to RP’s micro-powder properties enhanced hydration and filler effects from RP.
[25]. Ternary blends M− 15GR and M− 20GR show slight strength de­ For the ternary paste (10 % GP and RP), a combination of GP and RP
creases (3.7 % and 0.7 %) at 7 days, with a 7.4 % increase for M− 10GR. can potentially result in a slightly less compact microstructure with
At 28 days, GP-mortars sustain improvements (2.8 % for M− 10G), numerous pores, voids, and microcracks within the matrix. However,
highlighting GP’s superior pozzolanic reactivity. M− 10R shows similar this structure remains less cracked than OPC. EDX spectra 5 shows a
strength to CM. Ternary blends show strength decreases due to GP and hybrid composition with elements from the individual powders.
RP attenuating the pozzolanic reaction. The SEM analysis provides a visual representation of microstruc­
At 90 days, GP-mortars maintain strength improvements (2.2 % for tures, revealing the impact of RP and GP on mortar matrix, contributing
M− 10G). M− 10R experiences a 2.5 % increase. Ternary blends to a deeper understanding of how additives influence microstructural
M− 15GR and M− 20GR show 3 % and 9.4 % strength decreases characteristics and mechanical properties of sustainable mortar
compared to CM, while M− 10GR exhibits a 2 % increase. mixtures.

SEM analysis Sulfuric acid attack

The morphologies of pastes formulated with different types and
quantities of recycled powders are shown in Fig. 4. Effect on compressive strength. In Fig. 5, the impact of sulfuric acid
As shown in Fig. 4 a, significant microcracks, as well as pores and (H2SO4) on mortar compressive strength after 30 days is illustrated. All
voids, are present within the reference OPC paste [52]. These imper­
fections can subsequently reduce the efficiency of the bond among the
hydrates in the cement paste [53]. Consequently, after 28 days of curing,
the OPC paste is primarily composed of hydrated lime (CH). These pores
are mainly attributed to poor particle compaction [7]. EDX mapping
(Fig. 4 b) of the control OPC paste confirmed the formation of C-S-H and
hydrated lime Ca(OH)2 as primary reaction products, in line with typical
OPC hydration chemistry (spectra 1 and 2).
In contrast, for the paste incorporating 10 % replacement of cement
by GP, a silica-rich layer forms on the surface of the GP particles because
of their incomplete dissolution [54]. The silicate molecules in this layer
undergo depolymerization, which subsequently reacts with calcium to
create the C–S–H reaction rim. Additionally, the dissolved silica can
engage with the hydrated lime Ca(OH)2, leading to the generation of an
external product C–S–H and consequently reducing the Ca/Si ratio. EDX
spectra 3 verifies the elevated silica content and depolymerization into
C-S-H at the GP surface, indicating pozzolanic reactivity.
Regarding the 10 % RP paste, a more uniform and smoother texture
is observed. This indicates that adding 10 % of RP results in a denser
microstructure with reduced microcracks [55]. This improvement re­
sults from the combined effect of marginally increased hydration and the Fig. 5. Effect of sulfuric acid exposure on compressive strength of various
filling effect of RP particles. This observation demonstrates that the mortar types after 40 days.

Fig. 4. (a) Comparative Analysis of the Morphology of Various Types of Pastes (b) EDX spectra of the four pastes analyzed.

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A. Abderraouf Belkadi et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 64 (2024) 103710

mortars exhibit reduced compressive strength, indicating acid-induced weight loss compared to RP alone. The synergistic benefits include
structural deterioration. The control mortar experiences a 12.08 % better particle packing, higher pozzolanic activity, and the presence of
strength loss (42.46 MPa) after exposure to 3.5 % sulfuric acid, show­ aged hydrates, making the mortar more resistant to acid. As the com­
casing degradation of the plain Portland cement matrix. bined GP and RP content increases, weight loss slows down, empha­
For GP mortars, M− 10G displays enhanced acid resistance (11.6 % sizing the effectiveness of the balanced GP-RP combination for acid-
strength loss, 43.5 MPa) due to GP’s pozzolanic activity and improved resistant mortars.
particle packing at 10 % replacement [56]. However, M− 15G and
M− 20G show substantial losses (21 % and 30.7 %) due to incomplete
Cost analysis
pozzolanic reactivity, increased porosity, and impaired hydration at
higher GP levels.
The economic viability of partially substituting OPC with GP and RP
RP mortars suffer severe strength losses (18.9 % to 30.2 %) attributed
in eco-mortar production will be assessed by comparing the costs of
to RP’s porous nature, irregular morphology, and poor adhesion,
treating and processing RP and GP to the market price of cement. This
intensifying acid vulnerability. Higher RP content exacerbates these
analysis aims to determine if utilizing these waste materials as cement
effects, with 20 % RP mortar experiencing the most significant 30.2 %
substitutes is a cost-effective approach for creating sustainable and low-
strength loss.
carbon construction materials.
Ternary mortars (M− 20GR) exhibit intermediate 12.2 % strength
The treatment costs for RP and GP involve crushing, grinding, and
reduction, surpassing binary systems’ acid resistance (18.9 % to 30.7 %).
sieving to achieve the desired fineness and particle size distribution.
The synergy of GP’s microfiller effect and RP’s ongoing hydration
Cement plants must crush and mill waste glass and concrete to a fine
minimizes connected porosity, restricting acid penetration [57]. The
powder consistency. The energy required can be calculated using Bond’s
higher total powder content (20 %) further enhances microstructural
third theory of comminution, considering the work index and feed/
improvements, achieving compressive strength reduction close to the
product sizes [61]. The crushing energy for one ton of waste glass and
control mortar. This highlights the potential of a balanced GP-RP com­
recycled concrete can be calculated using the following bond relation­
bination for durable mortars in acidic environments.
ship (4):

loss. In Fig. 6, weight loss results for mortars after acid exposure are 1 1
E = 10*Wi(√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ − √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ) (4)
presented. The control mortar experiences a 1.56 % weight loss due to P80 F80
acid attack on major hydration products (CH and C-S-H gels), leading to
increased capillary porosity and enhanced permeability [58,59]. With:
M− 10G shows a reduced 1.43 % weight loss, attributed to pore E: Specific energy consumption (in kWh per metric ton).
structure enhancements from fine GP particles promoting dense particle Wi: Bond Index for ball mills (in kWh per metric ton).
packing. The reduction in mass loss in GP mortars may involve GP’s P80: Sieve mesh size through which 80 % of the crushed material passes
pozzolanic reaction, consuming CH [58,60]. However, at higher GP (in µm). The “P” stands for “Product”.
contents (15–20 %), weight losses increase, indicating incomplete F80: Sieve mesh size through which 80 % of the feed material (before
pozzolanic reaction and heightened vulnerability to acid attack. The 10 crushing) passes (in µm). The “F” stands for “Feed”.
% GP replacement ratio appears optimal, balancing pozzolanic reac­ Based on the SME Handbook for Mineral Processing [62], the Bond
tivity and chemical resistance. Indices for ball mills handling glass and concrete waste are 13.57 and
For mortars with 10 %, 15 %, and 20 % RP, weight losses of 1.74 %, 13.6 kWh/ton, respectively. For example, with a Bond work index of
2.20 %, and 2.36 % are observed, reflecting increased binder decom­ 13.6 kWh/ton, and feed and product sizes of 5 mm and 32 µm, the
position and susceptibility to acid damage. RP introduces heterogeneity theoretical crushing energy would be approximately 22.11 kWh/ton.
and acid-reactive sites, and the presence of aged, hydrated cement paste In Algeria, where the local industrial electricity rate stands at $0.03/
adhering to RP enhances porosity, facilitating acid attack and weight kWh [63] the cost of crushing per ton would be as indicated in Fig. 7.
loss. The cost analysis indicates highly favorable economic viability of
Ternary mortars exhibit intermediate weight loss (1.13 % to 1.73 %) integrating RP and GP as partial substitutes of cement in eco-mortar
between individual powder systems. The combination of GP and RP production. All of the mortar formulations analyzed, with cement sub­
provides protection against acid-induced degradation, with reduced stitution levels of 10–20 % by RP, GP, or combined RP and GP, met the
defined criteria for viability of at least 10 % cost compared to an ordi­
nary Portland cement baseline mortar. The cost savings realized from

Fig. 7. Cost-benefit analysis of mortar mixtures with RP and GP cement

Fig. 6. Weight loss results for all mortar samples after acid exposure. replacements.

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A. Abderraouf Belkadi et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 64 (2024) 103710

using the sustainable cement substitutes ranged from 9.8 % up to 19.8 Remarkably, these emissions savings intensified as the replacement
%, with increasing savings observed at higher replacement levels. These levels increased, highlighting the progressive benefits of integrating
substantial cost reductions provide a compelling economic incentive for these environmentally friendly waste materials.
adoption of RP and GP in cementitious construction materials.
Conclusion

Carbon footprint This comprehensive study sheds light on the potential of sustainable
mortar mixtures through the integration of recycled concrete powder
Substituting GP and RP for a portion of cement represents one po­ and waste glass powder as alternatives to conventional Portland cement.
tential approach, but the relative emissions savings must be quantified. The principal findings can be condensed as follows:
This analysis aims to compare the CO2 emissions associated with
grinding RP and GP to those from cement production. • Noteworthy improvements in compressive strength at 28 and 90
As determined previously in the cost analysis, the energy required to days were observed with 10 % cement replacement by GP, RP, and a
grind recycled concrete waste and waste glass to a suitable fineness can combination of both compared to control mortar (CM). While nu­
be calculated using Bond’s comminution equation based on work index merical details were presented in the results, it’s essential to high­
and feed/product particle sizes [61]. For RP, with a Bond work index of light the positive trends observed across all replacement scenarios.
13.6 kWh/ton and feed and product sizes of 5 mm and 32 µm, the • The replacement of 10 % cement with GP, RP, or a combination led
theoretical grinding energy is approximately 22.11 kWh/ton. For GP, to enhanced flexural strength at all curing ages (7, 28, and 90 days).
with a work index of 13.57 kWh/ton and feed and product sizes of 3 mm Particularly, M− 10GR exhibited a remarkable 5 % improvement at
and 11.81μ m, the required grinding energy equals roughly 37.01 kWh/ 90 days, indicating the potential of these replacements for enhancing
ton. the mortar’s flexural properties.
To estimate the carbon footprint, these electrical energy re­ • Workability testing revealed an increased water demand for all
quirements are converted to equivalent CO2 emissions using the grid blends compared to CM. This increase in water demand was directly
emissions factor. The extent of CO2 emissions linked to electricity pro­ correlated with the replacement rate and was observed consistently
duction is contingent on the carbon content of the fuel employed. In across all mixtures.
Algeria, electricity generation is predominantly driven by the utilization • SEM analysis revealed significant microcracks and pores in the OPC
of natural gas. Renowned for its environmental advantages, natural gas paste due to poor compaction, resulting in a dominance of hydrated
is acknowledged as a cleaner energy source due to its lower carbon di­ lime (CH) after 28 days. In contrast, the 10 % GP replacement
oxide emissions per unit of energy generated. This attribute renders it an showed a silica-rich layer on GP particles, confirming pozzolanic
appealing option in contrast to more carbon-intensive fossil fuels such as reactivity. The 10 % RP paste exhibited a denser microstructure with
coal or oil, thereby aiding in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions reduced microcracks, attributed to increased hydration and RP’s
and fostering alignment with sustainability goals. As reported by Eco­ filling effect. The ternary paste displayed a slightly less compact
metrica [64], the average emissions per kilowatt-hour (kWh) of microstructure with some pores and microcracks but remained less
consumed electricity in Algeria amount to approximately 0.73 kg of CO2 cracked than OPC.
(kgCO2/kWh). Table S2 displays the emissions for RP and GP grinding. • The study demonstrated the acid resistance of M10G and M20GR,
The typical range for CO2 emissions in the manufacturing of one ton showcasing the potential for enhanced durability. However, an
of cement is between 900 and 1100 kg. For this analysis, the average optimal replacement level of around 10 % was suggested, with
value within this range were considered, which is 1000 kg [65–67]. M20GR displaying promising trends in resistance.
Fig. 8 illustrates the carbon footprint associated with mortar mixtures • Economic analysis demonstrated the excellent feasibility of partial
incorporating RP and GP as cement replacements. The analysis of cement replacement with RP and GP, with cost savings exceeding 10
calculated CO2 emissions underscores the remarkable potential for % across all mixtures. This not only underscores the environmental
substantial reduction by incorporating RP and GP as alternative mate­ benefits but also emphasizes the cost-effectiveness of these sustain­
rials in place of Portland cement within mortars. Both RP and GP mor­ able materials.
tars displayed a commendable decrease in carbon footprints, with • The carbon footprint assessment revealed significant reductions in
reductions ranging from 9.7 % to 19.7 % for RP and 9.8 % to 19.7 % for CO2 emissions from incorporating RP and GP into mortar mixtures,
GP in comparison to a baseline of ordinary Portland cement. ranging from 9.7 % to 19.7 %, compared to ordinary Portland cement
as the baseline.

Implications to theory and practice

This study’s findings have significant implications for both theoret­

ical understanding and practical applications within the realm of sus­
tainable construction materials. The integration of recycled concrete
powder and waste glass powder at optimal levels offers a viable and eco-
friendly alternative to traditional Portland cement. The enhanced
technical properties observed in the mortar mixtures present a pathway
for advancing sustainable practices in the construction industry.

Key lessons learned

Several key lessons emerge from the comprehensive analysis of

sustainable mortar mixtures. Noteworthy insights include the impact of
replacement ratios on compressive and flexural strength, workability,
and durability. Understanding these lessns is crucial for informing future
Fig. 8. Carbon footprint of mortar mixtures with RP and GP cement research and guiding practical applications in the development of
replacements. environmentally friendly construction materials.

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A. Abderraouf Belkadi et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 64 (2024) 103710

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