Journal of Cleaner Production 251 (2020) 119752

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

A unified model for predicting the compressive strength of recycled

aggregate concrete containing supplementary cementitious materials
Tianyu Xie a, *, Guosong Yang b, Xinyu Zhao c, **, Jinjun Xu b, ***, Chengfeng Fang d
a
School of Engineering, RMIT University, Victoria, 3000, Australia
b
College of Civil Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 211816, China
c
State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Building Science, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, China
d
School of Civil, Environmental and Mining Engineering, The University of Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Raising environmental awareness has triggered extensive searching for methods to mitigate impacts of
Received 15 August 2019 concrete industry on the environment. Feasible solutions include partially replacing nature aggregates by
Received in revised form recycled concrete aggregates (RCAs) in new concrete production, and/or using supplementary cemen-
12 December 2019
titious materials (SCMs) to substitute a fraction of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) binder. However,
Accepted 15 December 2019
Available online 18 December 2019
SCMs of a given type generally have a broad chemical composition compared to OPC; the inherent
inferior properties of RCAs often reduce the mechanical strength of resulting concrete. These two factors
Handling Editor: Lei Shi pose great challenges to accurately predict the compressive strength of concrete containing SCMs and
RCAs. In this study, a unified model is proposed by considering the reactivity of SCM and the physical
Keywords: characteristics of RCAs in a concrete mix and calibrated based on an extensive experimental database
Supplementary cementitious material containing 654 individual datasets. The proposed model predicts the compressive strength of recycled
Recycled concrete aggregate aggregate concrete containing SCMs not only with a good accuracy but also with strong chemical and
Hydration physical senses, hence providing a useful design tool and, ultimately, promoting application of such
Pozzolanic reaction
green concrete products and contributing to experimental friendliness.
Recycled aggregate concrete
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Unified model

1. Introduction consumes large amounts of coarse and fine natural aggregates (NA),
where around 70% volume of a conventional concrete mix is
Concrete has become, by far, the most commonly-used con- occupied by aggregates (Behera et al., 2014; Dilbas et al., 2014;
struction material in the world (Mehta and Meryman, 2009; Xie Mefteh et al., 2013; Torgal and Jalali, 2011). According to statistics
and Fang, 2019), where the majority of concrete products conven- provided by Freedonia group (Freedonia, 2016), approximately 4
tionally adopt ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and nature aggre- billion tons of OPCs and 40 billion tons of natural aggregates (NA)
gate as their primary binder and skeleton, respectively. To produce are being required by the world construction sector annually. It
a commercial grade of OPC, limestone needs to be mined, mixed estimates that the global demand for these two construction ma-
with other mineral materials (e.g. clay), heated with a temperature terials will rise to 6 billion- and 53 billion-tons respectively in the
up to 1450
C and then carefully ground and blended with gypsum next 5e10 years (USGS, 2015). In the meantime, the rapid infra-
(Fairbairn et al., 2010; Tosti et al., 2018). This energy- and resource- structure developments and renovations of existing structures have
intensive manufacturing process of OPC leaves notable impacts on led to a rising rate of demolishing old structures, as prompted by
environmental appearances, for instance, vast volume of green- the limited availability of construction sites. These have subse-
house gas emissions. The extensive usage of concrete also quently resulted in generations of large amounts of construction
and demolition (C&D) wastes. However, very little C&D waste is
currently recycled and reused in structural concrete, with that the
majority of these C&D waste is either disposed in landfills at sig-
* Corresponding author. nificant cost and depletes landfill space (Wang et al., 2019; Xie et al.,
** Corresponding author.
2018a,b; Xu et al., 2018, 2019a), or ineffectively used as base course
*** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (T. Xie), [email protected] materials in road pavements.
(X. Zhao), [email protected] (J. Xu). Of late years, raising awareness on environmental issues has

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119752
0959-6526/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 T. Xie et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 251 (2020) 119752

resulted in significant research efforts devoted to limiting and properties of concrete should be considered, which subsequently
addressing the challenges caused by the concrete industry. They and significantly increases the number of trials needed. Some at-
generally focus on minimizing the impacts of OPC manufacture (e.g. tempts to predict the compressive strength of RACs have been re-
limiting CO2 emission and energy demand), conserving of natural ported in the literature which generally fall into two categories; the
resources (e.g. limestone and coal sources), and reusing of C&D first one is those empirically derived based on the experimental
wastes (e.g. preventing depletion of natural aggregates and landfill results, such as those reported in (Lovato et al., 2012; Pereira et al.,
spaces). One of the mostly adopted approaches to limiting the CO2 2012; Sriravindrarajah et al., 2012; Thomas et al., 2013; Xiao et al.,
emissions of concrete binder is via the partial replacement of OPC 2006; Younis and Pilakoutas, 2013); the second one is based on
with supplementary cementitious materials (SCM), such as indus- machine learning approaches (e.g. (Dantas et al., 2013; Duan et al.,
trial by-products (e.g. coal ash, slag, silica fume), or agricultural 2013; Khademi et al., 2016)), which is data driven and relies on
wastes (e.g. rice husk ash, palm oil fuel ash) (Aprianti et al., 2015; analyses in black box layers. Each type of the models has its own
Dadsetan and Bai, 2017; Long et al., 2015; Xie, TY et al., 2018). The limitations. The empirical models were developed often based on
outcomes of the existing studies on using SCMs in concrete (e.g. the results of individual experimental campaigns using locally-
(Fan and Miller, 2018; Golewski, 2017; Yang et al., 2015)) indicate available materials. Therefore, their generalities are ambiguous
that the incorporation of SCMs in OPC based concrete is practical and need extensive validations. For machine learning based
and economical towards sustainability of concrete; for instance, the models, despite their being developed from numerous experi-
CO2 intensity per unit (MPa) of concrete strength can be reduced mental results, the absence of explicit expressions and lack of
significantly by replacing OPC with up to approximately 20% low- physical significance weaken their broad acceptances. To address
cost SCMs by weight. Importantly, in addition to its eco-benefits, the shortcomings of the aforementioned existing approaches, in
the incorporation of SCMs in OPC based concrete also improve this study, a unified model for predicting the compressive strength
mechanical strength of the concrete either via their self-cementing of concrete with SCMs and RCAs is developed based on the
(e.g. slag) or pozzolanic (e.g. coal ash, slag and silica fume (SF)) fundamental chemical and mineralogical compositions of unary
natures (Fathi and Lameie, 2017; Le and Ludwig, 2016; Uysal and and blended binders in conjunction with the characteristics of
Sumer, 2011; Zhao et al., 2015); and also enhance the long-term RCAs. The major objectives of this study are to:
performance of concrete by refining its pore structures (De Belie
et al., 2017; Lothenbach et al., 2011). The utilization of SCMs as a 1) identify the approach which is adequate for modelling the
secondary binder in concrete is a promising solution to address the compressive strength of RAC;
environmental issues of the concrete industry and also as a means 2) identify the approach which is unified for the compressive
for improving the performance of concrete. Besides, the applica- strength of NAC with unary or blended binder;
tions of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA), which is obtained by 3) assess the performances of the identified predictive models
crushing C&D wastes, has now been recognized as another using a large experimental database reported on the properties
attractive technique to reduce the environmental impacts of the of concrete containing RCAs and SCMs and hence to identify the
concrete industry. RCA can be used to partially replace NA in shortcomings of these approaches;
structural concrete as skeleton to conserve natural resources and 4) develop a unified model for predicting the compressive strength
effectively mitigate the impacts of C&D wastes (Barbudo et al., of concrete containing RCAs and SCMs.
2013; Behera et al., 2014; Elchalakani et al., 2016; Xiao et al.,
2012; Xie and Ozbakkaloglu, 2016). Only a slight compromise in In this study, models capable of accurately predicting the
mechanical strength and durability of the concrete were reported compressive strength of concrete containing either RCAs or SCMs
on using RCAs in concrete, which is mostly attributed to the inferior are firstly introduced. Following this, the models’ performances are
properties of attached mortar on RCA (Barbudo et al., 2013; Behera assessed using a large experimental database on concrete con-
et al., 2014; Mefteh et al., 2013; Ozbakkaloglu et al., 2017; Xie et al., taining SCMs and RCAs. Having the shortcomings of the two ap-
2018a,b). proaches identified, a novel and unified approach for predicting the
An extensive literature review indicates that a good number of compressive strength of concrete containing SCMs and RCAs is
studies have reported so far to investigate the behaviour of concrete finally developed based on statistical analysis of the experimental
containing SCMs and RCAs, where the adding of SCMs in a RAC mix database. The developed unified approach redounds to the benefit
have been considered not only as a promising technique to of standardizing the usage of C&D wastes, industrial by-products,
compensate for the inferior properties of concrete caused by the as well as agricultural wastes in concrete products, which should
RCA incorporation but also to achieve sustainability of the concrete allow for more rapid developments of the cleaner concrete mate-
industry. For a concrete, the commonly adopted method to develop rials with green binder and eco-friendly skeleton and embrace the
its mix proportion is via conducting multiple-trails, in which the megatrend towards environmental sustainability and resource
importance of each of the mixing parameters are experimentally efficiency.
evaluated and subsequently adjusted to achieve a designated
compressive strength (e.g. Taguchi’s method (Chang et al., 2011; 2. A model for predciting compressive strength of OPC-based
Ozbay et al., 2009)). For a natural aggregate concrete (NAC) with RACS
OPC as the only binder, owing to the tightly controlled physical and
chemical properties of OPC constituents, its mix proportion could The effect of RCA replaced NA volume ratio (RCA%) on the
be easily transferable to different regions. However, due to the di- compressive strength (fc) of RACs using OPC as the unary binder has
versity in their types and sources, the wide-range of chemical and been extensively reported in the existing studies on RACs, where it
mineralogical compositions of SCMs make the transferability of a is widely recognized that for a given concrete mixture, an increase
concrete mix containing them not as easy as that of an OPC based in RCA% results in a decrease in fc of the corresponding concrete due
one. This hence hinders to generalize the mixes developed based on to the inferior properties of RCAs and the presences of weaker
a limited range of materials or via a small quantity of experiments. interfacial transition zones (ITZs) in RACs (Tam et al., 2005, 2007;
For a concrete mix incorporating RCAs and with a blended binder, Xiao, 2018; Xie et al., 2018a,b; Xie and Ozbakkaloglu, 2016). An
the complexity of designing its mix further rises as that the impacts existing model reported in (Ozbakkaloglu et al., 2017) and devel-
of RCAs and the type and the content of binder consistent on oped based on a large experimental database of OPC-based RACs
 T. Xie et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 251 (2020) 119752 3

hydration process are generally described by the following (Maki

and Goto, 1982; Taylor, 1997):

3 ðCaO , SiO2 Þ þ 6H2 O / 3 CaO , 2SiO2 , 3H2 OðGelÞ

þ 3 CaðOHÞ2 ðCrystalÞ (2)

2 ðCaO , SiO2 Þ þ 4H2 O / 3 CaO , 2SiO2 , 3H2 OðGelÞ

þ 3 CaðOHÞ2 ðCrystalÞ (3)

3 CaO , Al2 O3 þ 6H2 O/3 CaO,Al2 O3 ,6H2 OðCrystalÞ (4)

4 CaO , Al2 O3 ,Fe2 O3 þ 7H2 O/3 CaO,Al2 O3 ,6H2 O

þ CaO,Fe2 O3 ,H2 OðGelÞ (5)

Importantly, from Eqs. (2)e(5) it can be noted that the major

oxides in OPC clinker that govern hydration are CaO, SiO2, Al2O3,
and Fe2O3. Note that the calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) produced
Fig. 1. Ternary diagram of cementitious materials. from the hydration of OPC will further react with free SiO2 and
Al2O3 in the clinker, which refers to the pozzolanic reaction.
Ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) exhibits a com-
(with 650 individual tests results of the fc of RACs) by the first parable mineralogy to OPC and predominantly contains oxides of
author of this paper, is presented to clearly show the above- CaO, SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 giving GGBFS its self-cementing prop-
mentioned influence of RCA% on the compressive strength of erties (e.g. Belite/Dicalcium silicate (Ca3SiO4/C3S)). Note that the
OPC-based RACs. The generic expression of this model is: rich MgO and Al2O3 content in slag materials lead to the formations
of merwinite (Ca3Mg(SiO4)2/C3MS2), akermanite (Ca2Mg(Si2O7)/
a1  a2 ,RCA% C2MS2), gehlenite (Ca2Al(AlSi)O7/C2AS) and rankinite (Ca3Si2O7/
fc ¼ (1)
ðw=cÞb C3S2) which are not seen in OPC and they are also strongly associ-
ated with both the hydraulic and pozzolanic activities (Behim et al.,
where a1 , a2 and b are the empirical coefficients, and w= c is the 2013; Darquennes et al., 2013).
effective water-to-cement ratio which is defined using the weight The CaO content in ASTM Class-C fly ash (FA) is around 15e20%
ratio of the actual water reacted with binder material to the total by weight, which is lower than that in either cement or GGBFS and
amount of OPC binder for the mix. It is clear from the generic this limits FA’s self-cementing properties. The majority of inorganic
expression of this model that, for a given weff =c ratio, concrete ashes do however contain abundant SiO2 and Al2O3 which supports
produced using a higher RCA% exhibited a lower fc. them as pozzolans (Sakai et al., 2005; Xie and Ozbakkaloglu, 2015).
Hence it can be concluded that the oxides which predominate
3. Effect of binder reactivity on compressive strength of hydraulic and pozzolanic activities of OPC and other SCMs
natural aggregate concrete containing SCMS including GGBFS and class C-fly ash are CaO, SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and
MgO and hence the reactivity of unary or blended binders can be
Unlike OPC, SCMs have widely varying chemical makeups due to empirically quantified based on the weight fraction of these oxides
differences in their types and sources, as previously reported in Xie in cementitious materials.
and Visintin (2018). Fig. 1 illustrates a ternary (CaO þ MgO)eSiO2-
(Al2O3þFe2O3) diagram (weight ratio % based) that indicates the
3.2. Assessment of reactivity of the cementitious materials
range of chemical composition for different types of binder mate-
rials. It is evident from this figure that a wider variation in chemical
As well-established in Xie and Visintin (2018), through using
composition occurs for SCMs compared to that is relatively narrow
two large experimental databases of NACs containing SCMs (i.e.
for OPC, which points the difference. Therefore, for NACs produced
containing 800 individual datasets), the reactivity of each cemen-
using OPC blended with other types of SCMs, it is hard to generalize
titious material has been successfully quantified using the
the results via a single or a small quantity of experimental work
following indices: reactivity modulus (RM) (Eq. (6)); silica modulus
owing to the variability in the reactivity of each supplementary
(SM) (Eq. (7)) and; alumina modulus (AM) (Eq. (8)) (Behim et al.,
material or even worse, their blends. When modelling the me-
2013; Binici et al., 2007; De Belie et al., 2017). It is noteworthy
chanical properties or designating mix proportion of a concrete, it is
that these moduli can be calculated using the weight fraction of the
necessary to count the reactivity of unary or blended binders.
critical oxides in any given binder no matter unary or blended, in
which each of the oxide’s proportion is typically quantified using an
3.1. Oxides predominating hydraulic and pozzolanic activities of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis (Limbachiya et al., 2007). De-
cementitious materials scriptions of these indices are provided in Table 1.

To quantify the reactivity of unary or blended binders, the CaO þ MgO þ Al2 O3
fundamental chemical formulas which govern the hydration and RM ¼ (6)
SiO2
pozzolanic process of individual cementitious materials is first
inspected in this section. It is well-known that the four major SiO2
phases in conventional OPC clinker are alite (Ca3SiO5/C3S), belite SM ¼ (7)
Al2 O3 þ Fe2 O3
(Ca3SiO4/C2S), aluminate (Ca3Al2O6/C3A), and ferrite (Ca4Al2Fe2O10/
C4AF) (Taylor, 1997; Wild et al., 1995) and their roles in the
4 T. Xie et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 251 (2020) 119752

Table 1 4. Recycled aggregate concrete containing supplementary

Descriptions of reactivity moduli of cementitious materials. cementitious materials
Reactivity modulus Descriptions Type of
reactivity 4.1. Experimental database of RAC containing supplementary
Hydraulic modulus (RM) Represent alkalinity of binders Hydraulic cementitious materials
activity
Silica Ratio/Silica modulus Represent calcium silicates Pozzolanic To examine the key mixing parameters of concrete containing
(SM) content in binder activity
SCMs and RCAs and hence to develop a reliable model for pre-
Alumina Ratio/Alumina Represent aluminate and ferrite Pozzolanic
modulus (AM) phases in binder activity dicting the compressive strength of the concrete, a comprehensive
literature review on RACs was undertaken and a database con-
taining mix design and chemical composition was established. The
complete database contains 654 unique RAC or NAC mix designs
compiled from 49 individual studies (Ahmed, 2012; Alam et al.,
Al2 O3
AM ¼ (8) 2013; Alnahhal et al., 2017; Ann et al., 2008; Berndt, 2009; Çakır,
Fe2 O3
2014; Corinaldesi, 2012; Corral Higuera et al., 2012; Faella et al.,
Note that RM is the index that evaluates the self-cementing 2016; Hwang et al., 2013; Ismail and Ramli, 2013; Jalilifar et al.,
properties of cementitious materials and AM and SM are used to 2016; Kapoor et al., 2016; Kaushal Prajapati and Jamani, 2017;
characterize the pozzolanic reactivity of cementitious materials. Khodair and Bommareddy, 2017; Kou et al., 2011; Kou, 2006; Kou
et al., 2007, 2008; Kubissa et al., 2016a; Kubissa et al., 2016b;
Kubissa et al., 2017; Kwatra and Goyal, 2014; Limbachiya et al.,
2012a, b; Majhi et al., 2018; Male
sev et al., 2017; Padhi et al.,
2018; Poon et al., 2007; Rattanachu et al., 2018; Sajedi and
3.3. Reactive indices Jalilifar, 2017; Saravanakumar and Dhinakaran, 2012, 2015;
Shaikh, 2017; Singh et al., 2017; Singh and Singh, 2018; Somna et al.,
The unified approach previously reported in Xie and Visintin 2012a; Somna et al., 2011; Somna et al., 2012b; Sucic and Eng, 2013;
(2018) also indicates that the compressive strength (fc) of a NAC Sunayana and Barai, 2017; Tangchirapat et al., 2009; Tangchirapat
containing SCMs increases with an increase in the reactivity of the et al., 2008; Tangchirapat et al., 2012; Thomas et al., 2014; Tüfekçi
binder and decreases with an increase in the effective water-to- and Çakır, 2017; Tuyan et al., 2014; Uygunog lu et al., 2014;
binder (w/b) ratio used for mixes, in which the reactivity moduli Wardeh et al., 2015) and covers a range of cementitious materials
of overall binder can be calculated using the weighted average including: OPC, fly ash, silica fume, metakaolin (MK), palm oil fuel
moduli as expressed in Eqs. (9)e(11): ash (POFA), bagasse ash (BA), and rice husk ash (RHA) that are used
Pn to blend with OPC as a binder in concrete. To select the data for
i¼1 ðRMi ,wr%Þ constructing the database, the following criteria are subjected:
RM ¼ (9)
100%
1. Proportion of chemical composition of each binder must have
Pn been presented.
i¼1 ðAMi ,wr%Þ
AM ¼ (10) 2 Detailed mix proportion of concrete must have been provided.
100%
3. Fineness of each binder must not exceed 20000 m2/kg, where
Pn mixes containing superfine materials have been excluded (e.g.
i¼1 ðSMi ,wr%Þ references (Li et al., 2017; Nuaklong et al., 2018) reported on
SM ¼ (11)
100% using nano-materials in RAC mixes is not within the scope of
this research).
where RM is the modulus representing the reactivity of hydration 4. Concrete containing RCA not from C&D wastes or crushed
of the blended binders, RMi and wr% is the hydration modulus of a concrete samples are excluded.
single type of binder, and its weight, respectively. The reactivity 5. Only the mixes of concrete with coarse RCAs (e.g. nominal
index (g) hence can be calculated by combing the moduli repre- maximum size of RCA >4.75 mm) have been included.
senting hydraulic and pozzolanic activity in conjunction with w/b 6. SCMs must have used as binder materials in concrete mixes,
ratio for mix, which is: where no RCA surface treatments using SCMs must have
occurred, for instance, see (Kong et al., 2010).
W1 RM þ W2 AM þ W3 SM 7. Chemical (say, immersion in acid) or physical treatment of the
g¼ (12a)
w=b RA to remove attached mortar, such as those reported in
((Dimitriou et al., 2018; Salas et al., 2009)) is excluded.
where W1 , W2 and W3 are the empirical coefficients. 8. Concrete specimens are cured under a standard fog room
The strong correlation between each of the reactivity indices condition.
and the compressive strength of NACs containing SCMs was shown 9. Compressive strength of concrete is obtained via testing of
in Xie and Visintin (2018) based on statistical analysis, where the standard specimens; cubic specimen (100 mm or 150 mm
generic expression of this model is: dimension) or cylindrical specimens of 100 mm or 150 mm
diameter and with an aspect ratio of 2.
fc ¼ U1 ,gV1 (12b)
The resulting information are compiled in two databases, in
where U1 and V1 are the empirical coefficients. which the mix proportion and the critical mixing parameters are
Based on the content described in this section, it can be summarized in Table A1 of ,Appendix A and the chemical- (oxides
concluded that the compressive strength of NACs containing SCM is in their weight ratio) and physical- (fineness and relative density)
not only related to the w/b ratio for their mixes but is also affected properties of each binder are reported in Table A2 of Appendix A.
by the reactivity of their binders. The mixes of concrete summarized in Table A1 contain detailed
 T. Xie et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 251 (2020) 119752 5

information related to type and quality of unary or blended binder; (particularly more evident in Fig. 3 (a) as the sample size of the
effective water content; coarse aggregate (e.g. NAs and RCAs) and cubic fc is much larger than that of the cylindrical fc), this approach
fine natural aggregate and for some cases superplasticizer. The can adequately predict the fc of the RACs with SCM less than 25% by
chemical composition of the binders reported in Table A2 in terms weight; while when the SCM content exceeds 25% by weight, the
of the weight ratio of the critical oxides they contained is plotted in compressive strength of concrete is significantly overestimated by
the (CaO þ MgO)eSiO2-(Al2O3þFe2O3) diagram in Fig. 1. For the the model only considering RCA% and w/b. It should also be
RAC and NAC mixes reported in Table A1, the 28-day cubic and mentioned that, owing to the slight variances in properties of even
cylindrical strength of the concrete produced using these mixes are OPC, some predictions of the 28-day fc of OPC-based NACs and RACs
from 12.7 to 76.7 MPa and 16.6e72.9 MPa, respectively; the effec- are outside the 95% confidence interval for the proportion in the
tive water-to-cement ratio is from 0.2 to 0.7; the binder-to-total whole population. Simply put, the findings reported in this section
aggregate volume ratio is from 0.77 to 1.35; the coarse-to-fine indicates the necessity to also consider the reactivity of binder,
aggregate volume ratio is from 0.6 to 3; the RCA replaced NA vol- including OPC, in the model.
ume ratio is up to 100%; and the SCM replaced OPC weight is up to
70%. 4.2.3. Combined effects of water-to-binder ratio and binder
Note that the w/b ratio used in this paper is the ‘effective water- reactivity
to-binder ratio’, which takes into account the water from super- As introduced in detail in Section 3, the hardening of concrete
plasticizers (commonly 60e70%; for cases where water content in manufactured using OPC as the primary binder is through hydra-
superplasticizers was not specifically reported the ‘effective water- tion process and the hydration activities of binders significantly
to-binder’ ratio is calculated by considering 65% weight of the affect the strength development of the concrete with a given w/b
superplasticizer) and excludes the water either absorbed by ag- ratio. The approach developed for predicting 28-day fc of NACs
gregates (in particular RCAs) or added to compensate the high containing SCMs by considering w/b ratio and binder reactivity (as
water absorption of RCAs. reported in Xie and Visintin (2018)) is now assessed to examine if it
is equivalently applicable to RACs containing SCMs. Fig. 4 (a) and
4.2. A unified model for 28-day compressive strength of concrete (b), respectively, shows the comparisons between the experimental
containing SCMs and RCAs and predicted 28-day fc of cubic and cylindrical specimens of RCAs
containing SCMs. It can be seen from the statistics of fit shown in
For a RAC mix with OPC as the primary binder and with SCMs, the figure that the proposed expressions reproduce the test results
the three influential parameters on the compressive strength of fairly well. That is, the use of the g significantly improved the ac-
concrete are: 1) mix proportion (e.g. w/b ratio) as that the curacy of the approach over the existing approaches with only
compressive strength of a concrete increases with a decrease in the using w/b ratio alone or with considering both w/b ratio and RCA%.
w/b ratio used for its mix; 2) RCA replaced NA volume ratio as that However, by the nature of being empirically derived, the model
the compressive strength of a concrete decreases with an increase proposed for NACs containing SCMs could not fully give physical
in the RCA%; and 3) binder reactivity as that the compressive meaning for the presence of RCAs in the concrete as the impacts of
strength of a concrete increases with increasing reactivity of its RCAs on mechanical strength of RACs have been widely recognized
binder. In this section, modelling approaches associated with the (e.g. (Çakır, 2014; Corinaldesi and Moriconi, 2009; Li et al., 2017;
individual or combined effects of these three parameters for pre- Tam et al., 2018; Tüfekçi and Çakır, 2017)). To achieve an improved
dicting the compressive strength of concrete containing SCMs and physical significance of the solution and to further enhance the
RCAs are examined using the previously built database. Following accuracy of the prediction, a further-refined approach is much
this, a novel and unified model based on the considerations of all needed that the effects of mix proportions (e.g. w/b ratio and RCA%)
three factors predominating RAC mixes is presented. and reactivity of binder on the compressive strength of concrete
containing RCAs and SCMs are all be accounted for.
4.2.1. Effect of water-to-binder ratio
Conventionally, as reported in most of the published studies on 4.2.4. Combined effects of water-to-binder ratio, RCA replaced NA
concretes using OPC as the only binder, their corresponding con- volume ratio and binder reactivity
crete compressive strengths were predicted using the w/b ratio for To address the shortcomings of the existing models and hence to
their mixes as the only parameter. Using the experimental results develop a unified model to achieve an improved accuracy and
reported in the database in Table A2, Fig. 2 (a) and (b) show the best physical senses for modelling the compressive strength of concrete
fit of the predictions of the cubic and cylindrical 28-day fc of con- containing RCAs and SCMs, the combined effects of the three pri-
crete with RCAs and SCMs using only w/b ratio. The statistics of fit in mary mixing parameters identified, including recycled aggregate
both Fig. 2 (a) and (b) indicate the unsatisfactory performance of (i.e. RCA%), the mix proportion (w/b ratio) of concrete and the
the model if only w/b ratio is considered. reactivity of binders, are now examined. Based on the assessments
and discussions in Sections 4.2.2 and 4.2.3, the modelling ap-
4.2.2. Combined effects of water-to-binder ratio and RCA replaced proaches for the prediction of the compressive strengths of OPC-
NA volume ratio based RACs and NAC containing SCMs cannot be individually
As introduced in Section 2, it is essential to consider the com- applied and the factors in both the models need to represent the
bined effect of mix proportion (e.g. w/b ratio) and the properties of effects of 1) binder reactivity (reactivity moduli); 2) mix proportion
RCA when predicting the 28-day fc of 100% OPC-based RACs. Fig. 3 (w/b ratio); and 3) characteristics of RCAs (RCA%). Through
(a) and (b) illustrates the predictions for the 28-day cubic or cy- combining these factors, it gives:
lindrical compressive strength of RACs containing SCMs adopting
 
the w/b ratio and the RCA% as the parameters using the approach W1 RM þ W2 AM þ W3 SM b
fc ¼ ða1  a2 , RCA%Þ (13)
developed by the authors previously (Xu et al., 2019a, 2019b). The w=b
statistics of fit in both Fig. 3 (a) and (b) suggest a slight improve-
ment in the prediction performance for the present model The above equation can be simplified as:
considering both w/b ratio and RCA%, as compared to the previous
one that only considers w/b ratio. As shown in the figure fc ¼ ða1  a2 , RCA%Þ,gb (14)
6 T. Xie et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 251 (2020) 119752

Fig. 2. Model based on w/b ratio only: a) cubic fc; b) cylindrical fc.

Fig. 5 (a) and (b), respectively, illustrates the predictions of fc of availabilities of the properties of aggregates reported in existing
RACs containing SCMs using the refined approach. As indicated by studies, such as crushing index, shape factor, abrasion index and
the statistics of fit shown in the figure, the expression of the above particle size distribution, in the present study, the effects of ag-
unified model considering the w/b ratio, RCA% and binder reactivity gregates characteristics and their interactions with binders on the
(i.e. using RM in conjunction with SM and AM) well correlates with compressive strength of concrete containing RCAs and SCMs are
the test results. studied using two parameters, namely binder-to-total aggregate
All the empirical coefficients and the statistics of fit of all three volume ratio (b/agg) and coarse to-fine aggregate volume ratio (C/
models are summarized in Table 2. It should be mentioned that as F). In addition to the three primary parameters investigated, the
shown in Fig. 5 (a) and (b), some of data sightly out of the 95% effect of b/agg on the compressive strength of concrete with RCAs
confident interval and this could be attributed to the wide-range of and SCMs is then shown in Fig. 6 (a) and it illustrates that the
the physical- and mechanical-properties of natural aggregate (e.g. normalized compressive strength predicted using the reactive
angularity, texture, and strength) and even more widely varied moduli and w/b ratio initially increases with an increase in b/agg
qualities of RCAs in terms of their content of attached mortar on and then decreases when the b/agg exceeds a threshold (i.e. around
RCAs, parent concrete strength, and shape (Behera et al., 2014; Tam 0.25), where the general expression is also presented in the figure.
et al., 2018; Xie et al., 2018a,b). However, due to limited This observation is expected and can be explained by the fact that:

Fig. 3. Refined model based on w/b ratio and RCA%: a) cubic fc; b) cylindrical fc.

Fig. 4. Refined model based on reactivity index Y: a) cubic fc; b) cylindrical fc.
 T. Xie et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 251 (2020) 119752 7

Fig. 5. Model based on binder reactivity modili, w/b ratio and RCA%::a) cubic fc; b) cylindrical fc.

Table 2
Statistics of fit.

Method a a1 a2 b W1* W2* W3* SD Mean AAE RMSE

fc-cyl (w/b only) 28.39 e e 0.396 e e e 0.175 1.13 29.2% 15.8

fc-cube (w/b only) 27.03 e e 0.547 e e e 0.101 1.07 27.9% 14.7
fc-cyl (using w/b þ RCA%) e 19.84 4.30 1 e e e 0.145 1.07 21.9% 12.3
fc-cube (using w/b þ RCA%) e 19.72 2.52 1 e e e 0.102 1.04 21.6% 10.6
fc-cyl (using Y) e 11.45 0.37 1 1.796 0.002 0.011 0.14 1.1 21.6% 11.8
fc-cube (using Y) e 12.24 0.38 1 1.796 0.002 0.011 0.085 1.06 21.2% 9.9
fc-cyl (using Y þ RCA%) e 22.64 1.84 0.80 0.341 0.002 0.004 0.102 1.05 20.2% 11.2
fc-cube (using Y þ RCA%) e 21.33 1.96 0.80 0.341 0.002 0.004 0.072 1.02 20.6% 9.2
fc-cyl (using Y þ RCA% þ b/agg þ C/F) e 0.095 1.03 19.1% 10.8
fc-cube (using Y þ RCA% þ b/agg þ C/F) e 0.069 1.03 18.6% 9.3

* Empirical coefficients for calculating Y

1) initially, the increased paste fraction with increasing b/agg ratio The statistics of fits using this generic expression are also re-
offers better aggregate packing, resulting in a higher compressive ported in Table 2.
strength of concrete; and 2) after exceeding the threshold, the
extensive amount of paste phase reduces the aggregate in- 5. Variation of compressive strength with curing time
teractions, leading to a lower compressive strength of the concrete.
Finally, as shown in Fig. 6 (b), the normalized compressive strength In this section, the variation of compressive strength of concrete
of the concrete with RCAs and SCMs using the reactive moduli, w/b containing RCAs and SCMs with their curing age is studied. As it is
ratio and b/agg ratio increases slightly with increasing C/F and this well-known, the compressive strength gain of NAC with OPC as the
is attributed to the improved interaction (i.e. friction) between only binder is strongly associated with the degree and rate of hy-
coarse aggregate particles in a concrete mix, which improves the dration and pozzolanic reactions. Besides, the presence of RCAs in
compressive strength of the concrete. The general expression of the concrete results in a change in the microstructure of the concrete
models for 28-day cubic and cylindrical compressive strength of and hence may also lead to a change in the fc of concrete for the long
concrete is then given as: term. Although little information about this effect can be found in
  literature, it is still of interest and hence is examined using the
b 2
fc ¼ ða1  a2 , RCA%Þ , gb ,  0:16 results presented in the database.
agg
  !   (15)
b C 5.1. Effect of reactivity index
þ þ 0:5 , 0:21 , þ 0:75
agg F
To simplify the comparisons, the fc of each concrete at each of

Fig. 6. Effect of mixing proportion: 1) binder-to-total aggregate volume ratio; 2) coarse-to-fine aggregate volume ratio.
8 T. Xie et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 251 (2020) 119752

curing ages is normalized by its corresponding 28-day compressive

strength. Fig. 7 presents the relationship of the normalized
compressive strength of concrete with the reactivity index (Y) at
the different curing ages. It is evident from the figure that the
compressive strength gains of RACs and NACs containing SCMs
have a strong correlation with the reactivity index at each of the
given curing ages. Using the developed general expression for
trendlines in Fig. 7 (a)e(e) for the normalized compressive strength
of concrete at different curing ages equations. Moreover, for con-
crete designated with their Y of 2, 4, or 6, the variations of fc with
the curing time are calculated and plotted in Fig. 8 for evaluations. It
is clear from the figure that a concrete with a higher Y, which can be
approached using highly reactive binders and/or a lower w/b ratio,
has a more significant strength gain before the concrete age of 28
days, whereas a less significant strength gain is observed after 28 Fig. 8. Effect of reactive index Y on compressive strength change of concrete.
days for a concrete with a higher Y. This finding agrees with those
reported in the previous studies on concrete containing SCMs (Xie,
TY et al., 2018; Xie and Visintin, 2018) and can be attributed to the 5.2. Effect of RCA replaced NA volume ratio
more severe chemical reactions in the concrete produced using
highly reactive binders and/or a lower w/b ratio, which consumes To highlight the effect of RCA content and hence to study its
raw materials more rapidly and hence results in a higher early influence on the compressive strength gain of concrete containing
strength but a less significant strength gain subsequently. RCAs and SCMs, the compressive strength reported in Table 1 at the

Fig. 7. Effect of reactive index Y on compressive strength of concrete at different curing ages: a) 3 days; b) 7 days; c) 14 days; d) 56 days; e) 90 days; f) 180 days.
 T. Xie et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 251 (2020) 119752 9

3) to allow for more rapid development and utilization of cleaner

concrete products to mitigate the negative environmental im-
pacts by the concrete industry.

Author contribution statement

1
Dr. Tianyu Xie: Design concept, Analysis of data, Draft
manuscript.
2
Mr. Guosong Yang: Draft manuscript, Proofread manuscript.
3
Dr. Xinyu Zhao: Design concept, Proofread manuscript.
4
Dr. Jinjun Xu: Design concept, Proofread manuscript.
5
Mr. Chengfeng Fang: Design concept, Proofread manuscript.

Fig. 9. Effect of RCA% on compressive strength change of concrete. Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing

curing ages other than 28 days are normalized using its corre- financial interests or personal relationships that could have
sponding 28-day strength and reactivity index (Y). Fig. 9 illustrates appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
the relationship between the normalized fc and the RCA% at the
different concrete ages. It can be observed from the general trend- Acknowledgements
lines of the sub-datasets shown in the figure that, unlike the binder
reactivity index, RCA% has nearly no effect on the compressive This research is supported financially by China’s National Nat-
strength gain. The findings in this section and in Section 5.1 reveal ural Science Foundation of China (51978280), by the Special Funds
that for a given concrete mix, only its binder constituents and mix for Guangdong’s Provincial Science and Technology Innovation
proportion affect the change in the fc with curing time as that the Strategy (2018A030313814), by the Fundamental Research Funds
chemical reactions in a concrete govern its strength development, for the Central Universities, China (2018ZD43), and by China’s State
whereas aggregates including both NAs and RCAs are nearly inert Key Laboratory of Subtropical Building Science (2019ZB22).
and have no pronounced contribution to the change in fc.
Appendix A. Supplementary data

6. Conclusions Supplementary data to this article can be found online at

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119752.
In this study, a unified model has been developed for predicting
the compressive strength of concrete containing RCAs and SCMs. A References
large database containing 654 datasets reported in 49 research
work and covering a wide range of parameters is constructed via an Ahmed, S.F.U., 2012. Properties of concrete containing construction and demolition
wastes and fly ash. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 25 (12), 1864e1870. ASCE)MT.1943-
extensive review of literature. Assessments using the database help 5533.0000763.
to identify the shortcomings of the existing models for predicting Alam, M., Singh, G., Bahaa, B., Sahar, M., 2013. Acceptability of demolished concrete
the compressive strength of concrete containing RCAs and SCMs waste aggregate in making high strength self-compacting concrete. Int. J. Civ.
Eng. 2 (3), 1e12.
and also indicate that water-to-binder ratio for a concrete mix, RCA
Alnahhal, M.F., Alengaram, U.J., Jumaat, M.Z., Alqedra, M.A., Mo, K.H., Sumesh, M.,
replaced NA volume ratio and the reactivity of binder are the three 2017. Evaluation of industrial by-products as sustainable pozzolanic materials
primary parameters predominating the mechanical strength of the in recycled aggregate concrete. Sustainability 9 (5), 767. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su9050767.
concrete containing RCAs and SCMs. The effects of binder and
Ann, K.Y., Moon, H., Kim, Y., Ryou, J., 2008. Durability of recycled aggregate concrete
aggregate proportions on the compressive strength of the concrete using pozzolanic materials. Waste Manag. 28 (6), 993e999. https://doi.org/
are also considered as minor but non-trivial. Having these key 10.1016/j.wasman.2007.03.003.
parameters identified, a unified model for predicting the Aprianti, E., Shafigh, P., Bahri, S., Farahani, J.N., 2015. Supplementary cementitious
materials origin from agricultural wasteseA review. Constr. Build. Mater. 74,
compressive strength of concrete containing RCAs and SCMs is 176e187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.10.010.
based on statistical analysis of the large database. The proposed Barbudo, A., de Brito, J., Evangelista, L., Bravo, M., Agrela, F., 2013. Influence of water-
model accurately predicts the compressive strength of concrete reducing admixtures on the mechanical performance of recycled concrete.
J. Clean. Prod. 59, 93e98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.06.022.
containing RCAs and SCMs with proper physical and chemical Behera, M., Bhattacharyya, S., Minocha, A., Deoliya, R., Maiti, S., 2014. Recycled
meanings. Moreover, it is found that the compressive strength aggregate from C&D waste & its use in concreteeA breakthrough towards
development of concrete with curing time is also affected by binder sustainability in construction sector: a review. Constr. Build. Mater. 68,
501e516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.07.003.
reactivity and concrete mix proportion (e.g. w/b ratio), whereas RCA Behim, M., Beddar, M., Clastres, P., 2013. Reactivity of granulated blast furnace slag.
content has almost no effect on the change in mechanical strength Slovak J. Civil Eng. 21 (2), 7e14.
of concrete for long term. Berndt, M., 2009. Properties of sustainable concrete containing fly ash, slag and
recycled concrete aggregate. Constr. Build. Mater. 23 (7), 2606e2613. https://
The findings of this research are expected to: doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2009.02.011.
€se, M.M., 2007. The effect of fineness on the properties of the
Binici, H., Temiz, H., Ko
1) avoid undertaking multiple-trial mixes for designing concrete blended cements incorporating ground granulated blast furnace slag and
ground basaltic pumice. Constr. Build. Mater. 21 (5), 1122e1128. https://doi.org/
with RCAs and SCMs; and
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.11.005.
2) generate a unified approach that is able to transfer the current € 2014. Experimental analysis of properties of recycled coarse aggregate
Çakır, O.,
findings to future research work on SCMs and RCAs in- (RCA) concrete with mineral additives. Constr. Build. Mater. 68, 17e25. https://
corporations based on the fundamental chemical composition doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.06.032.
Chang, C., Huang, R., Lee, P., Weng, T., 2011. Application of a weighted Grey-Taguchi
(in terms of oxides) of one-part or blended binder in conjunc- method for optimizing recycled aggregate concrete mixtures. Cement Concr.
tion with the proportion of RCA; and Compos. 33 (10), 1038e1049. https://doi.org/10.1016/
10 T. Xie et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 251 (2020) 119752

j.cemconcomp.2011.06.005. Kou, S., 2006. Reusing Recycled Aggregates In Structural Concrete. Thesis (Ph.D.).
Corinaldesi, V., 2012. Mechanical performance and durability of fly ash recycled Hong Kong Polytechnic University (Hong Kong), 2006.; Publication Number:
aggregate concretes. In: Advanced Materials Research. Trans Tech Publ, AAI3241061; ISBN: 9780542958137; Source: Dissertation Abstracts Interna-
pp. 1568e1572. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.538-541.1568. tional, Volume: vols. 67e11, Section: B, page: 6673.; 278.
Corinaldesi, V., Moriconi, G., 2009. Influence of mineral additions on the perfor- Kou, S.C., Poon, C.S., Chan, D., 2007. Influence of fly ash as cement replacement on
mance of 100% recycled aggregate concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 23 (8), the properties of recycled aggregate concrete. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 19 (9), 709e717.
2869e2876. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2009.02.004. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2007)19:9(709).
Corral Higuera, R., Arredondo Rea, S.P., Go  mez Sobero
n, J.M.V., G
amez García, D.C., Kou, S.C., Poon, C.S., Chan, D., 2008. Influence of fly ash as a cement addition on the
Mendevil, J.M., Almaral S anchez, J.L., 2012. Strength and Durability Parameters hardened properties of recycled aggregate concrete. Mater. Struct. 41 (7),
of an Environmentally Friendly Concrete, Twelfth International Conference on 1191e1201. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-007-9317-y.
Recent Advances in Concrete Technology and Sustainability Issues. American Kou, S.-c., Poon, C.-s., Agrela, F., 2011. Comparisons of natural and recycled aggre-
Concrete Institute (ACI), pp. 229e243. gate concretes prepared with the addition of different mineral admixtures.
Dadsetan, S., Bai, J., 2017. Mechanical and microstructural properties of self- Cement Concr. Compos. 33 (8), 788e795. https://doi.org/10.1016/
compacting concrete blended with metakaolin, ground granulated blast- j.cemconcomp.2011.05.009.
furnace slag and fly ash. Constr. Build. Mater. 146, 658e667. https://doi.org/ Kubissa, W., Jaskulski, R., Brodn
an, M., 2016a. Influence of SCM on the permeability
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.158. of concrete with recycled aggregate. Period. Polytech. Civ. Eng. 60 (4), 583e590.
Dantas, A.T.A., Leite, M.B., de Jesus Nagahama, K.J.C., Materials, B., 2013. Prediction https://doi.org/10.3311/PPci.8614.
of compressive strength of concrete containing construction and demolition Kubissa, W., Jaskulski, R., Koper, A., Supera, M., 2016b. High performance concrete
waste using artificial neural networks. Constr. Build. Mater. 38, 717e722. with SCM and recycled aggregate. In: Key Engineering Materials. Trans Tech
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.09.026. Publ, pp. 233e240. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.677.233.
Darquennes, A., Espion, B., Staquet, S., 2013. How to assess the hydration of slag Kubissa, W., Jaskulski, R., Reiterman, P., 2017. Ecological concrete based on blast-
cement concretes? Constr. Build. Mater. 40, 1012e1020. https://doi.org/10.1016/ furnace cement with incorporated coarse recycled concrete aggregate and fly
j.conbuildmat.2012.09.087. ash addition. J. Renew. Mater. 5 (1), 53e61. https://doi.org/10.7569/
De Belie, N., Soutsos, M., Gruyaert, E., 2017. Properties of Fresh and Hardened jrm.2017.634103.
Concrete Containing Supplementary Cementitious Materials: State-Of-The-Art Kwatra, N.G., Goyal, S.G., 2014. Strength properties of recycled concrete aggregate
Report of the RILEM Technical Committee 238-SCM, Working Group 4. using different types of cement. Results Phys. 1317e1322. https://doi.org/
Springer International Publishing. 10.1016/j.rinp.2018.04.061.
Dilbas, H., Şimşek, M., Çakır, O.,€ 2014. An investigation on mechanical and physical Le, H.T., Ludwig, H.-M., 2016. Effect of rice husk ash and other mineral admixtures
properties of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) with and without silica fume. on properties of self-compacting high performance concrete. Mater. Des. 89,
Constr. Build. Mater. 61, 50e59. https://doi.org/10.1016/ 156e166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2015.09.120.
j.conbuildmat.2014.02.057. Li, W., Long, C., Tam, V.W., Poon, C.-S., Duan, W.H., 2017. Effects of nano-particles on
Dimitriou, G., Savva, P., Petrou, M.F., 2018. Enhancing mechanical and durability failure process and microstructural properties of recycled aggregate concrete.
properties of recycled aggregate concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 158, 228e235. Constr. Build. Mater. 142, 42e50. https://doi.org/10.1016/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.09.137. j.conbuildmat.2017.03.051.
Duan, Z.-H., Kou, S.-C., Poon, C.-S.J.C., Materials, B., 2013. Using artificial neural Limbachiya, M., Marrocchino, E., Koulouris, A., 2007. Chemicalemineralogical
networks for predicting the elastic modulus of recycled aggregate concrete. characterisation of coarse recycled concrete aggregate. Waste Manag. 27 (2),
Constr. Build. Mater. 44, 524e532. https://doi.org/10.1016/ 201e208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2006.01.005.
j.conbuildmat.2013.02.064. Limbachiya, M., Meddah, M.S., Ouchagour, Y., 2012a. Performance of Portland/silica
Elchalakani, M., Basarir, H., Karrech, A., 2016. Green concrete with high-volume fly fume cement concrete produced with recycled concrete aggregate. ACI Mater. J.
ash and slag with recycled aggregate and recycled water to build future sus- 109 (1).
tainable cities. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 29 (2), 04016219 https://doi.org/10.1061/ Limbachiya, M., Meddah, M.S., Ouchagour, Y., 2012b. Use of recycled concrete
(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001748. aggregate in fly-ash concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 27 (1), 439e449.
Faella, C., Lima, C., Martinelli, E., Pepe, M., Realfonzo, R., 2016. Mechanical and Long, G., Gao, Y., Xie, Y., 2015. Designing more sustainable and greener self-
durability performance of sustainable structural concretes: an experimental compacting concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 84, 301e306. https://doi.org/
study. Cement Concr. Compos. 71, 85e96. https://doi.org/10.1016/ 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.02.072.
j.cemconcomp.2016.05.009. Lothenbach, B., Scrivener, K., Hooton, R., 2011. Supplementary cementitious mate-
Fairbairn, E.M., Americano, B.B., Cordeiro, G.C., Paula, T.P., Toledo Filho, R.D., rials. Cement Concr. Res. 41 (12), 1244e1256. https://doi.org/10.1016/
Silvoso, M.M., 2010. Cement replacement by sugar cane bagasse ash: CO2 j.cemconres.2010.12.001.
emissions reduction and potential for carbon credits. J. Environ. Manag. 91 (9), Lovato, P.S., Possan, E., Dal Molin, D.C.C., Masuero, A.B., ^ Ribeiro, J.L.D., 2012.
1864e1871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.04.008. Modeling of mechanical properties and durability of recycled aggregate con-
Fan, C., Miller, S.A., 2018. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions for prescribed con- cretes. Constr. Build. Mater. 26 (1), 437e447. https://doi.org/10.1016/
crete compressive strength. Constr. Build. Mater. 167, 918e928. https://doi.org/ j.conbuildmat.2011.06.043.
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.02.092. Majhi, R., Nayak, A., Mukharjee, B., 2018. Development of sustainable concrete using
Fathi, H., Lameie, T., 2017. Effect of aggregate type on heated self-compacting recycled coarse aggregate and ground granulated blast furnace slag. Constr.
concrete. Comput. Concr. 19 (1), 33e39. https://doi.org/10.12989/ Build. Mater. 159, 417e430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.10.118.
cac.2017.19.1.033. Maki, I., Goto, K., 1982. Factors influencing the phase constitution of alite in Portland
Freedonia, 2016. World construction aggregates - demand and sales forecasts, cement clinker. Cement Concr. Res. 12 (3), 301e308. https://doi.org/10.1016/
market share, market size, market leaders. In: Industry Study No. 3389. The 0008-8846(82)90078-3.
Freedonia group Cleveland, Ohio, USA, p. 390. Male
sev, M., Radonjanin, V., Dragani

c, S., Supic, S., Laban, M., 2017. Influence of fly
Golewski, G.L., 2017. Generalized fracture toughness and compressive strength of ash and decreasing water-powder ratio on performance of recycled aggregate
sustainable concrete including low calcium fly ash. Materials 10 (12), 1393. concrete. Gradevinar 69 (9), 811e820.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma10121393. Mefteh, H., Kebaïli, O., Oucief, H., Berredjem, L., Arabi, N., 2013. Influence of mois-
Hwang, J.P., Shim, H.B., Lim, S., Ann, K.Y., 2013. Enhancing the durability properties ture conditioning of recycled aggregates on the properties of fresh and hard-
of concrete containing recycled aggregate by the use of pozzolanic materials. ened concrete. J. Clean. Prod. 54, 282e288. https://doi.org/10.1016/
KSCE J. Civil Eng. 17 (1), 155e163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-013-1245-5. j.jclepro.2013.05.009.
Ismail, S., Ramli, M., 2013. Engineering properties of treated recycled concrete Mehta, P.K., Meryman, H., 2009. Tools for reducing carbon emissions due to cement
aggregate (RCA) for structural applications. Constr. Build. Mater. 44, 464e476. consumption. Structure 1 (1), 11e15.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.03.014. Nuaklong, P., Sata, V., Wongsa, A., Srinavin, K., Chindaprasirt, P., 2018. Recycled
Jalilifar, H., Sajedi, F., Afshar, R., 2016. Experimental effect of using silica fume and fly aggregate high calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete with inclusion of OPC and
ash on mechanical properties of recycled concretes. Int. J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 3 (11), nano-SiO2. Constr. Build. Mater. 174, 244e252 j.conbuildmat.2018.04.123.
67e71. Ozbakkaloglu, T., Gholampour, A., Xie, T., 2017. Mechanical and durability properties
Kapoor, K., Singh, S., Singh, B., 2016. Durability of self-compacting concrete made of recycled aggregate concrete: effect of recycled aggregate properties and
with Recycled Concrete Aggregates and mineral admixtures. Constr. Build. content. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 30 (2), 04017275 https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)
Mater. 128, 67e76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.10.026. MT.1943-5533.0002142.
Khademi, F., Jamal, S.M., Deshpande, N., Londhe, S., 2016. Predicting strength of Ozbay, E., Oztas, A., Baykasoglu, A., Ozbebek, H., 2009. Investigating mix pro-
recycled aggregate concrete using artificial neural network, adaptive neuro- portions of high strength self compacting concrete by using Taguchi method.
fuzzy inference system and multiple linear regression. Int. J. Sustain. Built En- Constr. Build. Mater. 23 (2), 694e702. https://doi.org/10.1016/
viron. 5 (2), 355e369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsbe.2016.09.003. j.conbuildmat.2008.02.014.
Khodair, Y., Bommareddy, B., 2017. Self-consolidating concrete using recycled con- Padhi, R.S., Patra, R.K., Mukharjee, B.B., Dey, T., 2018. Influence of incorporation of
crete aggregate and high volume of fly ash, and slag. Constr. Build. Mater. 153, rice husk ash and coarse recycled concrete aggregates on properties of concrete.
307e316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.07.063. Constr. Build. Mater. 173, 289e297. https://doi.org/10.1016/
Kong, D., Lei, T., Zheng, J., Ma, C., Jiang, J., Jiang, J., 2010. Effect and mechanism of j.conbuildmat.2018.03.270.
surface-coating pozzalanics materials around aggregate on properties and ITZ Pereira, P., Evangelista, L., De Brito, J., 2012. The effect of superplasticisers on the
microstructure of recycled aggregate concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 24 (5), workability and compressive strength of concrete made with fine recycled
701e708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2009.10.038. concrete aggregates. Constr. Build. Mater. 28 (1), 722e729. https://doi.org/
 T. Xie et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 251 (2020) 119752 11

10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.10.050. Construction and Building Materials. Springer, pp. 51e73. https://doi.org/

Poon, C., Kou, S., Lam, L., 2007. Influence of recycled aggregate on slump and 10.1007/978-0-85729-892-8_4.
bleeding of fresh concrete. Mater. Struct. 40 (9), 981e988. https://doi.org/ Tosti, L., van Zomeren, A., Pels, J.R., Comans, R.N., 2018. Technical and environmental
10.1617/s11527-006-9192-y. performance of lower carbon footprint cement mortars containing biomass fly
Prajapati, Kaushal, Jamani, A., 2017. Influence OF metakaolin and GGBS IN ternary ash as a secondary cementitious material. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 134, 25e33.
blended concrete with recycled coarse aggregate. Int. Res. J. Eng. Technol. 4 (4), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.03.004.
2198e2204. Tüfekçi, M.M., Çakır, O., € 2017. An investigation on mechanical and physical prop-
Rattanachu, P., Karntong, I., Tangchirapat, W., Jaturapitakkul, C., Chindaprasirt, P., erties of recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) concrete with GGBFS. Int. J. Civ. Eng. 15
2018. Influence of bagasse ash and recycled concrete aggregate on hardened (4), 549e563. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40999-017-0167-x.
properties of high-strength concrete. Mater. Construccio  n 68 (330), 158, 0.3989/ Tuyan, M., Mardani-Aghabaglou, A., Ramyar, K., 2014. Freezeethaw resistance,
mc.2018.04717. mechanical and transport properties of self-consolidating concrete incorpo-
Sajedi, F., Jalilifar, H., 2017. Investigation on mechanical properties of recycled rating coarse recycled concrete aggregate. Mater. Des. 53, 983e991. https://
concrete containing natural zeolite. Int. J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 4 (3). doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.07.100.
Sakai, E., Miyahara, S., Ohsawa, S., Lee, S.-H., Daimon, M., 2005. Hydration of fly ash USGS, 2015. Commodity statistics and information, in mineral yearbooks. Geol.
cement. Cement Concr. Res. 35 (6), 1135e1140. https://doi.org/10.1016/ Surv.
j.cemconres.2004.09.008. Uygunog _
lu, T., Topçu, I.B., Çelik, A.G., 2014. Use of waste marble and recycled ag-
Salas, A., Delvasto, S., De Gutierrez, R.M., Lange, D., 2009. Comparison of two pro- gregates in self-compacting concrete for environmental sustainability. J. Clean.
cesses for treating rice husk ash for use in high performance concrete. Cement Prod. 84, 691e700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.06.019.
Concr. Res. 39 (9), 773e778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2009.05.006. Uysal, M., Sumer, M., 2011. Performance of self-compacting concrete containing
Saravanakumar, P., Dhinakaran, G., 2012. Strength characteristics of high-volume fly different mineral admixtures. Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (11), 4112e4120. https://
ashebased recycled aggregate concrete. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 25 (8), 1127e1133. doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.04.032.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000645. Wang, F., Yu, Y., Zhao, X.-Y., Xu, J.-J., Xie, T.-Y., Deresa, S.T.J.A.S., 2019. Performance
Saravanakumar, P., Dhinakaran, G., 2015. Mechanical and durability properties of evaluation of reinforced recycled aggregate concrete columns under cyclic
slag based recycled aggregate concrete. Iran. J. Sci. Technol. Trans. Civil Eng. 39, loadings, 9 (7), 1460. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9071460.
271e282. https://doi.org/10.22099/IJSTC.2015.3134. Wardeh, G., Ghorbel, E., Gomart, H., 2015. Mix design and properties of recycled
Shaikh, F.U.A., 2017. Mechanical properties of recycled aggregate concrete con- aggregate concretes: applicability of Eurocode 2. Int. J. Concr. Struct. Mater. 9
taining ternary blended cementitious materials. Int. J. Sustain. Built Environ. 6 (1), 1e20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40069-014-0087-y.
(2), 536e543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsbe.2017.10.005. Wild, S., Sabir, B., Khatib, J., 1995. Factors influencing strength development of
Singh, R.B., Singh, B., 2018. Rheological behaviour of different grades of self- concrete containing silica fume. Cement Concr. Res. 25 (7), 1567e1580, 0.1016/
compacting concrete containing recycled aggregates. Constr. Build. Mater. 161, 0008-8846(95)00150-B.
354e364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.11.118. Xiao, J., 2018. Recycled Aggregate Concrete, Recycled Aggregate Concrete Structures.
Singh, R.B., Kumar, N., Singh, B., 2017. Effect of supplementary cementitious ma- Springer, pp. 65e98. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-53987-3.
terials on rheology of different grades of self-compacting concrete made with Xiao, J.-Z., Li, J.-B., Zhang, C., 2006. On relationships between the mechanical
recycled aggregates. J. Adv. Concr. Technol. 15 (9), 524e535. https://doi.org/ properties of recycled aggregate concrete: an overview. Mater. Struct. 39 (6),
10.3151/jact.15.524. 655e664. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-006-9093-0.
Somna, R., Jaturapitakkul, C., Chalee, W., Rattanachu, P., 2011. Effect of the water to Xiao, J., Li, W., Fan, Y., Huang, X., 2012. An overview of study on recycled aggregate
binder ratio and ground fly ash on properties of recycled aggregate concrete. concrete in China (1996e2011). Constr. Build. Mater. 31, 364e383. https://
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 24 (1), 16e22. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943- doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.12.074.
5533.0000360. Xie, T., Fang, C., 2019. Nanomaterials applied in modifications of geopolymer
Somna, R., Jaturapitakkul, C., Amde, A.M., 2012a. Effect of ground fly ash and ground composites: a review. Aust. J. Civ. Eng. 17 (1), 32e49. https://doi.org/10.1080/
bagasse ash on the durability of recycled aggregate concrete. Cement Concr. 14488353.2019.1614353.
Compos. 34 (7), 848e854. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2012.03.003. Xie, T., Ozbakkaloglu, T., 2015. Influence of coal ash properties on compressive
Somna, R., Jaturapitakkul, C., Rattanachu, P., Chalee, W., 2012b. Effect of ground behaviour of FA-and BA-based GPC. Mag. Concr. Res. 67 (24), 1301e1314,
bagasse ash on mechanical and durability properties of recycled aggregate 0.1680/macr.14.00429.
concrete. Mater. Des. 36, 597e603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2011.11.065. Xie, T., Ozbakkaloglu, T., 2016. Behavior of recycled aggregate concrete-filled basalt
Sriravindrarajah, R., Wang, N.D.H., Ervin, L.J.W., 2012. Mix design for pervious and carbon FRP tubes. Constr. Build. Mater. 105, 132e143. https://doi.org/
recycled aggregate concrete. Int. J. Concr. Struct. Mater. 6 (4), 239e246, 0.1007/ 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.12.068.
s40069-012-0024-x. Xie, T., Visintin, P., 2018. A unified approach for mix design of concrete containing
Sucic, A., Eng, B., 2013. Toward the Use of High Volume Coarse Recycled Concrete supplementary cementitious materials based on reactivity moduli. J. Clean.
Aggregate in New Concrete Production. Msc Thesis. Ryerson University. Prod. 203, 68e82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.08.254.
Sunayana, S., Barai, S.V., 2017. Recycled aggregate concrete incorporating fly ash: Xie, T., Elchalakani, M., Mohamed Ali, M., Dong, M., Karrech, A., Li, G.J.C., Concrete,
comparative study on particle packing and conventional method. Constr. Build. 2018a. Mechanical and durability properties of self-compacting concrete with
Mater. 156, 376e386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.08.132. blended binders, 22 (4), 407e417. https://doi.org/10.12989/cac.2018.22.4.407.
Tam, V.W., Gao, X., Tam, C.M., 2005. Microstructural analysis of recycled aggregate Xie, T., Gholampour, A., Ozbakkaloglu, T., 2018b. Toward the development of sus-
concrete produced from two-stage mixing approach. Cement Concr. Res. 35 (6), tainable concretes with recycled concrete aggregates: comprehensive review of
1195e1203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.10.025. studies on mechanical properties. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 30 (9), 04018211 https://
Tam, V.W., Tam, C.M., Wang, Y., 2007. Optimization on proportion for recycled doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002304.
aggregate in concrete using two-stage mixing approach. Constr. Build. Mater. 21 Xu, J.-J., Chen, Z.-P., Ozbakkaloglu, T., Zhao, X.-Y., Demartino, C., 2018. A critical
(10), 1928e1939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2006.05.040. assessment of the compressive behavior of reinforced recycled aggregate con-
Tam, V.W., Soomro, M., Evangelista, A.C.J., 2018. A review of recycled aggregate in crete columns. Eng. Struct. 161, 161e175. https://doi.org/10.1016/
concrete applications (2000e2017). Constr. Build. Mater. 172, 272e292. https:// j.engstruct.2018.02.003.
doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.03.240. Xu, J., Chen, Y., Xie, T., Zhao, X., Xiong, B., Chen, Z.J.C., Materials, B., 2019a. Prediction
Tangchirapat, W., Buranasing, R., Jaturapitakkul, C., Chindaprasirt, P., 2008. Influ- of triaxial behavior of recycled aggregate concrete using multivariable regres-
ence of rice huskebark ash on mechanical properties of concrete containing sion and artificial neural network techniques, 226, 534e554. https://doi.org/
high amount of recycled aggregates. Constr. Build. Mater. 22 (8), 1812e1819. 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.155.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.05.004. Xu, J., Zhao, X., Yu, Y., Xie, T., Yang, G., Xue, J.J.C., Materials, B., 2019b. Parametric
Tangchirapat, W., Buranasing, R., Jaturapitakkul, C., 2009. Use of high fineness of fly sensitivity analysis and modelling of mechanical properties of normal-and
ash to improve properties of recycled aggregate concrete. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 22 high-strength recycled aggregate concrete using grey theory, multiple
(6), 565e571. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000054. nonlinear regression and artificial neural networks, 211, 479e491. https://
Tangchirapat, W., Khamklai, S., Jaturapitakkul, C., 2012. Use of ground palm oil fuel doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.03.234.
ash to improve strength, sulfate resistance, and water permeability of concrete Yang, K.-H., Jung, Y.-B., Cho, M.-S., Tae, S.-H., 2015. Effect of supplementary
containing high amount of recycled concrete aggregates. Mater. Des. 41, cementitious materials on reduction of CO2 emissions from concrete. J. Clean.
150e157, 0.1016/j.matdes.2012.04.054. Prod. 103, 774e783, 1016/j.jclepro.2014.03.018.
Taylor, H.F., 1997. Cement Chemistry. Thomas Telford. Younis, K.H., Pilakoutas, K., 2013. Strength prediction model and methods for
Thomas, C., Setie n, J., Polanco, J., Alaejos, P., De Juan, M.S.J.C., Materials, B., 2013. improving recycled aggregate concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 49, 688e701.
Durability of recycled aggregate concrete, 40, 1054e1065. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.09.003.
Thomas, C., Sosa, I., Setie n, J., Polanco, J.A., Cimentada, A.I., 2014. Evaluation of the Zhao, H., Sun, W., Wu, X., Gao, B., 2015. The properties of the self-compacting
fatigue behavior of recycled aggregate concrete. J. Clean. Prod. 65, 397e405. concrete with fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag mineral ad-
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.09.036. mixtures. J. Clean. Prod. 95, 66e74. https://doi.org/10.1016/
Torgal, F.P., Jalali, S., 2011. Construction and Demolition (C&D) Wastes, Eco-Efficient j.jclepro.2015.02.050.