Waste management

Litter spreader
There are many different waste management options for litter including land
application of litter as an organic fertiliser. Overseas broiler industries have had
restrictions placed upon them regarding this practice due to over application of litter
which led to pollution. Fortunately in Australia there are greater agricultural lands
that can responsibly utilise litter and growers are generally less concentrated
compared to overseas. Therefore, poultry waste managers can rely on land
application of litter as a sustainable disposal method for the foreseeable future. That
being said, the industry considers all other waste management options and their
ability to value add to the litter resource.
 Litter re-use

In-shed litter heap

One solution to dealing with used or spent litter, widely adopted in the United States
of America, is to re-use it for subsequent batches of broilers. While there are cost-
saving benefits from not entirely replacing spent litter with new bedding material for
each batch, there is also a bonus in that the eventual multi-batch litter makes for an
improved compost due to its higher proportion of nutrients from greater proportion of
chicken excreta to bedding material in the litter.
If there are concerns about carry over of disease organisms in re-used litter,
methods to reduce pathogen load developed under Poultry CRC project Methods to
quantify and inactivate viruses in poultry litter can be accessed via the following
links. These include standard procedures for in-shed pasteurisation of litter between
batches and the LitterHeatMap model to predict and optimise temperatures in litter
being pasteurised by heaping.
Closed-loop systems
An important concept for a waste manager is a closed-loop system where outputs
from one industry become inputs for another. Therefore, pollution could be defined
as a resource or raw product that has an adverse effect on the environment which
has not been transformed into another useful product. Land application satisfies this
requirement as litter is transformed into plants while soil structure is improved by
increasing soil organic matter. Composting litter before applying to land can enhance
both plant growth and soil structure.

Composting

Composting broiler litter

Composting is the aerobic microbial breakdown of organic matter, usually
incorporating a thermophilic phase. The adoption of composting systems for poultry
waste has received attention due to its ability to reduce litter volume, dispose of
carcasses, stabilise nutrients and trace elements and reduce pathogens. Agronomic
benefits of composted litter include increased plant available nutrients and humic
residues. The immobilisation of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) during composting
reduces the risk of soluble N and P entering aquatic systems via surface flow and
leaching. Composting could also offer both on-site and off-site solutions to litter
utilisation and potentially enhance a closed-loop system for the Australian poultry
industry.

Direct combustion
The Eye power station is fueled by litter
Direct combustion and incineration are recognised as efficient options for generating
renewable energy and fertiliser grade ash from litter and could potentially close the
nutrient loop for the poultry industry. There are currently successful large scale off-
site electricity utilities operating in the UK that primarily use litter as a fuel. For on-
site electricity and heat generation, smaller direct combustion systems are being
researched and developed, and if commercialised, could supply Australian broiler
growers with both environmentally sustainable waste disposal and energy.

Anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion could also promote a closed-loop system for the poultry
industry, as the process could degrade and stabilise a wide range of organic poultry
wastes including litter. This could potentially produce saleable methane and
digestate. Methane could be captured after digestion, the gas then cleaned and then
used as renewable energy, while the digestate could be utilised as a soil improving
agent with potentially good fertiliser attributes.

Ethanol production (biofuels)

It is also likely that poultry litter could be suitable for lignocellulosic alcohol
production. If this technology is viable, this waste could supply biofuels to Australia
and potentially reduce the demand for grain destined for ethanol production.

Vermiculture

Broiler litter and earthworms (Eisenia andrei) after vermi-processing

The use of specially selected earthworm species to degrade waste is known as
vermiculture. This technique has been widely adopted by home gardeners to utilize
green wastes and vegetable scraps. Vermiculture has the potential to produce both
humic rich vermi-compost (vermicast) and meat meal (vermimeal) from litter.
Traditionally, the vermiculture process has primarily been adopted to produce
vermicast, a recognised valuable organic fertiliser.

Further information
 Kelleher, B. P., Leahy, J. J., Henihan, A. M., O’Dwyer, T. F., Sutton, D. & Leahy,
M. J. (2002). Advances in poultry litter disposal technology – a review. Bioresource
Technology 83, 27–36.
 Turnell, J.R., Hinch, G.N. and Faulkner, R.D. 2007, ‘Recent advances in
Australian broiler litter utilisation’, World’s Poultry Science Journal, vol. 63, pp. 223-
231.
Litter pasteurisation
Poultry waste management in developing countries Charles Michael Williams, North Carolina State
University, Department of Poultry Science, Raleigh NC, United States of America Introduction Poultry
meat and eggs provide affordable, quality food products that are consumed by most ethnic populations
worldwide. Advances in knowledge and technology over recent decades favour the growth and
intensification of poultry production in developing countries where there are increasing human
populations and economic constraints. Issues related to the environment, human health and the quality
of life for people living near to and distant from poultry production operations make waste management
a critical consideration for the long-term growth and sustainability of poultry production in larger bird
facilities located near urban and peri-urban areas, as well as for smaller commercial systems associated
with live bird markets, and for village and backyard flocks located in rural areas. These information notes
focus primarily on medium-sized to large intensive poultry production units, but many of the principles
apply to smaller operations, including small family scavenging flocks. Fundamental knowledge of the
environmental and health issues associated with poultry waste management will serve both small and
large poultry producers now and in the future, as the intensification of poultry production continues to
gain favour globally. Potential pollutants and issues related to poultry production The production of
poultry results in: hatchery wastes, manure (bird excrement), litter (bedding materials such as sawdust,
wood shavings, straw and peanut or rice hulls), and on-farm mortalities. The processing of poultry
results in additional waste materials, including offal (feathers, entrails and organs of slaughtered birds),
processing wastewater and biosolids. Most of these by-products can provide organic and inorganic
nutrients that are of value if managed and recycled properly, regardless of flock size. However, they also
give rise to potential environmental and human health concerns as the sources of elements, compounds
(including veterinary pharmaceuticals), vectors for insects and vermin, and pathogenic microorganisms.
With the probable exception of veterinary pharmaceuticals, these factors are also relevant to small
flocks, including small family flocks that may be partially housed in containment structures. Managing
these poultry by-products as potential pollutants centres on water and air quality concerns, and in some
cases on soil quality (FAO, 2008; Nahm and Nahm, 2004; Williams, Barker and Sims, 1999). Specific
concerns that are well documented include degradation of nearby surface and/or groundwater,
resulting from increased loading of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus (and potassium in some
locations). Air quality issues are less well understood and include the fate and effect of ammonia,
hydrogen sulphide, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and dust particulates emitted from poultry
production facilities. Greenhouse gas emissions and health effects associated with nuisance odorants
are also emerging and/or relevant issues, owing to global climate change and increasing human
populations in close proximity to poultry operations, respectively. Water and soil impacts of potential
pollutants from poultry production Most poultry manure and litter are applied to land near poultry
production farms. With few exceptions, this is the preferred practice in developing countries and
elsewhere. Such land management of poultry by-products brings the risk of surface and groundwater
contamination from potential pollutants contained in the manure and litter. Its value depends on several
factors, including the agronomic potential of the receiving crop(s) to utilize the waste nutrients, the
receiving soil type and specific geological Housing conditions that promote good ventilation, non leaking
waters and drier manure and litter results in healthier birds and manure of better nutrient value for crop
fertilizer. Photo Credit: John T. Brake Excessive dust on surfaces and equipment in poultry housing
should be regularly cleaned to reduce environmentally harmful bio-aerosols. 2 Poultry Development
Review • Poultry waste management in developing countries design, and manure and litter storage and
treatment practices, such as methods for applying them to land. Hydrogen sulphide and other VOCs can
result from the metabolic breakdown of poultry waste products, generally under low-oxygen conditions
such as occur when manure is allowed to ferment (anaerobically digest) in a pit beneath the birds, in an
earthen lagoon or in other open-air containment. This type of waste operation is more common with
swine or dairy livestock than poultry, but may occur in some locations with layer operations. Under
open-air fermentation, hydrogen sulphide and VOCs can be emitted into the atmosphere as pollutants,
and can also be components of nuisance odour. Hydrogen sulphide can be dangerous to humans at
certain concentrations. Donham and Thelin (2006) note that agitation of manure slurry in pits beneath
animals can result in rapid elevation of ambient hydrogen sulphide to lethal concentrations, within
seconds. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2000) notes an air quality guideline for hydrogen
sulphide of 0.15 mg/m3 averaged over a 24-hour period. Particulate matter (or dust) is an aerial
pollutant of more concern than hydrogen sulphide and VOCs. It occurs in typical poultry operations
where appreciable numbers of birds are confined. Dust emissions can contain dried fecal matter and
may include bacteria, endotoxins, moulds, mites and insect parts (Clark, Rylander and Larsson, 1983).
Dust emissions from housing facilities are highly variable, depending on the climate, building design,
feed consistency (dry or pellet) and control mechanisms for preventing large dust particles from leaving
the area near the building – in recent years, considerable progress has been made in developing low-
cost dust barriers to prevent dust dispersion (Poultry Science Association, 2009). Fine particulate matter
(e.g., PM-fine) resulting from the conversion of ammonia gas in the atmosphere into ammonium salts
can have greater consequences for human health, and is less likely to be mitigated by dust barrier
approaches for preventing larger dust particles. This is another of the factors that make aerial ammonia
emissions so important. Climatic conditions play a very significant role in the impacts from aerial poultry
pollutants, regardless of flock size. For example, excessively dry conditions, especially in litter, result in
increased respiratory conditions affecting birds’ productivity, while conditions of the land being utilized,
the distance to nearby surface and groundwaters, the amount of vegetated areas (riparian buffers)
adjacent to nearby surface waters, and the climate. Nutrient loading and build-up within a geological
region is ecologically important and has an impact on the diversity and productivity of essential,
naturally occurring living organisms within that region (Gundersen, 1992). The issue is increasingly
complex owing to the trend for producing meat and eggs under intensified systems that require grain to
be imported into production regions to meet feedstock requirements. This often leads to nutrient
imbalances, and adverse environmental or health effects can occur when land application of the
nutrients exceeds crop utilization potential, or if poor management results in nutrient loss due to soil
erosion or surface runoff during rainfall. Surface or groundwater contamination by manure nutrients
and pathogens is especially serious if drinking-water supplies are affected. The primary nutrients of
concern are nitrogen and phosphorus. The nitrogen compounds contained in manure and litter are very
dynamic and can be removed from land by uptake of the receiving crop harvest or by conversion to
gases that volatilize into the atmosphere in the form of ammonia, nitrous oxides or harmless di-
nitrogen. Nitrogen is also very mobile in soil, and may be transported to groundwater and/or nearby
surface waters. Unlike nitrogen, phosphorus in manure and litter is very immobile, but can leach into
shallow groundwater or laterally transport to surface waters via erosion or subsurface runoff under
certain climatic, soil and phosphorus concentration conditions. Nitrogen in the form of nitrates in
drinking-water can cause adverse health effects; and both nitrogen and phosphorus in certain
concentrations and environmental conditions can result in degradation of surface waters. Regarding
nutrient loading from poultry manure and litter, the focus is mainly on nitrogen and phosphorus, but
certain metals such as copper and zinc, which may also be contained in poultry excreta, should also be
considered when planning long-term sustainable nutrient balance in soils receiving poultry waste. In
certain soil conditions, a build-up of these metals can be detrimental (toxic) for some crops (Zublena,
1994). Air quality impacts of potential pollutants from poultry production Air quality can be affected by
aerial emissions of pollutants from poultry production facilities. Ammonia emitted into the atmosphere
is arguably the most environmentally significant aerial pollutant associated with poultry production
(FAO, 2006). The transport and fate of ammonia once it is emitted into the atmosphere are not well
understood, but its presence in high concentrations can trigger environmental effects that have impacts
on local ecosystems and human health. As such, consideration of the environmental effects on airsheds
and watersheds of nutrient loading from poultry production is important for long-term sustainability.
Ammonia from poultry operations is derived from nitrogen, which is an essential component of dietary
protein, amino acids and other biomolecules necessary for life. However, dietary nitrogen not converted
into meat, eggs or other tissue is excreted in the form of organic nitrogen, which is rapidly converted
into ammonia under most, but not all, poultry production practices. The amount of ammonia actually
emitted into the atmosphere depends on multiple variables, including climate, poultry housing Photo
Credit: John T. Brake 3 Poultry Development Review • Poultry waste management in developing
countries excessively wet litter results in increased ammonia concentrations (and pathogenic
microorganisms), which are also detrimental to productivity. Options and considerations for poultry
waste management The planning, construction and operation of poultry meat and egg operations of any
size must consider issues associated with storing, managing and utilizing potential waste by-products.
On a global scale, much research has been conducted on ways of recovering nutrients and value-added
organic products from animal wastes, to improve agricultural efficiency and mitigate environmental
impacts in their regions. Many systems and approaches can be successful if properly operated and
maintained. Land application of crop nutrients Globally, poultry manure or litter has been applied to
land to enhance crop production for centuries. When properly managed, this is an effective and
beneficial option. Environmental pollution occurs when manure or litter is applied to the land in excess
of the receiving crop’s capacity to utilize the nutrients. Other factors that influence the environmental
fate of the manure and litter applied include methods of collecting, storing, handling, treating,
transporting and applying the waste by-products to the receiving land. For example, with non-liquid-
flush systems, the poultry housing and manure storage area should be designed so that the manure and
litter are kept as dry as possible, to minimize aerial emissions of gases and assist fly control. Manure and
litter storage should be planned to prevent contact with rainfall or rain runoff. Land application should
be based on the agronomic uptake of the receiving crop, accurate analysis of the nutrients contained in
the manure (particularly nitrogen, phosphorus, copper and zinc) and properly calibrated application
methods; it should be avoided when the land is frozen or excessively wet. Land application methods that
incorporate the manure or litter directly into the soil minimize odour and gas emissions and surface
runoff. These principles also apply to small family operations, whose sanitation will be improved by
periodically removing manure or litter from areas where just a few birds are housed, and by storing,
composting and/or land-applying the product at least 100 m from where the live birds are kept.
Composting is a natural aerobic biological process to breakdown organic matter, which provides a
practical and economically feasible method for stabilizing poultry manure and litter before land
application (Carr, 1994). Correctly managed composting effectively binds nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus in organic forms, and reduces pathogens, insect eggs and weed seed owing to the heat
generated during the biological processing. Composting can also reduce nuisance odour emissions from
poultry waste storage and treatment areas. A variety of composting approaches, from very simple to
more complex automated systems, are available for both large and small poultry producers. In areas
where manure or litter is land-applied near streams or surface waters, an exceptionally simple and
effective approach for mitigating surface runoff or the subsurface flow of potential harmful nutrients is
to maintain a natural riparian buffer next to the water resources (Wenger, 1999). Riparian buffers may
comprise native grasses, shrubs or trees, or a combination of these. The width and make-up of a riparian
buffer are specific to its location, and the width of the buffer from the stream edge determines its
effectiveness. Natural grass buffers of approximately 10 m wide have been shown to reduce nitrogen
and phosphorus from field surface runoff by approximately 25 percent, while combined grass and tree
buffers are much more effective. This practice is a documented inexpensive natural method of
protecting water resources from the nutrients and pathogenic microorganisms contained in nearby
land-applied poultry manure or litter. Animal refeeding Scientific research has documented that
nutrients and energy from poultry waste by-products, including manure and litter, can be safely recycled
as a component of livestock and poultry diets when pathogens are neutralized (McCaskey, 1995).
Poultry litter has been estimated to be as much as three times more valuable as a feedstuff than as a
fertilizer for crop nutrients. However, such practices depend on regional regulations and public
perceptions of the concept of animals’ consumption of fecal material, regardless of its documented
value and safety. If practised, caution is essential. For example, copper toxicity can result when litter is
fed to sheep. Incorrectly processed poultry waste can contain potentially pathogenic microorganisms,
including Salmonella. Depending on environmental conditions and the global region of production,
antibiotics, arsenicals and mycotoxins can also be present in poultry manures and litters. The refeeding
of poultry processing by-products is a common and acceptable practice in most, but not all, cultures.
Advances in the treatment and processing of feathers and offal to produce value-added feed ingredients
are making this practice more attractive in some regions, especially with the recent increases for feeds
derived from grains. Bioenergy production Poultry manure and litter contain organic matter that can be
converted into bioenergy under certain processing technologies. One of the most common approaches
for poultry excrement managed by water flushing (e.g., some layer operations) is anaerobic digestion,
which yields biogas, a gas mixture with varying concenManure from this facility can improve the nearby
grass yield for grazing cattle when properly managed. Photo Credit: John T. Brake 4 Poultry
Development Review • Poultry waste management in developing countries trations of combustible
methane (FAO/CMS, 1996). The biogas can be used as an on-farm energy source for heat or as a fuel for
various engines that generate electricity. An additional advantage is that, depending on processing
conditions, anaerobically digested manure solids and liquids are further stabilized and more acceptable
and safe for use as a fertilizer or feed supplement. Numerous technologies and approaches are available
for on-farm or centralized anaerobic digestion, and all are influenced by multiple variables that affect
biogas yield and efficiency – operational feasibility and effective management are critical to the success
of this process, especially with some of the more complex anaerobic digester technologies.
Unfavourable economic and other issues associated with operational feasibility, and low biogas yield
from litter-based systems have discouraged many poultry producers worldwide from implementing this
technology. Poultry litter and dry manure can be incinerated for on-farm production of heat in small
furnaces, or transported to central locations where they are combusted on a large scale for the
generation of electricity. For both approaches, the amount of energy produced depends on the
efficiency of the equipment utilized and the moisture content of the manure or litter burned.
Operational feasibility and emission issues also affect this process, especially for on-farm small
conventional furnaces. Gasification technology is a way of producing bioenergy that is receiving
renewed interest for small on-farm systems and central electric power stations in some regions. The
process involves incomplete combustion in a limited-oxygen environment. As noted for both anaerobic
digester technology and incineration units, economic costs and returns, operational feasibility and
emission issues have an impact on the implementation of this technology. However, increasing energy
costs, environmental policy related to mandated renewable energy production goals in some regions,
and the evolving carbon credit market are stimulating interest in all technologies for processing poultry
and other waste products that yield bioenergy and reduce greenhouse emissions. References Carr, L.
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literature on riparian buffer width, extent and vegetation. Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia,
USA. WHO. 2000. Air quality guidelines, second edition, Chapter 6. Hydrogen sulfide. Williams, M.,
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USA  27658 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do
not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country,
terr