Watershed management field manual

FAO CONSERVATION GUIDE 13/5

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome 1998

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF TABLES

FOREWORD

ABSTRACT

Conversion Table : English - Metric Units

1. DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF PROTECTIVE MEASURES FOR ROADS

1.1. General Introduction

1.2. Interaction of Roads and Environment

1.3. Erosion Processes

1.4. Assessment of Erosion Potential

1.4.1. Surface Erosion

1.4.2. Mass Soil Movement

2. ROAD PLANNING AND RECONNAISSANCE

 2.1. Route Planning

2.1.1. Design Criteria

2.1.2. Design Elements

2.1.2.1. Number of Lanes and Lane Width

2.1.2.2. Road Width

2.1.2.3. Turnouts

2.1.2.4. Turn-arounds

2.1.2.5. Curve Widening

2.1.2.6. Clearance

2.1.2.7. Speed and Sight Distance

2.1.2.8. Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

2.1.2.9. Travel Time

2.2. Economic Evaluation and Justification

2.2.1. Economic Analysis Method

2.2:2. Analysis of Alternative Routes

2.3. Route Reconnaissance and Location

2.3.1. Road Reconnaissance

2.3.2. Faults

2.3.3. Indicators of Slope Stability

3. ROAD DESIGN

3.1. Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

3.1.1. Horizontal Alignment Considerations

3.1.2. Curve Widening

3.1.3. Vertical Alignment

3.2. Road Prism

3.2.1. Road Prism Stability

 3.2.2. Side Cast - Full Bench Road Prism

3.2.3. Slope Design

3.2.4. Road Prism Selection

3.3. Road Surfacing

4. DRAINAGE DESIGN

4.1. General Considerations

4.2. Estimating runoff

4.3. Channel Crossings

4.3.1. Location of Channel Crossings

4.3.2. Fords

4.3.3. Culverts

4.3.4. Debris Control Structures

4.3.5. Bridges

4.4. Road Surface Drainage

4.4.1 Surface Sloping

4.4.2. Surface Cross Drains

4.4.3. Ditches and Beans

4.4.4. Ditch Relief Culverts

4.5. Subsurface Drainage

5. SURFACE AND SLOPE PROTECTIVE MEASURES

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Surface Protection Measures

5.2.1. Site Analysis

5.2.2. Site Preparation

5.2.3. Seeding and Planting

5.2.4. Application Methods

 5.2.5. Waffling and Filter Strips

5.2.6. Brush Layering

5.2.7. Mechanical Treatment

5.3. Mass Movement Protection

6. ROAD CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

6.1. Road Construction Techniques

6.1.1. Construction Staking

6.1.2. Clearing and Grubbing of the Road Construction Area

6.2. General Equipment Considerations

6.2.1. Bulldozer in Road Construction

6.2.2. Hydraulic Excavator in Road Construction

6.3. Subgrade Construction

6.3.1. Subgrade Excavation with Bulldozer

6.3.2. Fill Construction

6.3.3. Compaction

6.3.4. Subgrade Construction with Excavator

6.3.5. Filter Windrow Construction for Erosion Prevention

7. ROAD MAINTENANCE

7.1. Introduction

7.2. Drainage System Maintenance

7.3. Road Surface Maintenance

7.4. Emergency Storm Response

7.5. Road Abandonment and Reclamation

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Sediment production in relation to road density (Amimoto, 1978).

2. Infinite slope analysis for planar failures.
3. Relationship between frictional resistance (F) and driving force (E) promoting downslope
movement. (Burroughs, et al., 1976).
4. Sixty cm of soil with 15 cm of ground water will slide when the slope gradient exceeds 58
percent. (Burroughs, et al., 1976).
5. (a) Subsurface rainwater flows in the direction of the slope when geologic strata dip toward
the slope. (b) Subsurface rainwater percolates downward and out of the root zone when
geologic strata dip in that direction (Rice, 1977).
6. Road structural terms.
7. Turnout spacing in relation to traffic volume and travel delay time.
8. Typical turnout dimensions.
9. Relationship between curve radius and truck speed when speed is not controlled by grade
(U.S. Forest Service, 1965).
10. Relationship between grade and truck speed on gravel roads (U.S. Forest Service, 1965).
11. Stepped backslope (no scale).
12. Tag line location and center line location of proposed road. Sideslopes are typically less
than 40 to 50 percent.
13. Tag line location and center line location of proposed road. Sideslopes are typically greater
than 50%.
14. Selection of the road alignment in the field by "stretching the tag line". This "stretched", or
"adjusted" tag line is surveyed and represents the final horizontal location of the road.
15. Position [1] shows tag line ribbon at approximately eye-level. The feet of the road locator
are "on grade". Position [2] shows the ribbon on-location over the center line or tangent as
selected in the field after stretching. The ribbon has been moved horizontally, thereby
allowing an estimate of required cut or fill at center line.
16. Example of the effect of shortened center line through a draw or around a sharp ridge. This
situation develops when running the tag line into the draw or around a sharp ridge without
allowing for proper curve layout and design location.
17. Curve layout by deflection method, a useful approach during the original road location
phase.
18. By sighting across draw at 0 percent grade, the desired curve is laid out without increasing
the grade.
19. Cut and fill apportioning through a switchback to maintain a given grade.
20. Suspected fault zones are indicated by the alignment of saddles in ridges and by the
direction of stream channels. Geologic map is found in upper left corner. Major faults are
shown as heavy dark lines on geologic maps (Burroughs, et al.,1976).
21. Stereogram of a possible fault zone. The location of the fault is indicated by the dashed
line. (Burroughs, et al., 1976).
22. Approximate boundary between serpentine (metamorphic rock) material and the Umpqua
formation is shown by the dashed line. The determination is based primarily on the basis of
vegetation density. Timber on portions of the Umpqua formation have been harvested
which accounts for a reduction in vegetation density, particularly in the northwest corner of
the photo (Burroughs, et al., 1976).
23. "Hummocky" topography with springs, curved or tilted trees, and localized slumps,
characterize land undergoing active soil
creep.
24. Empirical headwall rating system used for shallow, rapid landslides on the Mapleton Ranger
District, Region 6, Oregon.
25. Non-geometric and conventional p-line traverses (MacDonald and Greening, 1982).
26. Design adjustments.
27. Full bench design.
28. Self-balanced design.
29. Basic vehicle geometry in off -tracking.
30. Example of truck-trailer dimensions.
31. Step 1 for the graphical solution of curve widening.
32. Step 2 and 3 for the graphical solution for curve widening.
33. Graphical solution for off-tracking of a stinger-type log truck.
34. Curve widening and taper lengths.
35. Curve widening guide for a two or three axle truck as a function of radius and deflection
angle. The truck dimensions are as shown.
36. Curve widening guide for a truck-trailer combination as a function of radius and deflection
angle. The dimensions are as shown.
37. Curve widening guide for a log-truck as a function of radius and deflection angle. The
dimensions are as shown.
38. Curve widening guide for a tractor / trailer as a function of radius and deflection angle. The
tractor - trailer dimensions are as shown.
39. Typical vertical curves.
40. Vertical curve elements.
41. Log truck geometry and dimensions.
42. Translational or wedge failure brought about by saturated zone in fill. Ditch overflow or
unprotected surface are often responsible.
43. Fill failure caused by backward erosion at the toe of the fill due to excessive seepage and
unprotected toe.
44. Elements of road prism geometry.
45. Required excavation volumes for side cast and full bench ,construction as function of side
slope. Assumed subgrade width 6.6 m and bulking factor K = 1.35 (rock).
46. Erodible area per kilometer of road for side cast construction and full bench/end haul
construction as a function of side slope angle and cut slope angle. The values shown are
calculated for a 6.6 m wide subgrade. The fill angle equals 37 degrees.
47. Erodible area per kilometer of road for full bench/end haul construction as a function of side
slope angle and cut slope angle. The values shown are calculated for a 6.6 m wide
subgrade.
48. Maximum cut slope ratio for coarse grained soils with plastic fines (low water conditions).
Each curve indicates the maximum height or the steepest slope that can be used for the
given soil type (After USFS, 1973).
49. Maximum cut slope angle for coarse grained soils with plastic fines (high water conditions).
Each curve indicates the maximum cut height or the steepest slopes that can be used for
the given soil type (After USFS,1973).
50. Maximum cut slope angle for fine grained soils with slowly permeable layer at bottom of cut.
Each curve indicates the maximum vertical cut height or the steepest slope that can be
used for the given soil type (After USFS 1973).
51. Maximum cut slope angle for fine grained soils with slowly permeable layer at great depth
(>= 3 x height of cut) below cut (After USFS, 1973).
52. Interaction of subgrade dimension and roadwidth, ballast depth, ditch width and fill
widening.
53. Fill widening added to standard subgrade width where fill height at centerline or shoulder
exceeds a critical height. Especially important if sidecast construction instead of layer
construction is used.
54. Template and general road alignment projected into the hill favoring light to moderate cuts
at centerline in order to minimize fill slope length. Fill slopes are more susceptible to erosion
and sloughing than cut slopes.
55. Illustration of the very considerable reduction in excavation made possible on a steep slope
by the use of cribbing. Crib proportions shown are suitable for log construction; if crib was
built of concrete or steel, shorter spreaders could be used in upper 3 m as indicated by the
dashed line (Kraebel, 1936).
56. Ballast thickness curves for single wheel loads (from Steward et al 1977). Conversion
factors: 1 inch = 2.5 cm ; 1 kg/cm2 = 14.22 psi.
57. Ballast thickness curves for dual wheel loads (from Steward et al 1977). Conversion factors:
1 inch = 2.5 cm ; 1 kg/cm2 = 14.22 psi.
58. Ballast thickness curves for tandem wheel loads (from Steward et al 1977). Conversion
factors: 1 inch = 2.5 cm; 1 kg/cm2 = 14.22 psi.
59. Slope shape and its impact on slope hydrology. Slope shape determines whether water is
dispersed or concentrated (US Forest Service, 1979).
60. Culvert locations have modified drainage patterns of ephemeral streams 2 and 3, an
undesirable practice. Locations A and B become potential failure sites. Stream 3 carries
more water below B, hence it has more erosive power.
61. Determining high water levels for measurement of stream channel dimensions
62. Ford construction stabilized by gabions placed on the downstream end.
63. Profile view of stream crossing with a ford. Adverse grade provides channeling, preventing
debris accumulation from diverting the stream on to and along the road Surface. The profile
of the ford along with vehicle dimensions must be considered to insure proper clearance
and vehicle passage. (After Kuonen, 1983).
64. Hardened fill stream crossings provide an attractive alternative for streams prone to torrents
or debris avalanches.
65. Culvert alignment (USDA, Forest Service, 1971).
66. Proper culvert grades (Highway Task Force, 1971).
67. Definition sketch of variables used in flow calculations.
68. Hydraulics of culverts (Highway Task Force, 1971).
69. Sample work sheet for culvert dimension determination.
70. Monograph for concrete pipes, inlet control (U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1963).
71. Monograph for corrugated metal pipe (CMP), inlet control, (U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1963).
72. Monograph for corrugated metal arch pipe (CMP), inlet control (U.S. Dept. of Commerce,
1963).
73. Monograph for box - culvert, inlet control (U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1963).
74. Monograph for corrugated metal pipe (CMP), outlet control, (U.S. Dept. of Commerce,
1963).
75. Proper pipe foundation and bedding (USDA, Forest Service, 1971).
76. Debris control structure-cribbing made of timber.
77. Debris control structure-trash rack made of steel rail (I-beam) placed over inlet.
78. Inlet and outlet protection of culvert with rip-rap. Rocks used should typically weigh 20 kg or
more and approximately 50 percent of the rocks should be larger than 0.1 m3 in volume.
Rocks can also be replaced with cemented sand layer (1 part cement, 4 parts sand).
79. Road cross sections for surface drainage.
80. Design of outsloped dips for forest roads. A to C, slope about 10 to 15 cm to assure lateral
flow; B, no material accumulated at this point - may require surfacing to prevent cutting; D,
provide rock rip-rap to prevent erosion; E, berm to confine outflow to 0.5 m wide spillway
(FAO, 1978).
81. Design of insloped dips for forest roads. A to C, slope about 10 to 15 cm to assure lateral
flow; B, no material accumulated at this point - may require surfacing to prevent cutting; D,
provide rock rip-rap to prevent erosion; E, berm to prevent overflow; F, culvert to carry
water beneath road; G, widen for ditch and pipe inlet (FAO, 1978).
82. Installation of an open-top culvert. Culverts should be slanted at 30 degrees downslope to
help prevent plugging (Darrach, et al., 1982).
83. Cross ditch construction for forest roads with limited or no traffic. Specifications are average
and may be adjusted to gradient and other conditions. A, bank tie-in point cut 15 to 30 cm
into roadbed; B, cross drain berm height 30 to 60 cm above road bed; C, drain outlet 20 to
40 cm into road; D, angle drain 30 to 40 degrees downgrade with road centerline; E, height
up to 60 cm, F, depth to 45 cm; G, 90 to 120 cm.
84. Spacing standard for open-top culverts on forest road surfaces, Japanese Islands
(Minematsu and Minamikata, 1983).
85. Guides for locating cross drains. Several locations require cross drains independent of
spacing guides. A and J, divert water from ridge; A, B, and C, cross drain above and below
junction; C and D, locate drains below log landing areas; D and H, drains located with
regular spacing; E, drain above incurve to prevent bank cutting and keep road surface
water from entering draw; F, ford or culvert in draw; G, drain below incurve to prevent water
from coursing down road; I, drain below seeps and springs (FAO, 1978).
86. Ditch interception near stream to divert ditch water onto stable areas instead of into the
stream (EPA, 1975).
87. Minimum ditch dimensions.
88. Monograph for solution of Manning's equation (U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1965).
89. Minimum berm dimensions.
90. Ditch relief culvert installation showing the use of headwall, downspout and a splash
barrier/energy dissipater at the outlet. Minimum culvert grade is 3 to 5 %. Exit velocities
should be checked (EPA, 1975).
91. Ditch relief culvert in close proximity to live stream, showing rock dike to diffuse ditch water
and sediment before it reaches the stream (EPA, 1975).
92. Energy dissipaters (Darrach, et al., 1981).
93. Size of stone that will resist displacement by water for various velocities and ditch side
slopes. 1 ft.= 30 cm (U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1965).
94. Selection criteria for slope stabilization methods.
95. Selection criteria for surface cover establishment methods in relation to erosion risk.
96. Preparation and installation procedure for contour wattling, using live willow stakes (after
Kraebel, 1936).
97. Brush layer installation for slope stabilization using rooted plants for cut slope and green
branches for fill slope stabilization.
98. Types of retaining walls.
99. Forces acting on a retaining wall.
100. Example of a standard crib wall design (Wash. State Dept. of Highway).

101. Low gabion breast walls showing sequence of excavation, assembly, and filling.
(From White and Franks, 1978).

102. Road cross section showing possible construction information.

103. The effect of improperly starting the cut as marked by the slope stake. Starting the
cut too high results in excess excavation and side cast. Starting the cut too low leaves an
oversteepened cut bank.

104. Construction grade check. Engineer stands on center of construction grade and
sights to RP tag. Measured distance and slope allow for determination of additional cut.

105. Clearing limits in relation to road bed widths. Significant organic layers are removed
between B and E. Stumps are removed between B and D. Stumps may be left between D
and E. Organic debris and removed stumps are placed in windrows at F to serve as filter
strips (see Chapter 6.3.1).

106. Pioneer road location at bottom of proposed fill provides a bench for holding fill
material of completed road.

107. Maximum production rates for different bulldozers equipped with straight blade in
relation to haul distance (after, Caterpillar, 1984).

108. Adjustment factors for bulldozer production rates in relation to grade (Caterpillar
Performance Handbook, 1984).

109. Fill slope length reduction by means of catch waif at toe of fill.(see also Fig. 55).

110. Three basic road prism construction activities.

111. Road construction with a bulldozer. The machine starts at the top and in successive
passes excavates down to the required grade. Excavated material is side cast and may
form part of the roadway.

112. Sliver fills created on steep side slopes where ground slope and fill slope angles
differ by less than 70 and fill slope height greater than 6.0 meters are inherently unstable.
113. Trench excavation to minimize sidehill loss of excavated material. Debris and
material fall into trench in front of bulldozer blade. Felled trees and stumps are left until
removed during excavation construction. They act as temporary retaining walls.

114. Fills are constructed by layering and compacting each layer. Lift height should not
exceed 50 cm. Compaction should be done with proper compaction equipment and not a
bulldozer (from OSU Ext. Service 1983).

115. Fills which are part of the roadway should not be constructed by end dumping.
(from OSU Ext. Service 1983).

116. Excavation cost comparison for three different embankment construction

techniques( 1 cu.yd. = 0.9 m3) (after Haber and Koch, 1983).

117. First pass with excavator, clearing logs and stumps from construction site. Working
platform or pioneer road just outside of planned road surface width.

118. Second pass with excavator, removing or stripping overburden of unsuitable

material and placing it below pioneer road.

119. Third pass, finishing subgrade and embankment fill over pioneer road. Road side
ditch is finished at the same time.

120. Typical filter windrow dimensions built of slash and placed on the fill slope
immediately above the toe. The windrow should be compressed and the bottom part
embedded 15 cm in the fill slope (after Cook and King 1983).

121. "Kanisku" closure is effective on side cast constructed roads on slopes up to 60

percent in areas with low to moderate precipitation.

122. Relief dip reduces the potential impact of culvert failure by reducing the amount of
potential sediment.

LIST OF TABLES

1. Unified Soil Classification System.

2. Guide for placing common soil and geologic types into erosion classes (Forest Soils
Committee of the Douglas-fir Region of the Pacific Northwest, 1957).
3. Traffic service levels definitions used to identify design parameters (from U.S. Forest
Service, Transportation Eng. Handbook).
4. Example of a roads objective documentation form (from U.S. Forest Service, Transportation
Eng. Handbook).
5. Traveled way widths for single-lane roads.
6. Lane widths for double-lane roads.
7. Recommended turnout spacing-all traffic service levels.
8. Turnout widths and lengths.
9. Curve widening criteria.
10. a) Relationship between round trip travel time per kilometer and surface type as influenced
by horizontal and vertical alignment; adverse grade in direction of haul (U.S. Forest Service,
1965).

b) Relationship between round trip travel time per kilometer and surface type as influenced
by horizontal and vertical alignment; favorable grade in direction of haul (U.S. Forest
Service, 1965)
11. Comparison of single-lane versus double-lane costs at three different use levels.
12. Comparison of annual road costs per kilometer - 10,000 vehicles per year.
13. Comparison of annual road costs per kilometer for 20,000 and 40,000 vehicles per year.
14. Cost summary comparison (5 vehicles per hour-1/2 logging trucks, 1/2 other traffic);
assumes 8-hour hauling day, 140 days/year use, 20 year road life, 23.8.m3 (6.0 M bd. ft.)
loads for logging trucks, cost of operating logging trucks including driver's wage--$0.25/min,
cost of operating other vehicles-$0.04/minute, 5,535 m3 (1 1/2 MM bd. ft.) timber harvested
(Gardner,1978).
15. Deflection angles for various chord lengths and curve radii.
16. Maximum grades log-trucks can start on from rest.
17. Values of friction angles and unit weights for various soils (from Borroughs et. al., 1976).
18. Maximum cut slope ratio for coarse grained soils (USFS, 1973).
19. Maximum cut slope ratio for bedrock excavation (USFS, 1973).
20. Minimum fill slope ratio for compacted fills (US Forest Service, 1973).
21. Required subgrade width (exclusive of fill widening) as a function of road width, ballast
depth and ditch width. Roadwidth = 3.0 m, ditch = 0.9 m (1:1 and 2:1 slopes), shoulder-
slopes 2:1.
22. Calculated sediment yield per kilometer of road for various road types and use levels (Reid,
1981; Reid and Dunne, 1984).
23. Engineering characteristics of soil groups for road construction (Pearce, 1960).
24. Required depth of ballast for three design vehicles. Road to withstand large traffic volumes
( > 1,000 axle loads) with less than 5 cm of rutting.
25. Flood recurrence interval (years) in relation to design life and probability of failure
(Megahan, 1977)*.
26. Values of relative imperviousness for use in rational formula (American Iron and Steel
Institute, 1971).
27. Manning's n for natural stream channels (surface width at flood stage less than 30 m
(Highway Task Force, 1971).
28. Relationship of peak flow with different return periods. (Nagy, et al, 1980).
29. Values for coefficient of roughness (n) for culverts. (Highway Task Force,1971; 1 foot = 0.3
m; 1 inch = 2.5 cm).
30. Effect of in-sloping on sediment yield of a graveled, heavily used road segment with a 10 %
down grade for different cross slopes (Reid, 1984)*.
31. Cross drain spacing required to prevent rill or gully erosion deeper than 2.5 cm on
unsurfaced logging roads built in the upper topographic position[1] of north-facing slopes[2]
having gradient of 80 % [3].
32. Maximum permissible velocities in erodible channels, based on uniform flow in straight,
continuously wet, aged channels. For sinuous channels, multiply allowable velocity by 0.95
for slightly sinuous, 0.9 for moderately sinuous, and 0.8 for highly sinuous channels. (U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 1975).
33. Manning's n for open ditches.
34. Ditch velocities for various n and grades. Triangular ditch with side slope ratio of 1:1 and
2:1, flowing 0.30 'meters deep; R=0.12.
35. Guide for maximum spacing (in feet) of lateral drainage culverts by soil erosion classes and
road grade (2% to 18%) (Forest soils Com., Douglas Fir Reg., PNW, 1957).
36. Erosion control and vegetation establishment effectiveness of various mulches on highways
in eastern and western Washington. Soils: silty, sandy and gravelly loams, glacial till
consisting of sand, gravel and compacted silts and clays (all are subsoil materials without
topsoil addition). Slope lengths: approximate maximum of 50 m (165 ft). Application rates:
Cereal straw - 5,500 kg/ha (2 t/ac); Straw plus asphalt - 5,500 kg/ha (2 t/ac) plus asphalt at
a rate of 0.757 I/kg (200 gal/t) of straw; (968 gal/ac); Wood cellulose fiber - 1,345 kg/ha
(1,200 Ibs/ac); Sod - bentgrass strips 46 cm (18 in) by 1.8 m (6 ft) pegged down every third
row.
37. Windrow protective strip widths required below the shoulders of 5-year old forest roads built
on soils derived from basalt, having 9 m cross-drain spacing, zero initial obstruction
 distance, and 100 percent fill slope cover density (US Environmental Protection Agency,
1975).
38. Road construction equipment characteristics (from OSU Extension Service, 1983).
39. Job condition correction factors for estimating bulldozer earth moving production rates.
Values are for track-type tractor equipped straight (S) blade ( Caterpillar Handbook, 1984).
40. Approximate economical haul limit for a 185 hp bulldozer in relation to grade Production
achieved are expressed in percent of production on a 10 percent favorable grade with 30 m
haul (100 %). (Pearce, 1978).
41. Average production rates for a medium sized bulldozer (12-16 tonnes) constructing a 6 to 7
m wide subgrade (Caterpillar, 1984).
42. Production rates for hydraulic excavators in relation to side slopes, constructing a 6 to 7 m
wide subgrade.
43. Fill slope erosion volume for windrowed and nonwindrowed slopes during a 3 year period
following construction (Cook and King,1983).
44. Typical road maintenance activities appropriate for a given road use level.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this

publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the
part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

M-34 ISBN 92-5-102789-X

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© FAO 1998

CHAPTER 1
DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF PROTECTIVE
MEASURES FOR ROADS
1.1 General Introduction

This handbook was written as a guide to reducing environmental impacts of forest roads in
mountain watersheds and is intended to be used by professional land managers involved in
decisions regarding upland conservation, watershed management, and watershed rehabilitation. Its
purpose is to (1) identify potential threats to water quality from the construction and maintenance of
roads, and (2) recommend procedures, practices, or methods suitable for preventing, minimizing, or
correcting erosion problems. It discusses proper planning, reconnaissance, road standard
development, erosion control, slope stabilization, drainage design, and maintenance techniques as
well as cost analysis procedures that can be applied in the design, construction, and maintenance
of forest roads. Specific questions relating to road design procedures, general layout and
construction methods can be found elsewhere, and it is left to the reader to locate sources for that
type of information.

The types of roads considered here would generally be built to withstand low to moderate traffic
levels for purposes of providing access for residents, timber harvesting, reforestation, rangeland
management, and other multiple use activities where access to upland areas is required. Availability
of some basic heavy equipment, such as bulldozers and graders, is assumed. Whenever possible,
emphasis will be given to labor- rather than machinery-intensive methods. However, livestock or
human labor may often be substituted wherever machines are mentioned and may in fact be
preferable to the use of machines by reducing environmental impacts during operations. This is
especially true in the case of road maintenance. Production rates in most cases will be much slower
and should be considered when developing cost estimates.

Much of the information cited here reflects years of research and experience gained from various
sources. As such, the material presented must lie evaluated in light of local geographic, economic,
and resource needs; it cannot and should not be a substitute for regional knowledge, experience,
and judgment.

1.2 Interaction of Roads and Environment

Forest roads are a necessary part of forest management. Road networks provide access to the
forest for harvests, for fire protection and administration, and for non-timber uses such as grazing,
mining, and wildlife habitat. New road construction is required to enter previously uninhabited areas
or underutilized lands, and will continue to provide access in order to properly manage those lands.

Construction and use of forest roads result in changes to the landscapes they cross. Of all the types
of silvicultural activities, improperly constructed and inadequately maintained "logging roads" are
the principal human-caused source of erosion and sediment. (US Environmental Protection Agency,
1975) Road failures and surface erosion can exert a tremendous impact on natural resources and
can cause serious economic losses because of blocked streams, degraded water quality, destroyed
bridges and road rights-of-way, ruined spawning sites, lowered soil productivity, and property
damage.

Erosion is related, among other things, to:

1. Physical factors. These would include soil type, geology, and climate (rainfall).
2. Road density. The total length of roads per unit area of watershed is termed road density.
Erosion rates are directly related to the total length of roads in a watershed, as shown in
Figure 1. A road network of approximately 30 to 40 m/ha is considered optimal for most
management purposes.
3. Road location. The location of the road in relation to slope, stream channels, and sensitive
soils has a direct effect on the amount of sediment reaching the stream.
4. Road standards and construction. Designed road width, steepness of cut banks or road fills,
methods of construction, and drainage installations will directly affect the area of
disturbance and potential for failure following road construction.

Figure 1. Sediment production in relation to road density (Amimoto, 1978).

Causes of erosion may include: (1) removal or reduction of protective cover, (2) destruction or
impairment of natural soil structure and fertility, (3) increased slope gradients created by
construction of Put and fill slopes, (4) decreased infiltration rates on parts of the road, (5)
interception of subsurface flow by the road cut slopes, (6) decreased shear strength, increased
shear stress, or both, on cut and fill slopes, and (7) concentration of generated and intercepted
water. (Megahan, 1977)

The severity of the impact is closely related to the overall land surface exposed by roads at a given
time, the drainage density of the watershed (degree to which stream courses dissect the land),
slope (gradient, length, shape, and position on the slope), geologic factors (rock type, strength, and
hardness, bedding planes, faulting, subsurface drainage), and climate. Generally, the greater the
intensity of storm events and the more drainage dissects the landscape, the more acute the
necessity to plan for avoiding water quality impacts in constructing and stabilizing roads. In central
Idaho, Megahan and Kidd (1972) observed sediment production rate increases of 770 times per unit
area of road prism for a six year study period. Although surface erosion following road construction
decreased rapidly with time, the major impact occurred from one road fill failure after a single storm
event. Other research in the region points to mass failures as the Most serious erosion process
contributing to reduced water quality on forest lands. (Swanson and Dyrness, 1975; Fredriksen,
1970; Dyrness, 1967; Megahan, 1967)

It is well documented that water quality impacts caused by roads can best be dealt with by
prevention or by minimizing their effects, rather than attempting to control damage after it has
occurred (Brown, 1973; Megahan, 1977). This can best be done by minimizing the total mileage of
roads through proper planning, properly locating roads in relation to topography and soils,
minimizing exposed constructed road surfaces by proper road standard selection and alignment,
and using proper road construction and culvert installation techniques.

Additionally, these same researchers have found that the majority of sediment generated on roads
occurs within the first year following construction. This would emphasize the need for concurrent
erosion control measures during and immediately following construction. Merely seeding bare soil
surfaces may not be sufficient to curb soil erosion.

1.3 Erosion Processes

Recognition of the type of erosion occurring on an area and knowledge of factors controlling erosion
are important in avoiding problem areas and in designing control structures. Erosion can be broadly
categorized as surface erosion and mass erosion. Mass erosion includes all erosion where particles
tend to move en masse primarily under the influence of gravity. It includes various types of
landslides and debris torrents. Surface erosion is defined as movement of individual soil particles by
forces other than gravity alone such as overland flow or runoff, raindrop impact, and wind. Dry
creep or dry ravel, the movement of individual particles resulting from wetting and drying, freezing
and thawing, or mechanical disturbance, is considered a surface erosion process.

Surface erosion is a function of three factors: (1) the energy available from erosion forces (raindrop
splash, wind, overland flow, etc.), (2) the inherent erosion hazard of the site (soil physical and
mineralogical characteristics, slope gradient, etc.), and (3) the amount and type of cover available to
protect the soil surface (vegetation, litter, mulch, etc.). Mass erosion is controlled by the balance
between stabilizing factors (root strength, cohesion) and destabilizing factors (slope gradient,
seepage forces, groundwater) operating on a hillslope. Another way of stating this relationship is the
relative magnitude of shear strength versus shear stress. When shear stress is less than or equal to
shear strength, the slope will remain stable; when stress exceeds strength, the slope will fail.

Factors that might be considered when assessing the impact of road construction and subsequent
development of a site might include:

Soil and Geology

 soil - physical and chemical characteristics

 geologic conditions (stratigraphy, mineralogy, etc.)
 groundwater occurrence and movement
 slope stability
 seismic characteristics

Climate and Precipitation

 start and end of rainy season

 intensity and duration of storms
 occurrence of summer storms
 seasonal temperature
 frost-free period
 wind erosion
 snow melt runoff
 rainfall runoff before and after development

Topography

 slope angle
 slope aspect
 slope length
 density and capacity of drainageways
 suitability of sites for sediment basins

Vegetative Cover

 type and location of native plants

 fire hazard
 ease in establishing vegetative cover
 adequacy of existing plants in reducing erosion
Manner of Development

 percent grade and layout of roads

 density of roads
 distribution of open space
 structures affecting erodible areas
 number of culverts, stream crossings
 size of areas, duration and time of year when ground is left bare

1.4 Assessment of Erosion Potential

1.4.1 Surface Erosion

Soil properties important in the evaluation of a site for its resistance to erosion include particle size,
permeability, water retention characteristics, compressibility, shear strength, void ratio or porosity,
shrink-swell potential, liquid limit and plasticity index. Soil developmental characteristics such as
horizonation, depth to bedrock or parent material, and depth to seasonal water table are also
helpful. Other factors which influence - erodibility include vegetation characteristics (foliage density,
height above soil surface, rooting characteristics) and litter cover. Raindrop energy may be partially
dissipated by overstory or understory vegetation, thereby reducing the amount of energy
transmitted directly to the soil surface. The lifter layer contributes the most in protecting the soil from
erosion by absorbing the net energy that finally reaches the surface after filtering through vegetation
canopies. Any surface runoff that may occur on a natural soil surface will generally take place below
the litter layer, however, the flow velocity is very slow because of the tortuosity of the path that the
water must take to pass through the litter. Particle detachment, therefore, is unlikely where good
litter cover is present.

In order to discuss soil characteristics in a uniform and accurate manner, several classification
systems have been developed which provide guidance in identifying a particular soil's desirability or
value for various engineering uses. The Unified Engineering Soil Classification system was
developed as a method of grouping soils for military construction and is shown in Table 1. -Other
classification systems include the United States Department of Agriculture Soil Textural
Classification system and the American Association of State Highways and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) system.

A guide for evaluating soil erosion potential in the field can be made by visual inspection of the soil
and by such techniques as shaking, patting, and kneading. Subsurface samples can be extracted
with the use of hand augers or shovels. Classification of soils into erodibility groups based on the
the Unified System is presented in Table 2. A discussion of erodibility in relation to cross-drain
spacing requirements is presented in Chapter 3.4.3.

Several methods are available in order to evaluate the potential for soil loss from surface erosion,
and two different approaches have been utilized in estimating surface soil loss. The first of these is
empirical in nature using predictive equations developed from analysis of "real" data. The second
consists of the use of process models developed through analysis of cause and effect relationships.
The empirical procedure most commonly used is the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) which
was originally developed for use on midwestern United States agricultural soils and has since been
modified for use in forest environments. The Modified Soil Loss Equation (MSLE) uses a vegetation
management factor (VM) to replace the cropping factor (C) and the erosion control practice factor
(P) used in the USLE (U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1980). The MSLE is:

A = R K L S VM
 where:

A = estimated average soil loss per unit area in tons/acre for the time period selected for R
(usually one year)

R = rainfall factor; usually expressed in units of rainfall erosivity index (El) and evaluated
from an iso-erodent map

K = soil erodibility factor, usually expressed in tons/acre/EI units for a specific soil in
cultivated continuous fallow, tilled up and down the slope

L = slope length factor expressed as the ratio of soil loss from the field slope length to that
from a 72.6 foot (22.1 meter) length on the same soil, gradient, cover, and management

S = slope gradient factor expressed as the ratio of soil loss from a given field gradient to
that from a 9 percent slope with the same soil, cover, and management

VM = vegetation management factor expressed as the ratio of soil loss from land managed
under specific conditions to that from the fallow condition on which the factor K is evaluated.

Numerical values for each of the factors are based on research data and differ dramatically from
one region to another, from one locality to another, and even from one field to another. However,
approximate values for potential soil loss from a site may be calculated with the understanding that
strict adherence to the assumptions made in selecting values for individual factors is required if a
reasonable answer is to be obtained. Even so, errors in the range of an order of magnitude of the
true erosion rate are not uncommon. A procedural guide in using the MSLE is presented in Chapter
IV, An Approach to Water Resources Evaluation of Non-Point Silvicultural Sources, US Forest
Service, 1980.

Table 1. Unified Soil Classification System (adapted from U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of
Reclamation, Earth Man Manual, Denver)
Boundary classifications: Soils possessing characteristics of two groups are designated by
combination of group symbols. For example GW-GC, well graded gravel-sand mixture with clay
binder.
All sieve sizes on this chart are U.S. standard.
ADOPTED BY CORPS OF ENGINEERS AND BUREAU OF RECLAMATION - JANUARY 1952
Unified Soil Classification Chart (Sheet 1 of 2) From drawing no. 103-D-347.

Table 2. Guide for placing common soil and geologic types into erosion classes. (Forest Soils
Committee of the Douglas-fir Region of the Pacific Northwest, 1957).

Erosion
I II III IV V VI VII VIII XI X
Class
Erosion
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Index
Silt Silt Silty Loam Coars Fine
clay
(uncon- (uncon- clay y e grav Rock
SM SM loam
solidated) solidate loam sand sand el (C)
A)
(B) d) (B) A) (C) (C) (C)
Silt Sand
Silty
loam y Cobble
ML SL OL OL clay SW SW
(A, loam (C)
Standard (A)
B) (B)
soil
Clay, varying with
textures
type, Gravel
and     MH MH SP SP
cohesiveness and (C)
unified
compaction (A)
system
soil Sand
Sand
groups y
y Sand
      CI clay     GW, GP
clay (B, C)
Loam
(B)
(B)
SC,
GM CH,
        GC      
OH, GM
CH
Special Coarse
cases; soils
Fine soils Some volcanic ash or Fracture
General Decompos Decompos derived
derived extremely fine pumice d loose
names ed ed from
from rocks sometimes difficult to   basalt
and granodiorit sandstone, rocks
high in distinguish from residual or shale
descriptio e (C) e.g. (B, C) high in
mica, (C) soils (B) (C)
ns. mica
(C)
"Shot" as
found in
               
"shot-loam"
(B, C)
Highly Moderately Greasy             Coarse
decompos decompos decompos volcanic
ed granites ed granites ed rock cinders
(C) (B) high in (C)
clay (A)
 Pumice, varying with location,
particle Size, denisty,
           
topography, and compaction (B,
C)
* Erosion classes rate the soil testures and geologic types listed as if they contained 100
percent of the material specified. To place a soil mixture in the proper erosion class,
multiply the estimated percent content of the various "Components" (rock, cobble, gravel,
etc. and a given soil texture) by their respective erosion indices and add the results. The
total indicates the erosion class of the mixture. (See text for examples)
Capital letters following a soil texture or geologic type indicate the infiltration class of the
material as follows:
(A) indicates nonporous materials; (B) indicates moderately porous materials; (C)
indicates highly porous materials.

1.4.2. Mass Soil Movement

Accurate models and data needed to predict mass soil movement over broad areas are currently
lacking. A widely used technique involves the relatively simple planar infinite slope analysis
described by Sidle (1985). This method is particularly useful when the thickness of soil is small in
comparison to the length of slope and where the failure plane parallels the soil surface. The infinite
slope model is illustrated in Figure 2 .

Figure 2. Infinite slope analysis for planar failures.

The forces acting on the soil mass "a b c d" in Figure 2 include the vegetative weight per unit area,
WT, and the weight of soil WS which give rise to the tangential and normal shear stresses acting on
line a-b. The height of the water table is MZ. The vertical height of water above the slide plane,
designated M, is a fraction of the soil thickness, Z, above the plane.

The resistance to failure or shear strength S along line a-b is:

Theoretically, the factor of safety represents a ratio of forces causing a slope to remain stable
(shear strength) to forces causing it to fail (shear stress). A factor of safety greater than 1.0 implies
a stable slope, while a value less than 1.0 suggests the potential for a slope failure. Figure 3
illustrates the relationship between frictional resistance and the downslope component governing
the disposition of a 45 kg (100 lb) block on uniform dry sand. For slope gradients greater than 70
percent, the block will slide because the driving force (E) is greater than the frictional resistance (F)
to sliding. Frictional resistance for a normal soil at the plane c d is a function of soil, geology, and
moisture content of the soil, and root strength.

Soil cohesiveness tends to prevent movement and generally increases with increased weathering
producing finer textured soil particles. However, relative cohesion will decrease as soil moisture
content increases causing the block a b c d to "float" above the failure plane c d. As a dry soil
absorbs water, its shear strength decreases because water films tend to separate soil particles.
This, in turn, reduces the cohesive strength produced by the frictional and electrical forces which
cause clay particles to attract each other and form aggregates. An additional force component,
buoyancy, tends to nullify the interlocking forces of soil particles which contribute to stability. The
uplift force of groundwater is equal to 93.1 kg/m (62.4 lb/ft) of water in the soil. The effective normal
force is equal to the weight of soil resting on the surface minus the uplift force of the groundwater.
Figure 4 shows the effect of adding 15.2 cm (6 in) of water to 0.6 m (2 ft) of soil (again, dry sand).
The effective normal force is reduced significantly by the addition of water resulting in failure when
slopes equal or exceed 58 percent.
Figure 3. Relationship between frictional resistance (F) and driving force (E) promoting downslope
movement. (Burroughs, et al., 1976).

Figure 4. Sixty cm of soil with 15 cm of ground water will slide when the slope gradient exceeds 58
percent. (Burroughs, et al., 1976).

The problems and limitations in applying this or similar models are many. Estimation of these
factors is extremely difficult given the high degree of anisotrophy and heterogeneity of soil
properties. Detailed analysis of factors leading to failure of natural slopes, especially piezometric
information, is lacking. As difficult as the prediction of the factor of safety is, predicting the course or
type of deformation a failure will take is far more difficult. The contribution of plant root systems in
reinforcing the soil matrix is often significant but difficult to quantify.

The orientation of the underlying geologic strata plays an important part in overall stability. When
bedding planes are oriented in the direction of the slope (Figure 5a), potential zones of weakness
and failure surfaces are ready-made. Additionally, the beds will tend to concentrate subsurface
water and return it to the surface. Any excavation on such slopes may also remove support and
create excessive road maintenance problems by rock and soil sliding on to the road. Conversely,
geologic strata which are more or less normal to the surface slope (Figure 5b) resist sliding since
weakness in the bedding planes do not contribute to the downslope component nor do they
concentrate percolating rainwater near the surface.

Figure 5. (a) Subsurface rainwater flows in the direction of the slope when geologic strata dip
toward the slope. (b) Subsurface rainwater percolates downward and out of the root zone when
geologic strata dip in that direction (Rice, 1977).

Other factors influencing slope stability include seepage forces exerted by groundwater a it moves
downslope through the soil and support provided by live tree roots in contributing to soil strength.
Although not fully understood, the presence of root strength is most important where soils are
shallow and where winter storms can cause groundwater levels to rise sharply. Roots tend to
anchor shallow soils on steep slopes to fractures in the underlying rock. Reports from U Forest
Service researchers in Alaska indicate that the number of landslides from cut-over area increases
within 3 to 5 years after logging-about the time when root decay becomes nearly complete. (Bishop
and Stevens, 1964) Researchers in Japan and the U. S. have found that roc systems of different
species have differing decay rates. Rice (1977) postulates that harvest scheduling according to
relative contribution of a particular specie's root system to slope stability might provide additional
support to slopes at or near threshold strength values.

LITERATURE CITED

Amimoto, P.Y. 1978. Erosion and sediment control handbook. California Division of Mines and
Geology, Department of Conservation. 197 p.

Brown, G. W. 1980. . Forestry and Water Quality. School of Forestry, Oregon State University. 124
pp.

Burroughs, E. R. Jr.,G. R. Chalfant, and M. A. Townsend. 1976. Slope Stability in Road

Construction. US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Oregon State Office.
102 pp.

Dyrness, C. T. 1967. Mass soil movement in the H. J. Andrews- Experimental Forest. USDA Forest
Service, Research Paper PNW-42. 12 pp.
Fredriksen, R. L. 1970. Erosion and sedimentation following road construction and timber harvest
on unstable soils in three small western Oregon watersheds. USDA Forest Service Research
Paper, PNW-104. 15 pp.

Megahan, W. F. 1967. Summary of research on mass stability by the Intermountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station soil stabilization project. In: Proc. USDA For. Serv. Berkeley Mass
Erosion Conference.

___________1977. Reducing erosional impacts of roads. In: Guidelines for Watershed

Management. Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations. Rome. p 237-261.

Megahan, W: F. and W. J. Kidd. 1972. Effect of logging roads on sediment production rates in the
Idaho Batholith. USDA Forest Service Research Paper, INT-123. 14 pp.

Rice, R. M. 1977. Forest management to minimize landslide risk. In: Guidelines for Watershed
Management. Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations. Rome. p 271-287.

Swanson, F. J. and C. T. Dyrness. 1975. Impact of clear-cutting and road construction on soil
erosion by landslides in the western Cascade Range, Oregon. Geology 3(7):393-396.

Sidle, R. C., A. J. Pearce, and C. L. O'Loughlin. 1985. Hillslope stability and land use. Am.
Geophys. Un., Wat. Res. Mon. No. 11. Washington, D. C. 140 pp.

US Environmental Protection Agency. 1975. Logging roads and protection of water quality. EPA
910/9-75007. 312 pp.

US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1980. An Approach to Water Resources Evaluation

of Non-Point Silvicultural Sources (A Procedural Handbook). Interagency Agreement No. EPA-IAG-
D6-0660. 772 pp.

CHAPTER 2
ROAD PLANNING AND RECONNAISSANCE
2.1 Route Planning

Planning with respect to road construction takes into account present and future uses of the
transportation system to assure maximum service with a minimum of financial and environmental
cost. The main objective of this initial phase of road development is to establish specific goals and
prescriptions for road network development along with the more general location needs. These
goals must result from a coordinated effort between the road engineer and the land manager,
forester, geologist, soil scientist, hydrologist, biologist and others who would have knowledge or
recommendations regarding alternatives or solutions to specific problems. The pattern of the road
network will govern the total area disturbed by road construction.

The road pattern which will give the least density of roads per unit area while maintaining minimum
hauling distance is the ideal to be sought. Keeping the density of roads to an economical minimum
has initial cost advantages and future advantages in road maintenance costs and the acreage of
land taken out of production.

Sediment control design criteria may be the same as, or parallel to, other design criteria which will
result in an efficient, economical road system. Examples of overlap or parallel criteria are:

1. Relating road location and design to total forest resource, including short and long term
harvest patterns, reforestation, fire prevention, fish and wildlife propagation, rural
homestead development, and rangeland management.
2. Relating road location and design to current and future timber harvesting methods.
3. Preparing road plans and specifications to the level of detail appropriate and necessary to
convey to the road builder, whether timber purchaser or independent contractor, the scope
of the project, and thus allow for proper preparation of construction plans and procedures,
time schedules, and cost estimates.
4. Writing instructions and completing companion design decisions so as to minimize the
opportunity for "changed conditions" during construction with consequent costs in money
and time.
5. Analyzing specific road elements for "up-front" cost versus annual maintenance cost (for
instance, culvert and embankment repair versus bridge installation, ditch pavement or lining
versus ditches in natural soil, paved or lined culverts versus unlined culverts, sediment
trapping devices ("trash racks", catch basins, or sumps) versus culvert cleaning costs,
retaining walls or endhauling sidecast versus placing and maintaining large embankments
and fill slopes, roadway ballast or surfacing versus maintenance of dirt surfaces, and
balanced earthwork quantities versus waste and borrow).

The route planning phase is the time to evaluate environmental and economic tradeoffs and should
set the stage for the remainder of the road development process. Although inclusion of design
criteria for sediment control may increase initial capital outlay, it does not necessarily increase total
annual cost over the life of the road which might come from reductions in annual maintenance,
reconstruction, and repair costs (see Section 2.2). If an objective analysis by qualified individuals
indicates serious erosional problems, then reduction of erosional impacts should be a primary
concern. In some areas, this may dictate the location of control points or may in fact eliminate
certain areas from consideration for road construction as a result of unfavorable social or
environmental costs associated with developing the area for economic purposes.

2.1.1 Design Criteria

Design criteria consist of a detailed list of considerations to be used in negotiating a set of road
standards. These include resource management objectives, environmental constraints, safety,
physical environmental factors (such as topography, climate, and soils), traffic requirements, and
traffic service levels. Objectives should be established for each road and may be expressed in
terms of the area and resources to be served, environmental concerns to be addressed, amount
and types of traffic to be expected, life of the facility and functional classification. Additional
objectives may also be defined concerning specific needs or problems identified in the planning
stage.

1. Resource management objectives: Why is the road being built; what is the purpose of the
road (i.e., timber harvesting, access to grazing lands, access to communities, etc.)?
2. Physical and environmental factors: What are the topographic, climatic, soil and vegetation
characteristics of the area?
3. Environmental constraints: Are there environmental constraints; are there social-political
constraints? Examples of the former include erosiveness of soils, difficult geologic
conditions, high rainfall intensities. Examples of the latter include land ownership
boundaries, state of the local economy, and public opinion about a given project.
 4. Traffic requirements: Average daily traffic (ADT) should be estimated for different user
groups. For example, a road can have mixed traffic--log or cattle trucks and community
traffic. An estimate of traffic requirements in relation to use as well as changes over time
should be evaluated.
5. Traffic service level: This defines the type of traffic that will make use of the road network
and its characteristics. Table 3 lists descriptions of four different levels of traffic service for
forest roads. Each level describes the traffic characteristics which are significant in the
selection of design criteria and describe the operating conditions for the road. Each level
also reflects a number of factors, such as speed,travel time,traffic interruptions, freedom to
maneuver, safety, driver comfort, convenience, and operating cost. Traffic density is a
factor only if heavy non-logging traffic is expected. These factors, in turn, affect: (1) number
of lanes, (2) turnout spacing, (3) lane widths, (4) type of driving surface, (5) sight distances,
(6) design speed, (7) clearance; (8) horizontal and vertical alignment, (9) curve widening,
(10) turn-arounds.
6. Vehicle characteristics: The resource management objectives, together with traffic
requirements and traffic service level criteria selected above, will define the types of
vehicles that are to use the proposed road. Specific vehicle characteristics need to be
defined since they will determine the "design standards" to be adopted when proceeding to
the road design phase. The land manager has to distinguish between the "design vehicle"
and the "critical vehicle". The design vehicle is a vehicle which ordinarily uses the road,
such as dual axle flatbed trucks in the case of ranching or farming operations, or dump
trucks in the case of a mining operation. The critical vehicle represents a vehicle which is
necessary for the contemplated operation (for instance, a livestock truck in the case of
transporting range livestock) but uses the road infrequently. Here, the design should allow
for the critical vehicle to pass the road with assist vehicles, if necessary, but without major
delays or road reconstruction.
7. Safety: Traffic safety is an important requirement especially where multiple user types will
be utilizing the same road. Safety requirements such as stopping distance, sight distance,
and allowable design speed can determine the selected road standards in combination with
the other design criteria.
8. Road uses: The users of the contemplated road should be defined by categories. For
example, timber harvest activities will include all users related to the planned timber
harvest, such as silviculturists, foresters, engineers, surveyors, blasting crews, and
construction and maintenance crews, as well as the logging crews. Administrative users
may include watershed management specialists, wildlife or fisheries biologists, or
ecologists, as well as foresters. Agricultural users would include stock herders and
rangeland management specialists and will have a different set of objectives than timber
objectives. An estimate of road use for each category is then made (e.g., numbers of
vehicles per day). For each category, the resource management objective over several
planning horizons should be indicated. For instance, a road is to be built first for (1) the
harvest of timber from a tract of land, then (2) access for the local population for firewood
cutting or grazing, and finally (3) access for administration of watershed rehabilitation
activities. The planner should determine if the road user characteristics will change over the
life of the road.
9. Economics: The various road alternatives would undergo rigorous economic evaluations.

As part of this process a"roads objectives documentation" plan should be carried out. This process
consists of putting the road management objectives and design criteria in an organized form. An
example of such a form is given in Table 4.

Table 3. Traffic service levels definitions used to identify design parameters (from U.S.
Forest Service, Transportation Eng. Handbook).

A B C D
 Free flowing Congested during Interrupted by Flow is slow or may
with adequate heavy traffic such limited passing be blocked by an
passing as during peak facilities, or slowed activity. Two way
FLOW
facilities. logging or by the road traffic is difficult and
recreation condition. may require backing
activities. to pass.
Uncontrolled; Occasionally Erratic; frequently Intermittent and
will controlled during controlled usually controlled.
VOLUMES accommodate heavy use as the capacity is Volume is limited to
the expected periods. reached. that associated with
traffic volumes. the single purpose.
Mixed; includes Mixed; includes Controlled mix; Single use; not
the critical the critical vehicle accommodates all designed for mixed
vehicle and all and all vehicles vehicle types traffic. Some
vehicles normally found on including the critical vehicles may not be
VEHICLE
normally found public roads. vehicle. Some use able to negotiate.
TYPES
on public roads. may be controlled Concurrent use
to minimize conflicts between commercial
between vehicle and other traffic is
types. restricted.
Clearances are Traffic controls Special provisions Some vehicles may
adequate to needed where may be needed. not be able to
CRITICAL allow free travel. clearances are Some vehicles will negotiate. Loads
VEHICLE Overload marginal. have difficulty may have to be
permits are Overload permits negotiating some offloaded and
required. are required. segments. walked in.
Safety features High priority in Most protection is The need for
are a part of the design. Some provided by traffic protection is
design. protection is management minimized In by low
SAFETY
accomplished by speeds and strict
traffic traffic controls.
management.
Normally limited Employed to Traffic controls are Used to discourage
to regulatory, reduce traffic frequently needed or prohibit traffic
TRAFFIC warning, and volume and during periods of other than that
MANAGEMENT guide signs and conflicts. high use by the associated with the
permits. dominant resource single purpose.
activity.
Minimize; Generally higher Not important; Not considered.
transportation than "A" because efficiency of travel
USER COSTS efficiency is of slower speeds may be traded for
important. and increased lower construction
delays. costs.
Design speeds Influenced more Dictated by
is the strongly by Generally dictated topography,
predominant topography than by topographic environmental
factor within by speed and features and factors, and the
ALIGNMENT
feasible efficiency. environmental design and critical
topographic factors. Design vehicle limitations.
limitations. speeds are Speed is not
generally low. important.
ROAD Stable and Stable for the May not be stable Rough and irregular.
SURFACE smooth with predominant under all traffic or Travel with low
 little or no dust, traffic for the weather conditions clearance vehicles is
considering the normal use during the normal difficult. Stable
normal season season. Periodic use season.. during dry
of use. dust control for Surface rutting, conditions. Rutting
heavy use or roughness, and and dusting
environmental dust may be controlled only for
reasons. present, but soil and water
Smoothness is controlled for protection.
commensurate environmental or
with the design investment
speed. protection.

2.1.2 Design Elements

A road design standard consists of such elements as the definitive lengths, widths, and depths of
individual segments (e.g., 4.3 meter traveled way, 0.6 meter shoulders, 3/4:1 cutslopes, 1 meter
curve widening, 15 cm of crushed aggregate surfacing). Figure 6 illustrates the road structural terms
that will be used throughout the rest of this handbook. Selection of the appropriate road design
standard is critical to the overall efficiency of the road network to be installed, and certain elements
will have a more rigid standard than others depending on the location of the road or road segment.
The entire range of values for each standard must be evaluated and selected according to their
appropriateness for a given segment. Then, the various design elements must undergo testing to
ensure that the final design meets the previously agreed upon management objectives. For
instance, on steeper grades vertical alignment has a greater effect on travel speed than horizontal
alignment. Therefore, surfacing and horizontal alignment should not be improved to increase speed
where the road gradient is the controlling element.

Figure 6. Road structural terms.

Table 4. Example of a roads objective documentation form  (from U.S. Forest Servise,
Transportation Eng. Handbook).
2.1.2.1 Number of Lanes and Lane Width

The majority of forest development road systems in the world are single-lane roads with turnouts. It
is anticipated that most roads to be constructed or reconstructed will also be single-lane with
turnouts because of the continuing need for low volume, low speed roads and their desirability from
economic and environmental impact standpoints. In choosing whether to build a single- or double-
lane road, use the best available data on expected traffic volumes, accident records, vehicle sizes,
and season and time-of-day of use. Historically, the United States Forest Service has used traffic
volumes of approximately 100 vehicles per day to trigger an evaluation for increasing road width
from one to two lanes. Considering a day to consist of 10 daylight hours, traffic volumes greater
than 250 vehicles per day ordinarily require a double-lane road for safe and efficient operation.
Intermediate traffic volumes (between 100 and 250 vehicles per day) generally require decisions
based on additional criteria to those listed above: (1) social/political concerns, (2) relationships to
public road systems, (3) season of use, (4) availability of funding, and (5) traffic management.

Many of the elements used in such an evaluation, although subjective, can be estimated using
traffic information or data generated from existing roads in the area. For instance, if heavy public
use of the road is anticipated, a traffic count on a comparably situated existing road will serve as a
guide to the number of vehicles per hour of non-Jogging traffic.  Some elements can be evaluated in
terms of relative probabilities and consequences and can be identified as having a low, moderate,
or high probability of occurrence and having minor, moderate, or severe consequences. The more
criteria showing higher probabilities and more severe consequences, the stronger the need for a
double-lane road.
2.1.2.2 Road width

The primary consideration for determining the basic width of the road bed is the types of vehicles
expected to be utilizing the road. Secondary considerations are the general condition of the traveled
way, design speed, and the presence or absence of shoulders and ditches. Tables 5 and 6 list
recommended widths for single- and double-lane roads, respectively.

Table 5. Traveled way widths for single-lave roads.

Type and Size of Design Speed (Km/Hr)

Vehicle 30 40 50
  Minimum Traveled Way Width (m)
Recreational,
administrative
and service 3.0 3.0 3.6
vehicle, 2.0 to 2.4
m wide
Commercial      
hauling and
commercial
passenger
vehicles,
including buses
2.4 m wide or
greater
1. Road with
ditch, or without
ditch where cross 3.6 3.6 4.2
slope is 25% or
less
2. Roads without
ditch where
ground cross
slope is greater
than 25%. The
steepness of 3.6 3.6 4.2
roadway
backslope should
be considered to
provide adequate
clearance.

The presence of a ditch permits a narrower traveled way width since the ditch provides the
necessary clearance on one side. Except for additional widths required for curve widening, limit
traveled way widths in excess of 4.4 m (14 ft) to roads needed to accommodate off -highway haul
and other unusual design vehicles. Double-lane roads designed for off-highway haul (all surface
types) should conform to the following standards:

Table 6. Lane widths for double-lane roads.

Size and Type of Type of Type of Type Design Speed (Km/Hr)

 Vehicle Road Surface 15 30 45 60 80
Recreational, adm.
and service:
    Minimum Lane Width (m)
1. up to 2.0 m wide Recreation or All surface 2.7 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.0
2. 2.0 to 2.4 m wide administrative types 3.0 3.0 3.3 3.3 3.3
Commercial hauling Gravel or
Roads open - 3.3 3.6 3.6 -
and comm. passenger native
to truck traffic
native vehicles incl.
or mixed
buses 2.4 m wide or Bituminous - 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.6
traffic
greater
Gravel or native surface roads should not have design speeds greater than 60 km/hr
Additional width is required for lower quality surfaces, because of the off-tracking
corrections needed compared to a higher quality surface.

Vehicles wider than the design vehicle (a "critical vehicle") may make occasional use of the road.
Check traveled way and shoulder widths to ensure that these vehicles can safely traverse the road.
Critical vehicles should never attempt to traverse the road at or even approaching the speeds of the
design vehicle.

Shoulders may be necessary to provide parking areas, space for installations such as drainage
structures, guardrails, signs, and roadside utilities, increase in total roadway width to match the
clear width of an opening for a structure such as a bridge or tunnel, a recovery zone for vehicles
straying from the traveled way, additional width to accommodate a "critical vehicle", lateral support
for outside edge of asphalt or concrete pavements (0.3 m is sufficient for this purpose). The space
required for these features will depend on the design criteria of the road and/or the design of
specific structures to be incorporated as part of the roadway.

Minimum Width of Traveled Way for Design

Speed
Bunk 30 km/hr(20 50 km/hr 60 km/hr
Width mph) (30 mph) (40 mph)
3.0 m
6.7 m (22 ft) 7.3 m (24 ft) 7.9 m (26 ft)
(10 ft)
3.7 m
7.9 m (26 ft) 8.5 m (28 ft) 8.5 m (28 ft)
(12 ft)

2.1.2.3. Turnouts

Turnout spacing, location, and dimensions provide user convenience and safety and allow vehicles
to maintain a reasonable speed. Spacing can be computed using the following formula and the
curves from Figure 7 and Table 7:

T = 1.609*(DS)/36

Where:

T = Increase in travel time for the interrupted vehicle (percent)

D = Delay Lime per kilometer for the interrupted vehicle (seconds)
S = Design speed (kilometers per hour).

Solve the equation for T and then use the graph in Figure 7 to determine the turnout spacing
required to accommodate the number of vehicles passing over the road per hour (VPH).
Figure 7. Turnout spacing in relation to traffic volume and travel delay time.

Table 7. Recommended turnout spacing--all traffic service levels

Traffic Turnout Spacing Operational Constraints

Service
Make turnouts intervisible unless Traffic: Mixed
excessive costs or environmental Capacity: Up to 25 vehicles per hour
constraints preclude construction Design Speed: Up to 60 km/hr
A
Closer spacing may contribute Delays: 12 sec./km or less
to efficiency and convenience.
Maximum spacing is 300 m.
Intervisible turnouts are highly Traffic: Mixed
desirable but may be precluded Capacity: Up to 25 vehicles per hour
by excessive costs or Design Speed: Up to 40 km/hr
environmental constraints. Delays: 20 km/hr or less
B
Maximum spacings 300 m. Use signs to warn non commercial users
of traffic to be expected. Road segments
without intervisible turn-outs should be
signaled.
Maximum spacing is 300 m. Traffic: Small amount of mixed
When the environmental impact is Capacity: Up to 20 vehicles per hour
low and the investment is Design Speed: Up to 30 km/hr
C economically justifiable, additional Delays: Up to 40 sec./km
turnouts may be Roads should be managed to mini mize
constructed. conflicts between commercial and non-
commercial users.
Generally, only naturally occurring Traffic: Not intended for mixed
turnouts, such as on ridges or Capacity: Generally 10 VPH or less
other available areas Design Speed: 25 km/hr or less
D on flat terrain, are used. Delays: At least 45 sec./km expected.
Road should be managed to restrict
concurrent use by commercial and non-
commercial users.

Figure 8 illustrates a typical turnout in detail. Turnouts should be located on the outside of cuts, the
low side of fills, or at the runout point between through cuts and fills, and preferably on the side of
the unloaded vehicle. Table 8 gives recommended turnout widths and lengths for various traffic
service levels. The maximum transition length should be limited to 22.5 m for all service levels.

Figure 8. Typical turnout dimensions.

Table 8. Turnout widths and lengths.

Traffic Turnout Width Turnout Length &

Service Transition Length
Levels
Design vehicle length or
22.5 m minimum,
A 3.0 m whichever is largest.
Minimum 15 m
transition at each end.
Design vehicle length.
B 3.0 m Minimum 15 m
transition at each end.
Make the minimum total
Empty truck length
width of the traveled
(trailer loaded on truck)
D way and turnout the
Minimum 7.5 m
width of two design
transitions at each end.
vehicles plus 1.2 m
2.1.2.4. Turn-arounds

Turn-around design should consider both critical and design vehicles and should be provided at or
near the end of single-lane roads, and at management closure points, such as gates or barricades.
If intermediate turn-arounds are necessary, signing should be considered if they create a hazard to
other users. The turn-around should be designed to allow the design vehicle to turn with reasonably
safe maneuvering.

2.1.2.5. Curve Widening

Widening may be required on some curves to allow for off-tracking of tractor-trailer vehicles and for
some light vehicle-trailer combinations. Widening of the traveled way on curves to accommodate
the design vehicle is considered a part of the traveled way. Generally, the need for curve widening
increases as curve radius decreases with shorter curves requiring less curve widening than longer
curves. Criteria for establishing the need for curve widening given traffic service levels are given in
Table 9.

Table 9. Curve widening criteria

Traffic Curve Widening

Service
Level
A Design curve widening to accommodate the design
vehicle (normally low-boy) at the design speed for each
curve. Curve widening for critical vehicles to be
provided by the use of other road elements, if planned,
such as turnouts and shoulders. Provide widening if
needed width is not available. Critical vehicle should be
accommodated in its normal traveling configuration.
Curve widening to be provided in each lane of double-
lane roads.
B Same as A.
C Same as A, except the critical vehicle configuration
may need alteration.
D Curve widening to be provided only for the design
vehicle. Loads carried by the critical vehicle should be
off-loaded and walked to the project or transferred to
vehicles capable of traversing the road. Temporary
widening to permit the passage of larger vehicles may
be accomplished by methods such as temporarily filling
of the ditch at narrow sections.

2.1.2.6. Clearance

The desired minimum horizontal clearance is 1.2 m (4 ft) the minimum vertical clearance is 4.3 m
(14 ft). At higher speeds consideration should be given to increasing the clearances.

2.1.2.7. Speed and Sight Distance

Design speed is the maximum safe speed that the design vehicle can maintain over a specified
segment of road when conditions are so favorable that the design features of the road govern rather
than the vehicle operational limitations. The selected design speed establishes the minimum sight
distance for stopping, passing, minimum radius of curvature, gradient, and type of running surface.
Alternative combinations of horizontal and vertical alignment should be evaluated to obtain the
greatest sight distance within the economic and environmental constraints. Suggested horizontal
curve radius for a packed gravel or dirt road with no sight obstruction is 33 and 62 m (108 and 203
ft) for design speeds of 24 and 32 km/hr (15 and 20 mph), respectively. For curves with a sight
obstruction 3 m (10 ft) from the travel way, horizontal curve radii are 91 and 182 m (300 and 600 ft),
respectively. Suggested vertical curve length is 61 m (200 ft). Recommended stopping distances for
single-lane roads with a maximum pitch of 2 percent (horizontal and vertical control) and traffic
service level C or D are:

Stopping
km/hr (MPH) Distance,
meters (feet)
16 (10) 21.3 (70)
24 (15) 36.5 (120)
32 (20) 54.9 (180)
48 (30) 94.5 (310)

For a more comprehensive discussion on stopping sight distance and passing sight distance, the
reader is referred to the following sources: Route Location and Design, by Thomas F. Hickerson;
USDA, Forest Service Handbook # 7709.11, "Transportation Engineering Handbook"; Bureau of
Land Management, Oregon State Office, "Forest Engineering Handbook"; or "Geometric Design
Standards for Low Volume Roads", Transportation Research Board.

2.1.2.8. Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

For low volume roads with design speeds of 24 kph (15 mph) or less, a horizontal alignment that
approximates the geometric requirements of circular curves and tangents may be used. Alignment
should be checked so that other design elements, such as curve widening and stopping sight
distance can be considered. A minimum centerline radius of curvature for roads should be 15
meters (50 ft) except for some recreation and administrative roads. Superelevation should not be
used for design speeds less than 32 kph (20 mph). If snow and ice are factors, the superelevation
rate should not exceed 6 percent and should be further reduced on grades to accommodate slow
truck traffic. Transition segments into and out of superelevated sections should be provided to avoid
abrupt changes in the roadway template.

Vertical alignment, or grade; is of critical concern because of its potential for environmental damage
and becomes increasingly important for grades exceeding 10 percent. Erosion potential increases
as a function of the square of the slope and the cube of water velocity. The Most desirable
combination of grade and other design elements should be determined early in the road location
phase with additional caution exercised when grades exceed 8 percent. Vertical alignment normally
governs the speed of light vehicles for grades exceeding 15 percent favorable and 11 percent
adverse and of loaded trucks for grades exceeding 8 percent favorable and 3 percent adverse. The
ability of a vehicle to traverse a particular grade is dependent on vehicle weight and horsepower
and on the traction coefficient of the driving surface.

Travel time and cost are affected by horizontal alignment, such as curve radius and road width.
Figure 9 shows the relationship between average truck speed and curve radius for several road
widths. For example, there is a 15 percent difference in average truck speed on a 30.5 m (100 ft)
radius curve for a 3.7 m wide road when compared to a 4.3 m wide road. Horizontal alignment has
been classified on the basis of curve radius and number of curves. The U. S. Forest Service, for
example, uses the following classification system:

[Average radius (m)] / [# of curves / km]

 Poor = < 4 Good = 10 - 20
Fair = 4 - 10 Excellent = > 20

The effect of grade on truck speed (loaded and unloaded) is shown in Figure 10. The speed of a
loaded truck is most sensitive to grade changes from 0 to 7 percent in the direction of haul. For
grades steeper than 7 percent other considerations are more important than impact on speed.

Figure 9. Relationship between curve radius and truck speed when speed is not
controlled by grade.

Figure 10. Relationship between grade and truck speed on gravel roads.

2.1.2.9. Travel Time

It is important to emphasize that travel time is influenced by grade, nature of road surface,
alignment, roadway width, sight distance, climate, rated vehicle performance, and psychological
factors (such as fatigue, degree of caution exercised by driver, etc.). Table 10 shows travel time for
loaded and empty trucks over paved, graveled, and dirt surfaces as influenced by vertical and
horizontal alignment. The information from Table 10 is helpful in the planning stage to assess the
effects of vertical and/or horizontal alignment, road surface and width on travel time and costs. The
planned road should be divided up into segments of similar vertical and/or horizontal alignment
sections. Average times can be calculated for each segment and/or road class and summed.

Table 10a. Relationship between round trip travel time per kilometer and surface
type as influenced by vertical and horizontal alignment; adverse grade in direction of
haul (U.S. Forest service, 1965).

Class of Road [1] Percent Grade in Direction of Load (Adverse)

+10 +9 +8 +7 +6 +5 +4   +2 0
min / km
Lane and one-half with
turnouts (car lane and
1                    
truck lane with 4-ft.
ditch)[2]
  A Alignment excellent:                    
    1. Paved 7.93 7.28 6.59 5.93 5.28 4.59 3.95 - 2.95 2.42
    2. Gravel 8.21 7.56 6.87 6.21 5.53 4.84 4.23 - 3.20 2.42
  B Alignment good:                    
    1. Paved 7.93 7.28 6.59 5.93 5.32 4.78 4.25 - 3.25 3.01
    2. Gravel 8.21 7.56 6.87 6.21 5.57 5.03 4.53 - 3.50 3.01
  C Alignment fair:                    
    1. Paved 7.93 7.28 6.62 6.12 5.62 5.09 4.56 - 3.61 3.61
    2. Gravel 8.21 7.56 6.90 6.40 5.87 5.34 4.84 - 3.81 3.61
Single lane with
2 turnouts (truck lane                    
with 3-ft. ditch)[2]:
  A Alignment excellent:                    
    1. Paved 7.93 7.28 6.59 5.93 5.28 4.59 4.02 - 3.02 2.58
    2. Gravel 8.21 7.56 6.87 6.21 5.53 4.84 4.30 - 3.27 2.58
  B Alignment good:                    
    1. Paved 7.93 7.28 6.59 5.93 5.38 4.85 4.32 - 3.32 3.20
    2. Gravel 8.21 7.56 6.87 6.21 5.63 5.10 4.60 - 3.57 3.20
    3. Dirt 8.49 7.81 7.12 6.43 5.85 5.35 4.82 - 4.18 3.20
  C Alignment fair:                    
    1. Paved 7.93 7.28 6.75 6.25 5.75 5.22 4.68 - 3.89 3.89
    2. Gravel 8.21 7.56 7.03 6.53 6.00 5.47 4.97 - 3.94 3.89
    3. Dirt 8.49 7.81 7.28 6.75 6.21 5.72 5.18 - 4.15 3.89
  D Alignment poor:                    
    1. Gravel 8.45 7.95 7.42 6.92 6.39 5.86 5.36 - 4.68 4.68
    2. Dirt 8.73 8.20 7.67 7.14 6.61 6.11 5.58 - 4.68 4.68
Single lane with
3 turnouts (truck lane                    
without ditch)[2]:
  B Alignment good:                    
    3. Dirt 8.49 7.81 7.12 6.45 5.92 5.42 4.88 - 3.85 3.28
  C Alignment fair:                    
     3. Dirt 8.49 7.93 7.40 6.86 6.33 5.83 5.30 - 4.27 4.08
  D Alignment poor:                    
    3. Dirt 9.03 8.49 7.96 7.43 6.90 6.40 5.87 - 5.28 5.28
[1] Alignment classification basis:

Average
radius
(meter) less
= =
Poor No . of than 4
curves per
km
4 to
Fair = do. =
10
10 to
Good = do. =
20
over
Excellent = do. =
20
[2] On single-lane or lane-and-one-halfroads, increase the
time for passing vehicles on turnout by the percent shown
in following tabulation. Consider all vehicles for single-
lane roads and only trucks for lane-and-one-half roads.

Increased time when

Turno number of vehicles passing
ut over road per hour is ....
spacin
g
5 10 15 20
(meter
)
Perce Perce Perce Perce
 
nt nt nt nt
75 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
150 2.6 5.4 8.0 10.7
225 3.4 6.8 10.2 13.6

Table 10b. Relationship between round trip travel time per kilometer and surface
type as influenced by vertical and horizontal alignment; favorable grade in direction
of haul (U.S. Forest service, 1965).

Class of Road [1] Percent Grade in Direction of Load (Favorable)

0 -2 -4 -6 -7 -8 -9 -11 -12 -14
min / km
Lane and one-half with
turnouts (car lane and
1                    
truck lane with 4-ft.
ditch)[2]
  A Alignment excellent:                    
    1. Paved 2.42 2.42 2.47 2.89 3.22 3.53 3.87 4.53 4.87 5.59
    2. Gravel 2.42 2.42 2.53 2.97 3.31 3.65 3.97 4.62 4.97 5.68
   B Alignment good:                    
    1. Paved 3.01 3.01 3.01 3.05 3.22 3.53 3.87 4.53 4.87 5.59
    2. Gravel 3.01 3.01 3.01 3.13 3.32 3.65 3.97 4.62 4.97 5.68
  C Alignment fair:                    
    1. Paved 3.61 3.61 3.61 3.61 3.61 3.67 3.87 4.53 4.87 5.59
    2. Gravel 3.61 3.61 3.61 3.61 3.61 3.80 3.97 4.62 4.97 5.68
Single lane with turnouts
2 (truck lane with 3-ft.                    
ditch)[2]
  A Alignment excellent:                    
    1. Paved 2.58 2.58 2.58 2.89 3.22 3.53 3.87 4.53 4.87 5.59
    2. Gravel 2.58 2.58 2.62 2.97 3.31 3.65 3.97 4.62 4.97 5.68
  B Alignment good:                    
    1. Paved 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.34 3.53 3.87 4.53 4.87 5.59
    2. Gravel 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.25 3.44 3.65 3.97 4.62 4.97 5.68
    3. Dirt 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.31 3.50 3.72 4.06 4.72 5.06 5.75
  C Alignment fair:                    
    1. Paved 3.89 3.89 3.89 3.89 3.89 3.89 4.02 4.53 4.87 5.59
    2. Gravel 3.89 3.89 3.89 3.89 3.89 3.95 4.11 4.62 4.97 5.68
    3. Dirt 3.89 3.89 3.89 3.89 3.89 4.02 4.20 4.72 5.06 5.75
  D Alignment poor:                    
    1. Gravel                    
    2. Dirt 4.68 4.68 4.68 4.68 4.68 4.68 4.68 4.88 5.07 5.68
Single lane with turnouts
3 (truck lane without ditch) 4.68 4.68 4.68 4.68 4.68 4.68 4.68 4.98 5.17 5.75
[2]:
  B Alignment good:                    
    3. Dirt 3.28 3.28 3.28 3.33 3.52 3.72 4.06 4.72 5.06 5.75
  C Alignment fair:                    
    3. Dirt 4.08 4.08 4.08 4.08 4.08 4.09 4.28 4.72 5.06 5.75
  D Alignment poor:                    
    3. Dirt 5.28 5.28 5.28 5.28 5.28 5.28 5.28 5.28 5.47 5.82
[1] Alignment classification basis:

Average
radius
(meter) less
= =
Poor No . of than 4
curves per
km
4 to
Fair = do. =
10
10 to
Good = do. =
20
over
Excellent = do. =
20
[2] On single-lane or lane-and-one-halfroads, increase the
time for passing vehicles on turnout by the percent shown
in following tabulation. Consider all vehicles for single-
lane roads and only trucks for lane-and-one-half roads.

Increased time when

Turno number of vehicles passing
ut over road per hour is ...
spacin
g
5 10 15 20
(meter
)
Perce Perce Perce Perce
 
nt nt nt nt
75 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
150 2.6 5.4 8.0 10.7
225 3.4 6.8 10.2 13.6

2.2 Economic Evaluation and Justification

2.2.1 Economic Analysis Methods

A long range plan, including road planning, is the basis for an economically, as well as
environmentally, sound road system. A well planned road system will result in the least amount of
roads to economically serve an area or watershed. It will also result in the least amount of sediment
delivery to streams as shown in Figure 1.

The first step in road access planning is to determine the optimum road spacing for a given
commercial use. A break-even analysis can often be applied. Plotted graphicallly, the optimum
spacing would lie at the minimum total cost, or the intersection of the cost lines. Additional
information can be found in Pearce (1960), Dietz et al (1984), Von Segebaden (1964), and others.

An economic evaluation of a particular road standard will require a rough estimate of road
construction costs be determined from road design data and from locally available cost information
for the various cost components. Likewise, annual maintenance cost per kilometer of road is best
estimated based on local experience for comparable roads. Trucking cost data will consist of the
average cost per round-trip kilometer of haul over the road and would take into consideration travel
time (see Section 2.1), fixed costs (depreciation, interest, insurance, etc.), operating costs per
minute driving time (fuel, lubrication, repairs), dependent costs per minute driving time plus delay
time (driver's wage, social security tax, unemployment compensation, administration), and tire cost
per mile by surface type.

The combined annual costs of road construction, maintenance, and trucking make up the annual
cost:

A=R+I+M+T

where A is total annual cost per kilometer, R is annual cost per kilometer of road construction for the
amortization period, I is average annual interest cost, M is annual maintenance cost per kilometer,
and T is average trucking cost per kilometer for the annual commodity volume to be hauled over the
road.

EXAMPLE:
Assume the following costs (in US dollars) have been estimated for three classes of road. (Annual
volume of commodity, 10 million cubic meters.)

ROAD CLASS I II III

Construction cost per
$40,000.00 $22,000.00 $15,000.00
kilometer
Maintenance cost
300.00 400.00 500.00
per kilometer
Trucking cost per
1,000 m³ per 0.25 0.30 0.35
kilometer
Trucking cost per
2,500.00 3,000.00 3,500.00
annum per kilometer
Annual cost per km
     
over 25 years
R road construction
1,600.00 880.00 600.00
cost
I interest costs 700.00 383.00 262.00
M maintenance cost 300.00 400.00 500.00
T trucking cost 2,500.00 3,000.00 3,500.00
A Total Annual Costs $5,100.00 $4,663.00 $4,862.00

(If amortization period is 25 years, the annual rate is 4 percent of the construction cost. If the
interest rate is 3.5 percent, the average annual interest rate is 1.75 percent.)

Note that in the above calculation the Class II road is the most economical by a margin of $199.00
over the Class III road. Over the period of amortization of 25 years, the margin for the Class II road
will be $4,975.00 per kilometer.

Another method in choosing the most economical of two road standards is to calculate the annual
amount or volume of commodity at which the costs of the two roads will be equal. If annual volume
exceeds the calculated amount the higher road standard will be justified; likewise, if annual volume
is less than the calculated amount, the lower standard is justified. The formula for calculating V is:

(R + I + M)H - (R + I
V
+ M)L
=
TL - TH

The subscripts H and L indicate high and low standard, respectively, and T is expressed as cost per
1000 m³ per kilometer. Ail other values are expressed in units stated above.

EXAMPLE:

Using the same costs as in the previous example for the Class II and Class III road, the annual
volume is calculated as:

(880 + 383 + 400) -

V = 6,020 x 10(3)
(600+ 262 + 500)
= m³
(0.35 - 0.30)
Hence, for volumes exceeding 6.02 x 106, m³ the Class II road is the more economical choice; for
volumes less than 6.02 x 106 m³ the Class III road would be chosen. If the two roads differ in
length, multiply the costs per kilometer by the number of kilometers of each road for use in this
formula.

2.2.2 Analysis of Alternative Routes

The above formulas can also be used to evaluate two or more alternatives to a proposed route. One
common situation is to choose between a longer route on a gentle favorable grade and a shorter
route involving an adverse grade and a steeper favorable grade.

EXAMPLE:

1. Longer route segment: 3.67 km of 3% favorable grade. Trucking cost = $.562 per 1000 m³;
construction cost $55,050 at 6% amortization plus interest = $3,303; annual maintenance at
$300/km = $1,101. Total annual cost = $4,404.

2. Shorter route segment: 2.0 km of 8% favorable grade, 1 km of 5% adverse grade. Trucking cost
= $.81 per 1000 m³; construction cost $41,000 at 6% amortization plus interest = $2,460; annual
maintenance at $400/km (steeper grade, sharper curves) = $1,200. Total annual cost = $3,660.

V = (4,404 - 3,660)/(0.81 - 0.562) = 3 x 10(6) m³

(According to the formula, the longer route will be the more economical if the annual volume hauled
exceeds 3 million cubic meters.)

In justifying the added capital investment to achieve greater road stability the risk of potential cost of
a road failure must also be weighed in the balance. This type of risk analysis is commonly done
when determining culvert size for a particular stream crossing. The probability of occurrence of a
peak flow event which would exceed the design capacity of the proposed culvert installation must
be determined and incorporated into the design procedure. The 1964-65 winter season floods
occurring throughout the Pacific Northwest Region of the United States have been classified as 50;
to 100-year return interval events. ("Return interval" is defined as the length of time that a storm
event of specified magnitude would be expected to reoccur. A 50-year event, therefore, would be
expected to occur, on the average, once every 50 years.) Damages to transportation structures
(roads, bridges, trails) in Oregon was estimated at $12.5 million, or, 4 percent of the total
investment of $355 million not including destruction of stream habitat, water quality, private
property, and "down time" and other inconveniences associated with these losses.

As mentioned earlier in this handbook, constructing roads specifically to control erosion may not
cost any more than constructing roads using conventional methods. The money invested to achieve
satisfactory levels of stability while still meeting design criteria will generally be recouped over the
life of the road in reduced maintenance costs, serviceability, longer life, and reduced impacts on
stream habitat and water quality. The goal of fitting roads to the terrain and adopting appropriate
road standards to achieve that goal will often result in reduced earthwork per station.

Incremental costs for roads built to high standards of construction (compacted fills, surface
treatments, terraced fills, etc.) associated with the amount of reduction of sediment yield is difficult
to generate since such wide variability exists in equipment and labor costs, environmental factors
(such as soil erodibility), and operator skill. Gardner (1971) has developed some rudimentary data
for comparing annual road costs for single and double lane roads with differing surface treatments
depreciated over 20 years and using 6 percent capital recovery. The author suggests that user cost
for environmental protection is represented as the difference in annual cost between two-lane
paved and one-lane gravel roads in Table 11. More detailed comparisons of annual cost per km at
different user levels is presented in Tables 12 and 13.

Table 11. Comparison of single-lane versus double-lane costs at three different use

levels.

Number of Total annual cost per

Vehicles kilometer
per year 1 lane 2 lane
Difference
gravel paved
US Dollars
10,000 3,440 4,200 -760
20,000 5,800 5,690 +112
40,000 10,530 8,680 +1,790

Table 12. Comparison of annual road costs per kilometer --10,000 vehicles per year.

Cost Road Standard

distribution
2 lane 1 lane spot 1 lane
2 lane 2 lane 1 lane
chip- stabilizatio primitiv
paved gravel gravel
seal n e
Dollars per Kilometer
Initial $31,07 $24,86 $18,64 $12,43
$9,320 $6,210
Construction 0 0 0 0
  Dollars per kilometer per year (20-year period)
Depreciation[1
2,710 2,170 1,620 1,080 810 540
]
Maintenance 120 250 370 500 680 310
Vehicle use 1,370 1,430 1,680 1,860 2,730 5,280
3,440[2
Total annual 4,200 3,850 3,670 4,230 6,130
]
[1] 20 years at 6% using capital
recovery.
[2] Lowest annual cost.

Table 13. Comparison of annual road costs per kilometer for 20,000 and 40,000
vehicles per year

Cost Road Standard

distribution
2
2 lane lane 2 lane 1 lane 1 lane spot 1 lane
paved chip- gravel gravel stabilization primitive
seal
Dollars per Kilometer
construction 31,070 24,860 18,640 12,430 9,320 6,210
  Dollars per kilometer per year (20-year period)
 20,000 vehicles per year
Depreciation[1] 2,710 2,170 1,620 1,080 810 540
Maintenance 250 500 750 1,000 1,370 620
Vehicle use 2,730 2,860 3,360 3,730 5,470 10,560
Total annual 5,690 5,5302 5,730 5,810 7,650 11,720
Dollars per kilometer per year (20-year period)
 
40,000 vehicles per year
Depreciation 2,710 2,170 1,620 1,080 810 540
Maintenance 500 1,000 1,490 1,990 2,730 1,240
Vehicle use 5,470 5,720 6,710 7,460 10,940 21,130
Total annual 8,680[2] 8,890 9,820 10,530 14,480 22,910
[1] 20 years at 6% using
capital recovery.
[2] Lowest annual cost.

Gardner (1978) analyzed alternative design standards and costs in addition to observing the initial
performance of the experimental road and its esthetic acceptability. Alternate design features
included reducing road width to a level that would accommodate the tracks of the proposed yarding
equipment (3.81 m (12.5 ft)), treating slash by chipping and scattering below the toe of the fill, using
turnouts only when the terrain was favorable thus keeping road widths to a minimum, creating
stepped backslopes (Figure 11) where bedrock competence was good and planting shrubs and
grasses with and without straw mulches, and, finally, incorporating neoprene down- spouts below
culverts to dissipate energy and protect the road prism. Sections I and II of the experimental road
had the following characteristics:

#
Average Average curev curves
 
grade (percent) radius (meters) / km
(mi)
Section 12.1
7.26 25.00
I (19.4)
Section 10.8
5.90 19.30
II (17.4)

Figure 11. Stepped backlope (no scale).

Gardner found that using 1/10:1 backslopes and reducing clearing widths in the experimental road
saved approximately $4,333 in construction cost and had no adverse effect on logging or hauling
cost (Table 14). The effects on harvesting costs were not analyzed in this study.

Table 14. Cost summary comparison (5 vehicles per hour--1/2 logging trucks, 1/2
other traffic); assumes 8-hour hauling day, 140 days/year use, 20 year road life,
23.8 m³ (6.0 M bd. ft.) loads for logging trucks, cost of operating logging trucks
including driver's wage--$0.25/min, cost of operating other vehicles-- 5,535 m³ (1
1/2 MM bd. ft.) timber harvested. (Gardner, 1978 ).

Road Annual Annual Annual Net

standard* amortized difference difference difference
difference hauling other
in cost cost traffic
Dollars
Experimental 0      
III + 1,842.99 - 3,187.65 - 431.20 -1,775.86
IV +11,790.22 -15,287.59 -2,371.60 -5,868.97
Experimental road : single lane, 4.27 m (14 ft) width, 24.1
*
kph (15 mph) design speed, 0.91 m (3') ditch.
III road : single lane, 4.88 m (16 ft) width, 27.4 km/hr (17
 
mph) design speed, 0.91 m (3 ft) ditch.
IV road : double lane, 7.32 m (24 ft) width, 38.6 km/hr (24
 
mph) design speed, 1.22 m (4 ft) ditch.

Table 14 indicates that any environmental values gained by the construction of the experimental
road would cause little economic sacrifice at vehicle use levels of 5 per hour. At higher use levels,
however, the trade-offs become more significant and decisions regarding standards become more
difficult.

2.3 Route Reconnaissance and Location

Keep in mind that a bad road in a good location is preferable to a good road in a bad location. A bad
road can nearly always be fixed. However, no amount of quality survey or design work can correct
any significant location error. For instance, a road constructed across a steep headwall area is more
likely to intercept surface and subsurface water flow and has a far greater potential for failure than a
road constructed along the ridgeline above the headwall. Since excess moisture is nearly always
associated with landslides, it is always best to avoid drainage areas where water is expected to
collect. Some important factors to remember when locating roads include:

1. Avoid high erosion hazard sites, particularly where mass failure is a possibility.
2. Utilize natural terrain features such as stable benches, ridgetops, and low gradient slopes
to minimize the area of road disturbance.
3. if necessary, include short road segments with steeper gradients to avoid problem areas or
to utilize natural terrain features.
4. Avoid midslope locations on long, steep, or unstable slopes.
5. Locate roads on well-drained soils and rock formations which dip into slopes rather than
areas characterized by seeps, highly plastic clays, concave slopes hummocky topography,
cracked soil and rock strata dipping parallel to the slope.
6. For logging road, utilize natural log landing areas (flatter, benched, well-drained land) to
reduce soil disturbance associated with log landings and skid roads.
 7. Avoid undercutting unstable, moist toe slopes when locating roads in or near a valley
bottom.
8. Roll or vary road grades where possible to dissipate flow in road drainage ditches and
culverts and to reduce surface erosion.
9. Select drainage crossings to minimize channel disturbance during construction and to
minimize approach cuts and fills.
10. Locate roads far enough above streams to provide an adequate buffer, or provide structure
or objects to intercept sediment moving downslope below the road.
11. If an unstable area such as a headwall must be crossed, consider end hauling excavated
material rather than using sidecast methods. Avoid deep fills and compact all fills to
accepted engineering standards. Design for close culvert and cross drain spacing to
effectively remove water from ditches and provide for adequate energy dissipators below
culvert outlets. Horizontal drains or interceptor drains may be necessary to drain excess
groundwater.

2.3.1 Road Reconnaissance

Erosion and sedimentation rates are directly linked to total road surface area and excavation. The
closer the road centerline follows the natural topographic contour, the smaller the erosional impact
will be. On low-volume roads it is permissible and even advisable to use non-geometric alignment
standards, or the "free alignment method". The beauty of this system is its ability to permit design
decisions to be made in the field while allowing for tighter control in areas with critical grades and
alignments such as draws, switchbacks, steep topography, or ridges, and less control in areas
where resource risks are minimal. Clearing and excavation quantities are substantially reduced
compared to conventional geometric alignment methods. More time is spent "on the ground" in the
road location step and preliminary survey so that major alignment changes are not necessary
during the design phase.

Two types of tag or grade line are run by the road locator. On more gentle ground the tag or grade
line follows closely, or is identical to the proposed road center line (Figure 12).

Figure 12. Tag line location and center line location of proposed road. Sideslopes
are typically less than 40 to 50 percent.

On steeper ground where heavy cuts on center line are required (sideslopes greater than 50 to 60
percent), the tag line is marked on the "grade-out" or "daylight" point (Figure 13).

Figure 13. Tag line location and center line location of proposed road. Sideslopes
are typically 50% or steeper.
The following procedure has been proven to be successful for direct location of the center line. First,
the tag line is run with abney or clinometer. Tags, flagging, or ribbons are hung at eye level
(approximately 150 to 170 cm) above ground. The ribbon should be intervisible and hung every 15
to 25 m depending on topography and vegetation density. Once a satisfactory tag line has been
established, a second pass is made by marking tangents and points of intersection (Pl) of tangent
(Figure 14).

Figure 14. Selection of the road alignment in the field by "stretching the tag line".
This "stretched", or "adjusted" tag line is surveyed and represents the final
horizontal location of the road.

It is good practice to cut a pole of sufficient height with brightly colored flagging to be placed at the
proposed PI. This allows the road locator to clearly see the proposed tangent in relation to the
marked tag line. By moving the tag ribbon horizontally "on-line" with the tangent, the road locator
can evaluate the required cut/fill at center line (Figure 15). Likewise, he can measure the deflection
angle the Pl, and, based on the selected curve radius, determine the suitability of center line
location along the curve. As a rule, the selected tangent should be uphill for the majority of the
ribbons marking the tag line. The longer the tangents are, the larger the offset will be and the
greater the impact from cuts and fills. Therefore, on low volume, low design speed roads, short
tangents should be favored in order to minimize earthwork. For example in Figure 14 an additional
tangent could be inserted near the PI 2. As shown in Figure 15, still closer proximity of the tag line
to the selected road center line would result.

Figure 15. Position[1] shows tag line ribbon at approximately eye-level. The feet of
the road locator are "on grade". Position [2] shows the ribbon on-location over the
center line or tangent as selected in the field after stretching. The ribbon has been
moved horizontally, thereby allowing an estimate of required cut or fill at center
line.

Tag lines in the field should always be run 1 or 2 percent less than the allowable maximum grade.
For example, if a projected road on the map shows 10 percent grade, the road locator should use 8
or 9 percent in the field. The final design grade of the proposed road will likely be 1 or 2 percent
steeper than the tag line grade in the field.

Tag line grades around sharp-nosed ridges or steep draws should be reduced, or preferably located
along the proposed curve. Otherwise, the designed center line will be significantly shorter than the
marked tag line, resulting in an unacceptably steep design grade (Figure 16).

Figure 16. Exampleof the effect of shortened center line through a draw or around a
sharp ridge. This situation develops when running the tag line into the draw or
around a sharp ridge without allowing for proper curve layout and design location.

In such cases, the tag line should be set "on location" by setting curve points using the deflection
method (Figure 17). The points are selected with hand compass by turning the appropriate
deflection angle and measuring the corresponding chord length.
Figure 17. Curvelayout by deflection method, a useful approach during the original
road location phase.

By setting the ribbon to the corresponding grade percent, the road locator can immediately evaluate
the effect of his decision. Table 15 lists some convenient deflection angles and cord lengths for
various curve radius.

Table 15. Deflection angles for various chord lengths and curve radii.

Radius of Deflection Chord Lengths

curve per meter c ( meters)
(meters) degrees / 5 7.5 10
meter
Deflection
angles (degrees)*
15 1.9 9.6 14.3 19.1
20 1.4 7.2 10.7 14.3
25 1.15 5.7 8.6 11.5
30 0.96 4.8 7.2 9.6
35 0.82 4.1 6.2 8.2
*First deflection angle; subsequent deflection
angles in layouts are double the indicated value

The following techniques during tag line installation should be followed to avoid increased final
design grades:

1. In the case of steep draws, run the desired grade into the draw until the opposite hillside is at a
distance equal to twice the minimum radius. Now, sight across the draw at zero grade, find that
point on the other hillside and continue from that point with the original grade (Figure 18).
2. In the case of sharp ridges, the procedure is similar. Find the starting point for the curve. At that
point, lay the tag line at zero percent around the ridge until you are opposite your beginning point
and at the desired ending point for the curve. At this point resume your original grade.

Figure 18. Bysighting across draw at 0 percent grade, the desired curve is laid out
without increasing the grade.

For more information on reconnaissance and road location procedure, the reader is referred to
Forest Engineering Handbook (1960), by J. K. Pearce.

Location of switchbacks requires careful location in the field in order to minimize impacts on travel
(excessive grades) as well as on road construction (excessive cuts and fills). As a rule, grades
through a switchback at center line should not exceed 6 to 8 percent. Because of the shortened
distance along the inside road edge, the grade there will typically be 2 to 3 percent steeper. The
result is that inside truck wheels will start to slip causing a "wash-board" effect. Likewise, increased
erosion and sedimentation rates will result because of the continued spin-out of the traction wheels.
The grade along the inside edge of the road can be calculated by the following formula:

Example: A switchback has a grade at centerline of 8 %. The deflection angle measures 160
degrees and road width (travelled width) is 3.6 meters. Additional curve widening of 1.5 meters is
required on the inside of the switchback.

What is the grade along the inside edge of the road?

The grade along the inside would be 10.6%, considerably higher than what is desirable.

Several steps can be taken to minimize the impact of excessive grade. If the grade cannot be
reduced through a larger radius, for example, adequate surface material should be used that can
withstand the added tire action and provide enough traction to prevent spin-out. Switchbacks should
not be located on slopes in excess of 35 percent because of the excessive amount of earthwork
required. Natural topographic features, such as benches, saddles, or ridge tops should be used for
locating switchbacks. The following example illustrates the effect of slope on cuts and fills (Figure
19):

Figure 19. Cut and fill apportioning through a switchback to maintain a given grade.

From this it follows that an elevation difference (DE) of 12 m has to be overcome between the PC
(beginning point) and PT (ending point) of the switchback. However, road length along center line is
20 * (pi) = 62.8 m. The required grade of 8 % along 62.8 m overcomes only 5.0 m of the total DE of
12 m. Therefore, 7 m (12 m - 5 m) have to be made up through either cuts or fills. Local conditions
would dictate how the 7 m would be apportioned between cuts and fills. (For example, 4 m of cut at
the PT and 3 m of fill at the PC would be required to overcome the elevation difference on a 30
percent sideslope.). As a general rule "cutting" or excavation should be favored over filling or
embankments. Proper fills are more difficult to construct than excavations.

2.3.2 Faults.

Alternative routes should be carefully reviewed in the office and at the site, utilizing all available
background information and technical expertise. Among the most useful tools available to the road
engineer are a recent set of aerial photos. These must be of a scale small enough to reasonably
identify surface features such as natural drainage characteristics, topographic characteristics
(ridgelines, slope gradients, floodplains, wet areas, landslides), existing cultural features (roads,
buildings, etc.), vegetation or stand type and density, bare soil areas, and geologic features such as
faults.

Many of the geologic features that affect slope stability can be detected in the field and on
topographic maps and photos. Mountain ranges will often indicate a pronounced directional trend in
which faulting can be identified. Since faults are focal points for stress relief and for intrusions of
igneous and metamorphic rocks, these zones usually contain rock that is fractured, crushed,
partially metamorphosed, or highly weathered and are critical to road location. (Burroughs, et al.,
1976) Overlaying geologic maps with topographic maps often reveals the location of major fault
zones (Figure 20 ). Indicators of fault zones include saddles, or low sections in ridges, which are
aligned in the same general direction from one drainage to another and streams that appear to
deviate from the general direction of nearby streams. Aerial photographs can be examined for clues
to possible fault zones when neither geologic nor topographic maps can provide assistance or are
unavailable. Figure 21 is a stereogram of an area in southwest Oregon and indicates a possible
fault zone that passes through several saddles and begins and ends in the river channel. A large
old slide is indicated at A and a newer slide at B. Maps and photos will also provide clues as to the
relative engineering properties, or competence, of rocks in the area.

Geologic maps and topographic maps can help locate boundaries between geologic materials with
different values of competence and resistance toweathering. Changes in vegetation patterns on
aerial photos can also help in identifying such boundaries (Figure 22). Field personnel should be
alert for on-the-ground indicators of faulting --fractured and uptilted rock and individual rocks with
"slickensides", or shiny surfaces resulting from the intense heat developed by friction on sliding
surfaces within the fault zone.

Figure 20. Suspected fault zones are indicated by the alignment of saddles in ridges
and by the direction of stream channels. Geologic map is found in upper left
corner. Major faults are shown as heavy dark lines on geologig maps  (Burroughs, et
al., 1976).
Figure 21. Stereogram of a possible fault zone. The location of the fault is indicated
by the dashed line through the low saddle between the large, older slump at A and
the newer slope failure at B (Burroughs, et al., 1976).
Figure 22. Approximate boundary between serpentine (metamorphic rock) material
and the Umpqua formation is shown by the dashed line. The determination is
based primarily on the basis of vegetation density. Timber on portions of the
Umpqua formation have been harvested which accounts for a reduction in
vegetation density, particularly in the northwest corner of the photo. (Burroughs, et al.,
1976).
2.3.3 Indicators of Slope Stability

Certain features can serve as indicators of potential slide-prone areas. With some practice, these
can be easily identified in the field.

Hummocky topography. This type of landscape generally contains depressions and uneven

ground that has resulted from continued earthflow or slumping. Some areas that are underlain by
particularly incompetent parent material, deeply weathered and subject to heavy rainfall, show a
characteristically hummocky appearance (Figure 23). "Sag ponds" (areas of standingwater), seeps,
and springs are often found within these areas. Certain plant species, called hydrophytes,
frequently indicate the presence of groundwater near the surface and potential instability.

Pistol-butted, tipped and "jackstrawed" trees. Pistol-butted trees were tipped downslope while
small as a result of sliding soil or debris, or as a result of active soil creep. As the tree grew, the top
regained a vertical posture. These are good indicators of slope instability in areas with climates
dominated by rain; deep heavy snowpacks at high elevations may also cause pistol-butting. Tipping
and jackstrawed or "crazy" trees that lean at many different angles within the stand indicate
unstable soils and actively moving slopes.

Tension cracks or "cat steps". Soil movement builds up stresses in the soil mantle which are
sometimes relieved by tension cracks. These features may be hidden by vegetation but are a
definite indicator of active movement.

Soil mottling. When groundwater is present intermittently within the soil mantle, the iron
compounds present in the soil will oxidize to form distinctive orange or red spots. If groundwater
levels are more persistant throughout the rainy season, iron reduction occurs giving the soil profile a
gray or bluish-gray color. The occurrence of these "gleyed" soils indicates a soil that is saturated for
much of the year. The presence of mottles alone is not an indication of instability, but together with
other indicators such as those described can point to the need for special consideration in the
location and design of a road. They often point to the need for drainage and/or extra attention to the
suitability of a subsoil for foundation material.

Figure 23. "Hummocky" topography with springs, curved or tilted trees, and localized
slumps characterize land undergoing active soil creep.
Less quantitative methods involve subjective evaluations of relative stability using soils, geologic,
topographic, climatic, and vegetative indicators obtained from aerial photos, maps, and field
observations A headwall rating system such as the one presented in Figure 24 can be used to
broadly evaluate relative stability of a particular site. The rating obtained in the field is entered into
an empirical slope stability model to evaluate various timber harvesting options. As with most
subjective rating systems, consistency among field personnel is a major problem. However, they
accurately represent the relative importance of individual factors and their effects on likelihood of
failure by mass movement type. The weighted values for hazard indices are presented as guides
only, and can be adjusted to reflect local conditions.

Figure 24. Empirical
headwall rating system used for shallow, rapid landslides on the
Mapleton Ranger District, U.S. Forest Service, region 6, Oregon.
LITERATURE CITED

Bishop, D. M. and M. E. Stevens. 1964. Landslides on logged areas in southeast Alaska. USDA
Forest Service Research Paper PNW-1, 18 pp.
Burroughs, E. R. and J. G. King. 1985. Surface erosion control on roads in granitic soils. Inland
Empire Forest Engineering Conference. Moscow, Idaho. February, 1985. 8 pp.

Burroughs, E. R. Jr., G. R. Chalfant, and M. A. Townsend. 1976. Slope stability in road construction.
U. S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management, Oregon State Office. 102 pp.

Dietz, P., W. Knigge and H. Loeffler. 1984. Walderschliessung. Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg and
Berlin, Germany.

Gardner, R. B. 1978. Cost, performance, and esthetic impacts of tin experimental forest road in
Montana. USDA Forest Service Research Paper INT-203. 28 pp.

Gardner, R. B. 1971. Forest road standards as related to economics and the environment. USDA
Forest Service Research Note INT-45. 4 pp.

Hickerson, T. F. 1964. Route location and design. Fifth Ed. McGraw-Hill Co., New York. 634 pp.

Kuonen, V. 1983. Wald-und Gueterstrassen. Eigenverlag, V. Kuonen, Lindenweg 9, CH-8122.

Pfaffhausen, Switzerland.

Pearce, J. K. 1960. Forest Engineering Handbook. Prepared for US Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of
Land Management. 220 pp.

Rice, R. M. 1977. Forest management to minimize landslide risk. In "Guidelines for Watershed

Management". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1977. pp. 271-287.

Segebaden von, G., 1964. Studies of cross-country transport distances and road net extension.
Studia Forestalia Suedica, No. 18.

Sidle, R. C. 1980. Slope stability on forest land. USDA Forest Service Research Paper PNW209. 23
pp.

Transportation Research Board, 1978. Geometric design standards for low-volume roads,
Compendium 1. National Academy of Sciences and U.S. Agency for International Development,
Washington, D.C.

U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1960. Logging Road Handbook. Agricultural

Handbook No. 183. 65 pp.

U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1982. Transportation Engineering Handbook

CHAPTER 3
ROAD DESIGN
3.1 Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
Center line alignment influences haul cost, construction cost, and environmental cost (e.g., erosion,
sedimentation). During the reconnaissance phase and pre-construction survey the preliminary
center line has been established on the ground. During that phase basic decisions regarding
horizontal and vertical alignment have already been made and their effects on haul, construction,
and environmental costs. The road design is the phase where those "field" decisions are refined,
finalized and documented.

3.1.1 Horizontal Alignment Considerations

The preferred method for locating low volume roads discussed in Section 2.3, the so called non-
geometric or "free alignment" method, emphasizes the importance of adjusting the road alignment
to the constraints imposed by the terrain. The main difference between this and conventional road
design methods is that with the former method, the laying out and designing of the centerline offset
is done in the field by the road locator while substantial horizontal offsets are often required with the
latter method (Figure 25).

Figure 25. Non-geometric and conventional p-line traverses.

Adjustments in horizontal alignment can help reduce the potential for generating roadway sediment.
The objective in manipulating horizontal alignment is to strive to minimize roadway cuts and fills and
to avoid unstable areas. When unstable or steep slopes must be traversed, adjustments in vertical
alignment can minimize impacts and produce a stable road by reducing cuts and fills. The route can
also be positioned on more stable ground such as ridgetops or benches. Short, steep pitches used
to reach stable terrain must be matched with a surface treatment that will withstand excessive wear
and reduce the potential for surface erosion. On level ground, adequate drainage must be provided
to prevent ponding and reduce subgrade saturation. This can be accomplished by establishing a
minimum grade of 2 percent and by rolling the grade.

Achieving the required objectives for alignment requires that a slightly more thoughtful preliminary
survey be completed than would be done for a more conventionally designed road. There are two
commonly accepted approaches for this type of survey: the grade or contour location method (used
when grade is controlling), or the centerline location method (used when grades are light and
alignment is controlling). Figure 26 illustrates design adjustments that can be made in the field using
the non-geometric design concept discussed earlier.

Figure 26. Design adjustments.

Equipment needed for ether method may include a staff compass, two Abney levels or clinometers,
fiberglass engineer's tape (30 or 50 m), a range rod, engineering field tables, notebook, maps,
photos, crayons, stakes, flagging, and pencils. The gradeline or contour method establishes the
location of the P-line by connecting two control points with a grade line. A crew equipped with levels
or clinometers traverses this line with tangents that follow, as closely as possible, the contours of
the ground. Each section is noted and staked for mass balance calculations. Centerline stakes
should be set at even 25 - and 50 - meter stations when practicable and intermediate stakes set at
significant breaks in topography and at other points, such as breaks where excavation goes from
cut to fill, locations of culverts, or significant obstructions.

On gentle topography with slopes less than 30 percent and grade is not a controlling factor, the
centerline method may be used. Controlling tangents are connected by curves established on the
ground. The terrain must be gentle enough so that by rolling grades along the horizontal alignment,
the vertical alignment will meet minimum requirements. In general, this method may be less
practical than the gradeline method for most forested areas.

When sideslopes exceed 50 - 55 percent or when unstable slope conditions are present, it may be
necessary to consider full bench construction shown in Figure 27. Excavated material in this case
must be end hauled to a safe location. Normally, the goal of the road engineer is to balance
earthwork so that the volume of fill equals the volume of cut plus any gain from bulking less any loss
from shrinkage (Figure 28).

Road design, through its elements such as template (width, full bench/side cast), curve widening
and grade affect the potential for erosion. Erosion rates are directly proportional to the total exposed
area in cuts and fills. Road cuts and fills tend to increase with smooth, horizontal and vertical
alignment. Conversely, short vertical and horizontal tangents tend to reduce cuts and fills. Erosion
rates can be expected to be lower in the latter case. Prior to the design phase it should be clearly
stated which alignment, horizontal or vertical, takes precedence. For example, if the tag line has
been located at or near the permissible maximum grade, the vertical alignment will govern. Truck
speeds in this case are governed by grade and not curvature. Therefore, horizontal alignment of the
center line can follow the topography very closely in order to minimize earthwork. Self balancing
sections would be achieved by shifting the template horizontally.

Figure 27. Full bench design

Figure 28. Self-balanced design.

3.1.2 Curve Widening

Roadway safety will be in jeopardy and the road shoulders will be impacted by off-tracking wheels if
vehicle geometry and necessary curve widening are not considered properly. Continually eroding
shoulders will become sedimentation source areas and will eventually weaken the road. On the
other hand, over design will result in costly excessive cuts and/or fills.

The main principle of off-tracking and hence curve widening, centers on the principle that all vehicle
axles rotate about a common center. Minimum curve radius is vehicle dependent and is a function
of maximum cramp angle and wheelbase length (see Figure 29).

Figure 29. Basic vehicle geometry in off-tracking.

Typical vehicle dimensions are shown in Figure 30 for single trucks, truck/ trailers, log truck (pole-
type), and tractor/trailer combinations. These dimensions were used to develop Figures 35 to 38 for
calculating curve widening in relation to curve radius and central angle.

Several different solutions to determine curve widening requirements are in use. Most mathematical
solutions and their simplified versions give the maximum curve widening required. Curve widening
is a function of vehicle dimensions, curve radius, and curve length (central angle).

A graphical solution to the problem is provided in Figures 31 to 33. This solution can be used for
single trucks, truck-trailer combinations and vehicle overhang situations. This solution provides the
maximum curve widening for a given curve radius.

Figure 30. Example of truck-trailer dimensions.

Figure 31. Sept 1. Graphical solution of widening
Figure 32. Steps 2 and 3. Graphical solution for curve widening.
The graphical solution for a stinger type log truck is shown in Figure 33. Here, an arc with the bunk
length L2 plus L3 is drawn with the center at C. The log load swivels on the bunks, C and E and
forms line C - E, with the trailer reach forming line D - E.

Figure 33. Graphical solution for off-tracking of a stinger-type log truck.

Simple, empirical curve widening formulae have been proposed by numerous authors and
government agencies. A common method used in North America is:

CW = 37/R For Tractor-trailer (low boy; units in meters)

CW = 18.6/R For log-truck (units in meters)

The above equations are adapted for the typical truck dimensions used in the United States and
Canada. In Europe, curve widening recommendations vary from 14/R to 32/R. Curve widening
recommendations in Europe are given by Kuonen (1983) and Dietz et al. (1984). Kuonen defines
the curve widening requirement for a two-axle truck (wheelbase = 5.5m) as

CW = 14/R

and a truck-trailer combination where

CW = 26/R

Dietz, et. al. (1984) recommend CW = 32/R for any truck combination.

The approximation methods mentioned above are usually not satisfactory under difficult or critical
terrain conditions. They typically overestimate curve widening requirements for wide curves (central
angle < 45º) and under estimate them for tight curves (central angle > 50º).

Vehicle tracking simulation provides a better vehicle off-tracking solution because it considers
vehicle geometry and curve elements, in particular the deflection angle (Kramer, 1982, Cain &
Langdon, 1982). The following charts provide off-tracking for four common vehicle configurations--a
single or two-axle truck, a truck-trailer combination, a stinger-type log-truck and a tractor-trailer
(lowboy) combination. The charts are valid for the specified vehicle dimensions and are based on
the following equation (Cain and Langdon, 1982):

OF = (R - (R2 - L2)1/2) * (1 - eX)

where x = ( -0.015 * D * R/L +

: 0.216)
  OF = Off tracking (m)
  R =Curve radius (m)
D =Deflection angle or
 
central angle
e = Base for natural
 
logarithm (2.7183)
L = Total combination
 
wheelbase of vehicle
  L = (Summation of Li2)1/2

For a log-truck:

L = (L1(2) + L2(2) + L3(2))1/2

where L1-3 are defined in Figure 30.

The maximum off-tracking for a given vehicle, radius and deflection angle occurs when the vehicle
leaves the curve. Since vehicles travel both directions, the required curve widening, which consists
of off-tracking (OT) plus safety margin (0.5 - 0.6m), should be added to the full curve length. One
half of the required curve widening should be added to the inside and one half to the outside of the
curve (Figure 34).

Figure 34. Curve widening and taper lengths.

Figures 35 through 38 provide vehicle off-tracking for a given vehicle, radius, and deflection (or
central angle). To this value, 0.5 to 0.6m should be added to allow for formula and driver's error,
grade, and road or super elevation variations. Transition or taper length from tangent to curve vary
from 9 to 18 m depending on curve radius. Recommended length of transition before and after a
curve are as follows (Cain and Langdon, 1982):

Curve Length of
Radius (m) Taper (m)
20 18
20 - 25 15
25 - 30 12
30 10

Example: Standard road width is 3.0 m. Design vehicle is a stinger-type log-truck with dimensions
as shown in Figure 30. Curve radius is 22m, deflection angle equals 60º.

From Figure 37 locate curve radius on the x-axis (interpolate between 20 and 25), go up to the
corresponding 60º - curve (interpolate between 45º and 90º), go horizontally to the left and read the
vehicle off-tracking equal to 1.8 m.

The total road width is 4.80 m (3.0 m + 1.8 m).

Depending on conditions, a safety margin of 0.5 m could be added . The current 3.0 m road width
already allows for safety and driver's error of 0.30 m on either side of the vehicle wheels (truck
width = 2.40 m ). Depending on the ballast depth, some additional shoulder width may be available
for driver's error. Taper length would be 15 m.

Figure 35. Curve widening guide for a two or three axle truck as a function of radius and deflection
angle. The truck dimensions are as shown.

Figure 36. Curve widening guide for a truck-trailer combination as a function of radius and
deflection angle. The dimensions are as shown.
Figure 37. Curve widening guide for a log-truck as a function of radius and deflection angle. The
dimensions are as shown.
Figure 38. Curve widening guide for a tractor/trailer as a function of radius and deflection angle.
The tractor-trailer dimensions are as shown.
3.1.3 Vertical Alignment

Vertical alignment is often the limiting factor in road design for most forest roads. Frequently grades
or tag lines are run at or near the maximum permissible grade. Maximum grades are determined by
either vehicle configuration (design/critical vehicle characteristic) or erosive conditions such as soil
or precipitation patterns. Depending on road surface type, a typical logging truck can negotiate
different grades. Table 16 lists maximum grades a log truck can start from. It should be noted that
today's loaded trucks are traction limited and not power limited. They can start on grades up to 25
% on dry, well maintained, unpaved roads. Once in motion they can typically negotiate steeper
grades.

Vertical curves or grade changes, like horizontal curves, require proper consideration to minimize
earthwork, cost, and erosion damage. Proper evaluation requires an analysis of vertical curve
requirements based on traffic characteristics (flow and safety), vehicle geometry, and algebraic
difference of intersecting grades.

Vertical curves provide the transition between an incoming grade and an outgoing grade. For
convenience in design, a parabolic curve (Figures 39 and 40) is used because the grade change is
proportional to the horizontal distance. The grade change is the difference between incoming grade
and outgoing grade. The shorter the vertical curve can be kept, the smaller the earthwork required.

Figure 39. Typical vertical curves (VPI = Vertical Point of Intersection).

The grade change per unit length is defined as

(G1 - G2) / L (% / meter)

or more commonly its inverse, where the grade change is expressed in horizontal distance (meters)
to effect a 1% change in grade.

Table 16. Maximum grades log trucks can start on from rest (Cain, 1981).

  Maximum Starting Grades** Example

(1) (2) Tracti (3) Rollin (4)* Starti (5) (6) (7)
Surface on g ng TR. TR. = .64 TR. = .32
Coef. (f) Res. (r) Res. (s) = .435 Empty Truck Empty Truck
Loaded Piggyback [b] Trailer
Truck [a] Extended[b]
Fro
        To From To From To  
m
Concret 28. 61. 24. Given: earth
.75-.90 .018 .10 21.6 47.0 17.6
e-dry 1 4 8 surface road
Req'd:
maximum
Concret 19. 42. 15. adverse
.55-.70 .15 .10 13.1 29.6 9.0
e-wet 6 5 5 grades for
the
following:
Asphalt- 19. 42. 15.
.55-.70 .020 .10 12.8 29.4 8.7  
dry 3 3 2
1) landings
2) loaded
log truck to
Asphalt- 19. 42. 15. start from
.40-.70 .018 .10 6.4 17.4 2.8
wet 4 4 3 rest
3) moving
loaded log
trucks
Gravel- .50-.85 .022 .10 10.5 25. 26.2 56. 6.5 22.  
packed,
7 3 0
oil, & dry
Assume
hauling will
Gravel-
be done
packed, 23. 51. 19.
.40-.80 .020 .10 6.3 17.4 2.7 during wet
oil, & 7 6 8
weather, but
wet
not ice or
snow
Gravel-
18. 42. 14.
loose, .40-.70 .030 .10 5.7 17.0 2.0  
8 0 5
dry
Solution:
Gravel- Under
20. 46. 16.
loose, .36-.75 .040 .10 3.4 13.6 -0.2 Column (1),
4 2 1
wet find earth-
wet:
1) for
landing, go
across to
Rock-
Col. (7)
crushed, 20. 46. 16.
.55-.75 .030 .10 12.2 29.0 8.0 truck, trailer
wet or 9 5 8
extended,
dry
and read
from 2.0 to
6.5 %.
2) for loaded
log trucks
starting from
rest, go
Earth- 17. 37. 12.
.55-.65 .022-.03 .10 12.2 29.0 8.0 across to
dry 0 8 8
Col. (5) and
read from
5.7 to 10.5
%.
3) add 10 %
to part 2,
which
means a
Earth-
moving
wet
10. 25. loaded log
(exclude .40-.50 .022-.03 .10 5.7 17.0 2.0 6.5
5 2 truck will
s some
'spin out'
clays)
somewhere
between
15.7 to 20.5
%.
Dry
12. 29.
packed .20-.55 .025 .10 - 2.7 2.5 - 5.0 8.4 NOTE
5 2
snow
Loose 13. 32. Extreme
.10-.60 .045 .10 - 8.2 - 5.1 - 9.8 9.1
snow 6 7 caution is
Snow 29-.31 .025 .10 1.2 2.1 8.9 10. -1.8 -1.0 recommend
lightly 4 ed in the
sanded

Snow
lightly
sanded .34 .035 .10 2.8 12.3 0.6 use of steep
with grades,
chains especially
over 20 %.
They may
be
impractical
because of
construction
and
Ice
without .07-.12 .005 .10 -7.2 -5.1 - 5.6 -2.3 -8.1 -6.4  
chains
*For vehicles with manual transmissions. Factor for wet clutches, hydraulic torque converters,
freeshaft turbines, or hydrostatic transmissions would be .03 to .05.
**Add 10 % to these values to obtain the maximum grade a log truck may negotiate when
moving
[a] Based upon = f(TR) - r(1 - TR) - S h = height of trailer coupling or center of gravity (1.2 m)
[b] Based upon = f(TR)/(1 - (f(h)/b)) - b = wheel base (5.5 m) formulas from source 2 values in
r(1 - TR) - S Col. 2 & 3 are composite.

Figure 40. Vertical curve elements (VPC = Vertical Point of Curvature; VPT = Vertical Point of
Tangency).

Factors to be considered in the selection of a vertical curve are:

Stopping Sight distance S: On crest curves, S is a function of overall design speed of the road
and driver's comfort. On most forest roads with design speeds from 15 km/hr to 30 km/hr, the
minimum stopping sight distance is 20 and 55 meters respectively ( see Ch. 2.1.2.7 ). Kuonen
(1983) provides an equation for minimal vertical curve length based on stopping distance:

Lmin = Smin2 / 800

Lmin = minimum vertical curve length for

where:
each 1 % change in grade (m / %)
Smin = minimum safe stopping sight
 
distance (m)

Example: Determine the minimum vertical curve length for a crest curve that satisfies the safe
stopping sight distance.

Design speed of road: 25 km/hr

Grade change (G1 - G2): 20 %

Solution: Stopping sight distance for 25 km/hr equals approximately 37 meters (from Ch. 2.1.2.7).

Lmin = (37(2) / 800) 20 = 34.2 m

Vehicle geometry: Vehicle clearance, axle spacing, front and rear overhang, freedom of vertical
movement at articulation points are all factors to be considered in vertical curve design.

Passage through a sag curve requires careful evaluation of the dimensions as illustrated in Figure
41.

Figure 41. Log truck geometry and dimensions for vertical curve analysis

The critical dimensions of a log truck when analyzing crest vertical curves are the length of the
stinger and the vertical distance between the stinger and the bottom of the logs, x. A log truck as
shown in Figure 41 with dimension

A - Tractor
= 4.8 m
length
B - Bunk to Bunk= 7.2 m
C - Log
= 2.4 m
overhang front
D - Clearance
= 0.39 m
log - frame

could negotiate a grade change of 30% over a vertical curve length of 12 m without damage to the
truck (Ohmstede, 1976).

As shown in the previous example , safety considerations typically require significantly longer,
vertical curves than physical truck dimensions do. With the exception of special or critical vehicles,
vertical curves can be kept very short, even for large grade changes. Road maintenance
considerations are more important in such situations. Vehicle dimension considerations do become
important, however, in special cases such as fords in creek crossings.

3.2 Road Prism

Proper design of the roadway prism can significantly reduce the amount of sediment and debris that
enters adjacent streams. Often the basic cause of a particular mass failure can be traced to
overroading or overdesign. Overroading or misplacement of roads results from a poor land
management or transportation plan; overdesign results from rigidly following design criteria with
respect to curvature, width, gradient, and oversteepened cuts and fills or from designing roads to
higher standards than are required for their intended use. As stated previously, allowing terrain
characteristics to govern road design permits more flexibility and will be especially beneficial, both
environmentally and economically, where it is possible to reduce cut and fill slope heights, slope
angles, and roadway widths.

3.2.1 Road Prism Stability

Stability considerations as applied to natural slopes are also valid for stability analysis of road cuts
and fills. Points to consider include

- Critical height of cut slope or fill slope

- Critical piezometric level in a slope or road fill
- Critical cut slope and fill slope angle.

The most common road fill or sidecast failure mode is a translational slope failure. Translational
slope failure is characterized by a planar failure surface parallel to the ground or slope. Depth to
length ratio of slides are typically very small. The following slopes would fall into this category:

1. Thin, residual soil overlaying an inclined bedrock contact

2. Bedrock slopes covered with glacial till or colluvium
3. Homogeneous slopes of coarse textured, cohesionless soils (road fills)

Fill slope failure can occur in two typical modes. Shallow sloughing at the outside margins of a fill is
an example of limited slope failure which contributes significantly to erosion and sedimentation but
does not directly threaten the road. It is usually the result of inadequate surface protection. The
other is sliding of the entire fill along a contact plane which can be the original slope surface or may
include some additional soil layers. It results from lack of proper fill compaction and/or building on
too steep a side slope. Another reason could be a weak soil layer which fails under the additional
weight placed on it by the fill.
Slope or fill failure is caused when forces causing or promoting failure exceed forces resisting
failure (cohesion, friction, etc.). The risk of failure is expressed through the factor of safety (see
Figure 2):

FS = Shear strength / Shear stress

where shear strength is defined as

T = C * A + N (tan [f])

and shear stress, the force acting along the slope surface, is defined as

D = W * sin [b]

C = Cohesive strength
where:
(tonnes/m²)
  A = Contact area (m²)
W = Unit weight of soil
 
(tonne/m³)
  [b] = Ground slope angle
[f] = Coefficient of friction or
 
friction angle (Table 17)
N = Normal force = W *
 
cos[b].

Table 17. Values of friction angles and unit weights for various soils. (from Burroughs, et. al., 1976)

Soil Density Friction Unit Soil

type Angle Degree Weight
s Tonnes/m
³
Coarse Compac
45 2.24
Sand t
Gravel Firm 38 1.92
Loose 32 1.44
Medium Compac
40 2.08
Sand t
Firm 34 1.76
Loose 30 1.44
Fine Compac
32 2.08
Silty t
sands Firm 30 1.60
Loose 28 1.36
Uniform Compac
30 1.76
Silts t
Loose 26 1.36
Clay- Medium 15 - 20 1.92
Silt Soft 15 - 20 1.44
Clay Medium 0 - 10 1.92
Soft 0 - 10 1.44
The friction angle is also referred to as the angle of repose. Sand or gravel cannot be used to form
a steeper slope than the frictional angle allows. In other words, the maximum fill angle of a soil
cannot exceed its coefficient of friction. Typical friction angles are given in Table 17. One should
note the change in soil strength from "loose" to "compact" indicating the improvement in cohesion
brought about by proper soil compaction.

Cohesionless soils such as sands or gravel without fines (clay) derive their strength from frictional
resistance only

T = W * cos[b] * tan[f]

while pure clays derive their shear strength from cohesion or stickiness. Shear strength or cohesive
strength of clay decreases with increasing moisture making clays very moisture sensitive.

The factor of safety against sliding or failure can be expressed as:

FS = {C * A + (W * cos[b] * tan [f])} / {W * sin[b]}

In cases where the cohesive strength approaches zero (granular soils, high moisture content) the
factor of safety simplifies to

FS = tan[f] / tan[b], (C = 0)

Road fills are usually built under dry conditions. Soil strength, particularly, cohesive strength is high
under such conditions. If not planned or controlled, side cast fills are often built at the maximum
slope angle the fill slope will stand (angle of repose). The fill slope, hence, has a factor of safety of
one or just slightly larger than one. Any change in conditions, such as added weight on the fill or
moisture increase, will lower the factor of safety, and the fill slope will fail. It is clear that the factor of
safety must be calculated from "worst case" conditions and not from conditions present at the time
of construction.

Failure can be brought about in one of two ways:

1. Translational fill failure (Figure 42) can be brought about by a build-up of a saturated zone.
Frictional strength or grain-to-grain contact is reduced by a bouyancy force. Rainfall and/or ponded
ditch water seeping into the fill are often responsible for this type of failure.

Figure 42. Translational or wedge failure brought about by saturated zone in fill. Ditch overflow or
unprotected surfaces are often responsible.
The factor of safety against a translational failure can be shown to be:

FS = {[ C * A1 + g buoy * A2] * tan[f]} / {[ g * A1 + gsat * A2] * tan[b]}

where:   
= Wet or moist fill
  g
density
  gsat = Saturated fill density
= gsat - gwater (gwater
  gbouy
= 1)
= Cross sectional area
  A1
of unsaturated fill
= Cross sectional area
  A2
of saturated fill

2. Rotational or Slump fill failure brought about by seepage at the toe of the fill (Figure 43). The
subsequent backward erosion of unprotected fill toes will result in a vertical face or bank prone to
slumping. Eventually it will trigger a complete fill failure.

Figure 43. Fill failure caused by backward erosion at the toe of the fill due to excessive seepage
and an unprotected toe.
Stability analysis can help in the determination and selection of proper road prism. Fill slope angle
for common earth (a mixture of fragmented rock and soil) should typically not exceed 33.6º which
corresponds to a rise: run ratio of 1:1.5. Therefore, a road prism on side slopes steeper than 50 -
55% (26 - 29º) should be built as "full-benched" because of the marginal stability of the fill section.
Fill sections on steep side slopes can be used, if the toe of the fill is secured through cribbing or a
rock wall which allows a fill slope angle of 33.6º (1:1.5).

Practical considerations suggest that fill slope angle and ground slope angle should differ by at least
7º. Smaller angles result in so-called "sliver-fills" which are difficult to construct and erode easily.

Example:

Ground slope = 50%

Fill slope = 66.7%

Assuming zero cohesion and friction angle equals fill angle ([f] = [b])

FS = tan[f] / tan[b] = 0.667 / 0.50 = 1.33

The factor of safety is adequate. The fill slope stability becomes marginal if the same road prism (fill
clone angle = 33 7º) is built on a 60% side Slope The factor of safety becomes

FS = 0.667 / 0.600 = 1.11

The factor of safety in this case would be considered marginal. Here the. difference between fill
slope angle and ground slope is less than 7º, a sliver fill.

Cut slope failures in road construction typically occur as a rotational failure. It is common in these
cases to assume a circular slip surface. Rotational failures can be analyzed by the method of slices,
probably the most common method for analyzing this type of failure (Bishop, 1950; Burroughs, et.
al.,1976).
Numerous stability charts have been developed for determining the critical height of a cut for a
specific soil characterized by cohesion, friction angle, and soil density. The critical Neigh Hcrit, is
the maximum height at which a slope will remain stable. They are related to a stability number, Ns,
defined as

Ns = Hcrit (C/[g])

Chen and Giger (1971) and Prellwitz (1975) published slope stability charts for the design of cut and
fill slopes. Cut/fill slope and height recommendations in Section 3.2.3 are based on their work.

3.2.2 Side Cast - Full Bench Road Prism

Proper road design includes the selection of the appropriate road template as well as minimal
earthwork by balancing the cuts and fills as shown in Figure 44.

Figure 44. Elements of road prism geometry.

The volume of cut and fill per meter of road can be calculated by the following formula:

For earthwork calculations, the required fill equals the cut, minus any loss from shrinkage, plus any
gain from swell (rock).

Fill slopes can be constructed up to a maximum slope angle of 36° to 38°. Common practice is to
restrict fill slopes to 34º. This corresponds to a ratio of 1 : 1.5 (run over rise). The maximum fill slope
angle is a function of the shear strength of the soil, specifically the internal angle of friction. For
most material, the internal angle of friction is approximately 36° to 38°.
Compacted side cast fills which must support part of the road become more difficult to construct
with increasing side slopes. Sliver fills, as described in Section 3.2.1, result from trying to construct
fills on steep side slopes. For side slopes in excess of 25° to 27° (50 to 55 %), the full road width
should be moved into the hillside. Excavated material can be side cast or wasted, but should not
form part of the roadbed or surged for the reasons discussed in Chapter 3.2.1.

The volume of excavation required for side cast construction varies significantly with slope. On side
slopes less than 25° to 30° (50 to 60%) the volume of excavation for side cast construction is
considerably less than the volume of excavation for full bench construction. However, as the side
slope angle approaches 75% (37°), the volume of excavation per unit length of road for side cast
construction approaches that required for full bench construction. Side cast fills, however, cannot be
expected to remain stable on slopes greater than 75%.

This relationship of excavation volume for side cast and full bench construction is shown in Figure
45. The subgrade width is 6.6 meter, the fill angle is 37°, and a bulking factor of 1.35 is assumed
(expansion due to fragmentation or excavation of rock).

A similar graph can be reconstructed by the following equation:

Figure 45. Required excavation volumes for side cast and full bench construction as function of
side slope. Assumed subgrade width 6.6 m and bulking factor K = 1.35 (rock).

where:

W = total subgrade width

 = WC + WF

K = bulking or compaction factor

(for rock, K = 1.3 - 1.4; for common earth compacted fills, K = 0.7 - 0.8. Other symbols are defined
earlier in this section.)

The effect of careful template selection on overall width of disturbed area becomes more important
with increasing side slope. Material side cast or "wasted" on side slopes steeper than 70 to 75% will
continuously erode since the side slope angle exceeds the internal angle of friction of the material.
The result will be continuous erosion and ravelling of the side cast material.

Another factor contributing to the instability of steeply sloping fills is the difficulty in revegetating
bare soil surfaces. Because of the nature of the side cast material (mostly coarse textured, infertile
soils) and the tendency for surface erosion on slopes greater than 70%, it is very difficult to
establish a permanent protective cover. From that perspective, full bench construction combined
with end haul of excavated material (removing wasted material to a safe area) will provide a
significantly more stable road prism.

The relationship between erodible area per kilometer of road surface increases dramatically with
increasing side slope where the excavated material is side cast (Figure 46). The affected area
(erodible area), however, changes very little with increasing side slopes for full bench construction
combined with end haul (Figure 47). The differences in affected area between the two construction
methods are dramatic for side slopes exceeding 60%.

Figure 46 . Erodible area per kilometer of road for side cast construction as a function of side slope
angle and cut slope angle. The values shown are calculated for a 6.6 m wide subgrade. The fill
angle equals 37º.

For example, the difference in affected area is over 8.8 km² per kilometer of road as the side slope
angle approaches 65%. Also, as slope angle increases, the erosive power of flowing water
increases exponentially. Obviously, careful consideration must be given when choosing between
side cast construction and full bench construction with end haul.
Figure 47 . Erodible area per kilometer of road for full bench/end haul construction as a function of
side slope angle and cut slope angle. The values shown are calculated for a 6.6 m wide subgrade.

3.2.3 Slope design

The U. S. Forest Service has developed guidelines for determining general values for maximum
excavation and embankment slope ratios based on a combination of general field descriptions and
the Unified Soil Classification of the material. Water table characteristics along with standard
penetration and in-place density test values can further define the nature of the materials. Published
information sources describing soils, geology, hydrology, and climate of the area should be carefully
reviewed since certain of these reports often contain specific information relating to the engineering
properties of materials in the area. These will also assist in the detailed characterization of soils,
geologic, and bedrock conditions along the entire cross section of cut and/or fill area.

In general, the higher the cut or fill the more critical the need becomes for accurate investigation.
The following consists of special limitations with regard to height of the cut or fill and the level of
investigation required to adequately describe the entire-cross section.

0 to 15 meters (0 to 50 feet) in vertical height requires a minimum of investigation for non-critical

areas The investigation would include soil classification, some hand or backhoe excavation, seismic
data, and observations of nearby slopes to determine profile horizonation and relative stability.

15 to 30 meters (50 to 100 feet) in vertical height requires a more extensive investigation including
all the items listed above plus test borings, either by hand auger or drill holes to identify soil
horizons and the location of intermittent or seasonal water tables within the profile.

Over 30 meters (over 100 feet) in vertical height will require a slope designed by a specialist
trained in soil mechanics or geological engineering. Under no circumstances should the following
guides be used for slopes in excess of 30 meters in vertical height.

Special investigation may also be necessary when serious loss of property, extensive resource
damage, or loss of life might result from a slope failure or when crossing areas where known
instability exists or past slope failures have occurred. Soils containing excessive amounts of organic
matter, swelling clays, layered schists or shales, talus, and pockets of loose water- bearing sands
and silts may require special investigation as would fissured clay deposits or layered geologic strata
in which subsurface conditions could not be determined for visual or seismic investigation.
The following list shows soil types and the pertinent design figures and tables for that soil:

TABLE /
SOIL TYPE (Unified)
FIGURE
Coarse grained soils L <= 50%
passing # 200 sieve)
Sands and gravels with nonplastic
fines (Plasticity Index <= 3); Unified
Table 18
Soil Classification: GW, GP, SW,
SP, Wand SM
Sands and gravels with plastic fines
Figures
(Plasticity Index > 3); Unified Soil
48 & 49
Classification: GM, SM, respectively
Fine soils (> 50% passing # 200
 
sieve)
Unified Soil Classification: ML, MH,
CL, AND CH slowly permeable
Figures
layer at surface of cut and at some
50 & 51
distance below cut, respectively
Unweathered rock Table 19
Fill Slopes Table 20

Curves generated in Figures 48 and 49 illustrating maximum cut slope angles for coarse grained
soils are organized according to five soil types:

1. Well graded material with angular granular particles; extremely dense with fines that cannot
be molded by hand when moist; difficult or impossible to dig with shovel; penetration test
blow court greater than 40 blows per decimeter.
2. Poorly graded material with rounded or low percentage of angular granular particles; dense
and compact with fines that are difficult to mold by hand when moist; difficult to dig with
shovel; penetration test approximately 30 blows per decimeter.
3. Fairly well graded material with subangular granular particles; intermediate density and
compactness with fines that can be easily molded by hand when moist (Plasticity Index >
10); easy to dig with shovel; penetration test blow count approximately 20 blows per
decimeter.
4. Well graded material with angular granular particles; loose to intermediate density; fines
have low plasticity (Plasticity Index < 10); easy to dig with shovel; penetration test blow
count less than 10 blows per decimeter.
5. Poorly graded material with rounded or low percentage of granular material; loose density;
fines have low plasticity (Plasticity Index < 10); can be dug with hands; penetration count
less than 5 blows per decimeter.

Curves generated in Figures 50 and 51 illustrating maximum cut slope angles for fine grained soils
are organized according to five soil types based on consistency. Complete saturation with no
drainage during construction is assumed making the depth to a slowly permeable underlying layer
such as bedrock or unweathered residual material the single most important variable to consider.
Figure 50 assumes the critical depth to be at or above the bottom of the cut; Figure 51 assumes the
critical depth to be at a depth three times the depth -of excavation as measured from the bottom of
the cut. Cut slope values for intermediate depths can be interpolated between the two charts:

1. Very stiff consistency; soil can be dented by strong pressure of fingers; ripping may be
necessary during construction; penetration test blow count greater than 25 blows per
decimeter.
 2. Stiff consistency; soil can be dented by strong pressure of fingers; might be removed by
digging with shovel; penetration test blow count approximately 20 blows per decimeter.
3. Firm consistency; soil can be molded by strong pressure of fingers; penetration test blow
count approximately 10 blows per decimeter.
4. Soft consistency; soil can easily be molded by fingers; penetration test blow count
approximately 5 blows per decimeter.
5. Very soft consistency; soil squeezes between fingers when fist is closed; penetration test
blow count less than 2 blows per decimeter.

Fill slopes typically display weaker shear strengths than cut slopes since the soil has been
excavated and moved from its original position. However, fill strengths can be defined with a
reasonable degree of certainty, provided fills are placed with moisture and density control. The
slope angle or angle of repose is a function of the internal angle of friction and cohesive strength of
the soil material. Table 20 provides a recommended maximum fill slope ratio as a function of soil
type, moisture content, and degree of compaction. Slopes and fills adjacent to culvert inlets may
periodically become subjected to inundation when ponding occurs upstream of the inlet.

Compaction control, as discussed previously, is achieved through the manipulation of moisture and
density and is defined by the standard Proctor compaction test (AASHTO 90). If no compaction
control is obtained, fill slopes should be reduced by 25 percent.

Table 18. Maximum cut slope ratio for coarse grained soils. (USFS, 1973).

Soil Type Maximum Cut Slope Ratio (h:v)

Low groundwater High groundwater [1]
(below bottom of (see page from entire
excavation) scope)
loose [2] dense [3] loose dense
GW, GP 1.5 : 1 85 : 1 3:1 1.75 : 1
SW 1.6 : 1 1: 1 3.2 : 1 2:1
GM, SP,
2:1 1.5 : 1 4:1 3:1
SM
[1] Based on material of saturated density approximately
19.6 kN/m³. Flatter slopes should be used for lower density
material and steeper slopes can be used for higher density
material. For every 5 % change in density, change the ratio
by approximately 5%.
[2] Approximately 85% of maximum density.
[3] Approximately 100% of maximum density.

Table 19. Maximum cut slope ratio for bedrock excavation (USFS, 1973).

Rock type Maximum Cut Slope

Ratio
Massive Fractured
Igneous (granite, trap, basalt,
0.25.1 0.50:1
and volcanic tuff)
Sedimentary (massive
0.25:1 0.50:1
sandstone and limestone;
interbedded sandstone, shale,
0.50:1 0.75:1
and limestone;
massive claystone and
0.75:1 1:1
siltstone)
Metamorphic (gneiss, schist,
0.25:1 0.50:1
and marble;
slate); 0.50:1 0.75:1
(serpentine) Special investigation

Figure 48. Maximum cut slope ratio for coarse grained soils with plastic fines (low water
conditions). Each curve indicates the maximum height or the steepest slope that can be used for
the given soil type. (After USFS, 1973).

Figure 49. Maximum cut slope angle for coarse grained soils with plastic fines (high water
conditions). Each curve indicates the maximum cut height or the steepest slopes that can be used
for the given soil type. (After USFS, 1973).
Figure 50. Maximum cut slope angle for fine grained soils with slowly permeable layer at bottom of
cut. Each curve indicates the maximum vertical cut height or the steepest slope that can be used for
the given soil type. (After USES 1973).

Figure 51. Maximum cut slope angle for fine grained soils with slowly permeable layer at great
depth (>= 3 times height of cut) below cut. (After USES, 1973).

Soil Maximum Slope

Type Height (m) [1] Ratio (h:v)
1 24 0.5:1
2 [2] 12 0.5:1
3 [2] 6 0.5:1
4 [3] 3 1:1
5 [3] 1.5 1:1
[1] If it is necessary to exceed this height consult
with geologic or materials engineer. Benching will
not improve stability as stability is nearly
independent of slope ratio on these slopes.
[2] If the slope of the natural ground exceeds 20°
(36 percent), then the natural slope may be
unstable. A detailed field investigation is
necessary to check this condition prior to- design
or construction phases.
[3] If the slope of the natural ground exceeds 10°
(18 percent), then the natural slope may be
unstable. A detailed field investigation is
necessary to check this condition prior to design
or construction phases.

Table 20. Minimum fill slope ratio for compacted fills. (US Forest Service, 1973).

Soil type Slope not Slope subject Minimum

subject to inundation percent
to inundation compaction
Hard, angular rock,
1.2:1 1.5:1 -
blasted or ripped
GW 1.3:1 1.8:1 90 [1]
GP, SW 1.5:1 2:1 90 [1]
GM, GC, SP 1.8:1 3:1 90 [1]
SM, SC [2] Figure 48, Soil 3 Figure 49, Soil 3 90
Figure 48, Soil 4 Figure 49, Soil 4 no control
ML, CL [2] Figure 48, Soil 4 Figure 49, Soil 4 90
Figure 48, Soil 5 Figure 49, Soil 4 no control
MH, OH [2] Figure 50, Soil 3 Figure 50, Soil 4 90
Figure 50, Soil 4 Figure 50, Soil 5 no control
[1] With no compaction control flatten slope by 25 percent.
[2] Do not use any slope steeper than 1.5:1 for these soil types.

3.2.4 Road Prism Selection

In the planning stage (Chapter 2) basic questions such as road uses, traffic volume requirements
and road standards have been decided. The road standard selected in the planning stage defines
the required travel width of the road surface. The road design process uses the travel width as a
departure point from which the necessary subgrade width is derived. The road design process
which deals with fitting a road template into the topography uses the subgrade width for cut and fill
calculations. Therefore, ditch and ballast requirements need to be defined for a given road segment
in order to arrive at the proper subgrade width or template to be used.

Example: (see also Figure 52.): Travelled road width is established at 3.0 meters. Ballast material
is pit-run rock. Shoulder slope of ballast is 2:1. Soil and traffic characteristics require 0.45 m layer of
ballast. The ditch line is to be 0.30 m deep with slopes of 1:1 and 2:1. Fill widening of 0,6 m is
added because of fill slope height.

Total subgrade width is therefore:

3.0 m traveled width

+ (2.9 shoulder
 m)
+ (0.9
ditch line
m)
+ (0.6
fill widening
m)
total subgrade
= 6.3 m
width

Figure 52. Interaction of subgrade dimension, roadwidth, ballast depth, ditch width and fill widening.

Table 21 lists various subgrade width for a 3.00 m traveled road width and different ballast depth
requirements.

Table 21. Required subgrade width (exclusive fo fill widening) as a function of road width, ballast
depth and ditch width. Roadwidth = 3.0 m, ditch = 0.9 m (1:1 and 2:1 slopes), shoulder-slopes 2:1.

Ballast Subgrade Through-

Depth Width Subgrade cut Ditch
and Ditch on both
Sides
meters
0.30 4.2 5.1 6.0
0.45 4.8 5.7 6.0
0.60 5.4 6.3 7.2
0.75 6.0 6.9 7.8

Fill widening is another factor which modifies the subgrade or template width independent of
traveled road width or ballast depth. Fill widening should be considered in cases where fills cannot
be compacted with proper equipment and where no compaction control is performed. In such cases
fill widening of 0.30 m are recommended where fill slope height is less than 2.00 m. Fill slope height
in excess of 2.00 m should have 0,60 m of fill widening (see Figure 53). Fill slope height in excess
of 6.00 m should be avoided altogether because of potential stability problems.

Hf <= 2 m add 0.30 m fill

Fill slope height
widening.
  Hf >= 2m add 0.60 m.
Maximum Fill slopeHf <= 6.00 m (unless
height engineered)

Cut slopes are inherently more stable than fill slopes. The road designer should try to minimize fill
slope length by "pushing the alignment into the hill side in order to minimize erosion. Typically this
will result in longer cut slopes and add slight to moderate cuts at the center line. The result will be a
moderate fill slope (see Figure 54) with no additional fill widening required.

Toe walls are often a feasible alternative on steep side slopes to reduce excavation and avoid end
hauling. Toe walls can be built of log cribs, gabions or large rocks (Figure 55). A proper base
foundation is excavated at the toe of the fill on which the retaining wall is constructed.
Approximately two-thirds of the subgrade would be projected into the hill side and one third would
be supported by the fill resting on the retaining structure. The reduction in excavation material,
exposed cut slope and avoided end haul is significant.

Figure 53. Fill widening added to standard subgrade width where fill height at centerline or shoulder
exceeds a critical height. Especially important if sidecast construction instead of layer construction
is used.

Figure 54. Template and general road alignment projected into the hill favoring light to moderate
cuts at centerline in order to minimize fill slope length. Fill slopes are more succeptible to erosion
and sloughing than cut slopes.
Figure 55. Illustration of the very considerable reduction in excavation made possible on a steep
slope by the use of cribbing. Crib proportions shown are suitable for log construction; if crib was
built of concrete or steel, shorter spreaders could be used in upper 3 m as indicated by the dashed
line (Kraebel, 1936).

3.3 Road Surfacing

Properly designed road surfaces serve a dual purpose. First, they provide a durable surface on
which traffic can pass smoothly and safely. If heavy all-season use is anticipated, the surface
should be designed to withstand the additional wear. Second, the road surface must protect the
subgrade by distributing surface loads to a unit pressure the subgrade can support, minimizing frost
action, and providing good surface drainage. A crowned surface of 3 to 5 cm/m of half-width will
ensure adequate movement of surface water and reduce the potential for subgrade saturation.

Improper road surfacing or ballasting affects water quality in two ways: 1) Surface material is
ground up into fines that are easily eroded. It has been demonstrated that surface loss is related to
traffic levels and time in addition to erosional forces. Larger gravels present in the road surface
must be mechanically ground up by traffic before they can be acted upon by surface erosion
processes (Armstrong, 1984).

Reid and Dunne (1984) have demonstrated the significance of traffic intensity in the mobilization of
sediment in an area of the Pacific Northwest Region of the United States which receives an average
annual rainfall of 3900 mm/yr (150 in/yr). The results from their study demonstrated that although
road segments receiving "heavy" use accounted for only a small proportion of total road length in
the basin study area (6 percent), 70 percent of the total amount of sediment generated from road
surfaces could be attributed to those segments during periods of heavy use. Reid and Dunne found
the sediment production for a paved and gravelled road to be 2.0 and 500 tonnes/km/year,
respectively (Table 22).

Table 22. Calculated sediment yield per kilometer of road for various road types and use
levels (Reid, 1981; Reid and Dunne, 1984).*

Road Type Average Sediment

Yield tonnes/km/year
Heavy use
500
(gravel)
Temporary non-
66
use (gravel)
Moderate use
42
(gravel)
Light use
3.8
(gravel)
Paved, heavy
2.0
use
Abandoned 0.51
* Road width 4 m, average grade 10%
6 culverts/km, annual precipitation 3900
mm/year

Heavy use consisted of 4 to 16, 30 tonne log-trucks per day. Temporary non-use occurred over
weekends with no log-truck traffic but occassional light vehicles. Light use was restricted to light
vehicles (less than 4 tonnes GVW).

A road surface in its simplest form consists of a smoothed surface, in effect the subgrade. Dirt roads
would fall into this category. Obviously, dirt roads are only useful where the road is expected to
receive intermittent, light use and is not affected by climate. Sediment production from dirt road
surfaces is high. Significant erosion rate reductions can be achieved by applying a rock or ballast
layer. Even a minimal rock surface of 5 to 10 cm effectively reduces erosion and sediment yield by
a factor of 9. Kochenderfer and Helvey (1984) documented soil loss reduction from 121 down to 14
tonnes per hectare per year by applying a 7.5 cm rock surface on a dirt road.
Inadequate ballast or rock layers will not provide wheel load support appropriate for the subgrade
strength except in cases where the subgrade consists of heavily consolidated materials. As a result,
the ballast material is pushed into the subsoil and ruts begin to form. Ruts prevent effective
transverse drainage, and fine soil particles are brought to the surface where they become available
for water transport. Water is channeled in the ruts and obtains velocities sufficient for effective
sediment transport. Sediment yield from rutted surfaces is about twice that of unrutted road
surfaces (Burroughs et. al., 1984).

An improvement over a simple dirt road consists of a ballast layer over a subgrade, with or without a
wearing course. The function of the ballast layer is to distribute the wheel load to pressures the
subsoil can withstand. The wearing course provides a smooth running surface and also seals the
surface to protect the subgrade from surface water infiltration. The wearing course can either be a
crushed gravel layer with fines or a bitumenous layer.

Required ballast depth or thickness not only depends on subgrade strength but also on vehicle
weight and traffic volume. The time or service life a road can support traffic without undue sediment
delivery depends on:

- soil strength
- ballast depth
- traffic volume (number of axles)
- vehicle weight (axle load)

Surface loading from wheel pressure is transmitted through the surface to the subgrade in the form
of a frustrum of a cone. Thus, the unit pressure on the subgrade decreases with increasing
thickness of the pavement structure. Average unit pressure across the entire width of subgrade for
any wheel load configuration can be calculated from the following formula:

whereP = unit pressure (kN/cm²)

  L = wheel load (kN)
r = radius of circle, equal in area
 
to tire contact area (cm)
d = depth of pavement structure
 
(cm)

A useful parameter for determining the strength of subgrade material is the California Bearing Ratio
(CBR). CBR values are indices of soil strength and swelling potential. They represent the ratio of
the resistance of a compacted soil to penetration by a test piston to penetration resistance of a
"standard material", usually compacted, crushed rock (Atkins, 1980). The range of CBR values for
natural soils is listed in Table 23 together with their suitability as subgrade material. Poorer
subgrade material requires a thicker ballast layer to withstand traffic load and volume.

Factors other than CBR values must be considered when determining the thickness of the
pavement structure. Subgrade compaction will depend upon construction methods used and the
control of moisture during compaction. Subgrade drainage effectiveness, frost penetration and frost
heave, and subgrade soil swell pressure are associated with water content in the soil and will also
affect final design thickness. To counteract these factors, a thicker, heavier pavement structure
should be designed.

Table 23. Engineering characteristics of soil groups for road construction (Pearce, 1960).

 Field Dry Frost Action Suitability
Unified Soil
CBR weight* Subgrade**
Classification
Value (kN/m³)
none to very
GW 60-80 19.6-22 excellent
slight
none to very
GP 25-60 17.3-20.4 good to excellent
slight
slight to
GM-d*** 40-80 20.4-22.8 good to excellent
medium
slight to
GM-u*** 20-40 18.9-22 good
medium
slight to
GC 20-40 18.9-22 good
medium
none to very
SW 20-40 17.3-20.4 good
slight
none to very
SP 10-25 15.7-18.9 fair
slight
SM-d*** 20-40 18.9-21.2 slight to high good
SM-u*** 10-20 16.5-20.4 slight to high fair to good
SC 10-20 16.5-20.4 slight to high fair to good
medium to
ML 5-15 15.7-19.6 fair to poor
very high
medium to
CL 5-15 15.7-19.6 fair to poor
high
medium to
OL 4-8 14.1-16.5 poor
high
medium to
MH 4-8 12.6-15.7 poor
very high
CH 3-5 14.1-17.3 medium poor to very poor
OH 3-5 12.6-16.5 medium poor to very poor
PT     slight unsuitable
* Unit dry weight for compacted soil at optimum moisture content for
modified AASTO compactive effort.
** Value as subgrade, foundation or base course (except under
bituminous) when not subject to frost action.
*** "d" = liquid limit <= 28 and plasticity index < 6; "u" = liquid limit > 28.

An alternative to the cost of a heavier pavement structure is the use of geotextile fabrics. Fabrics
have been found to be an economically acceptable alternative to conventional construction
practices when dealing with less than desirable soil material. The U. S. Forest Service has
successfully used fabrics as filters for surface drainage, as separatory features to prevent subgrade
soil contamination of base layers, and as subgrade restraining layers for weak subgrades. A useful
guide for the selection and utilization of fabrics in constructing and maintaining low volume roads is
presented by Steward, et al. (1977). This report discusses the current knowledge regarding the use
of fabrics in road construction and contains a wealth of information regarding physical properties
and costs of several brands of fabric currently marketed in the United States and abroad.

Proper thickness design of ballast layer not only helps to reduce erosion but also reduces costs by
requiring only so much rock as is actually required by traffic volume (number of axles) and vehicle
weight (axle weight-wheel loads). The principle of thickness design is based on the system
developed by AASHO (American Association of State Highway Officials) and adapted by Barenberg
et al. (1975) to soft soils. Barenberg developed a relationship between required ballast thickness
and wheel or axle loads. Soil strength can be simply measured either with a cone penetrometer or
vane shear device, such as a Torvane.

Thickness design for soft soil is based on the assumption of foundation shear failure where the
bearing capacity of the soil is exceeded. For rapid loading, such as the passage of a wheel, the
bearing capacity q is assumed to depend on cohesion only.

  q = Nc * C
wher q = Bearing capacity of a
e soil (kg/cm²)
C = Cohesive strength of
 
soil (kg/cm²).
Nc = Dimensionless
 
bearing capacity factor

Based on Barenberg's work, Steward, et al. (1977) proposed a value of 2.8 to 3.3 and 5.0 to 6.0 for
Nc. The significance of the bearing capacity q is as follows:

A. q = 2.8 C is the stress level on the subgrade at which very little rutting will occur under heavy
traffic (more than 1000 trips of 8,160 kg axle equivalencies) without fabric.

B. q = 3.3 C is the stress level at which heavy rutting will occur under light axle loadings (less than
100 trips of 8,160 kg axle equivalencies) without fabric.

C. q = 5.0 C is the stress level at which very little rafting would be expected to occur at high traffic
volumes (more than 1000 trips of 8,160 kg equivalency axles) using fabric.

D. q = 6.0 C is the stress level at which heavy rutting will occur under light axle loadings (less than
100 trips of 8,160 kg axle equivalencies) using fabric.(Heavy rutting is defined as ruts having a
depth of 10 cm or greater. Very little rutting is defined as ruts having a depth of less than 5 cm
extending into the subgrade.)

Charts relating soil strength (as measured with a vane shear device) to axle load and ballast
thickness are shown in Figure 56 through 58. Figure 56 is based on a single axle, single wheel load.
Figure 57 is based on a double wheel, single axle toad, and Figure 58 is based on a tandem wheel
configuration typical of 3 axle dump trucks or stinger type log-trucks.

It should be noted that axle and wheel configuration have a tremendous impact on the load bearing
capacity of a road. The relationship between axle load and subgrade failure is not linear. Allowing
16,000 kg axle load vehicle to use a road designed for a standard axle load of 8,200 kg, is
equivalent to 15 trips with the 8,200 kg axle load vehicle. Premature rut formation and its prevention
depends on the selection of the proper axle load and strict enforcement of the selected load
standard.

Some typical truck configurations, gross vehicle weights (GVW), and axle or wheel loads are given
in Table 24. Vehicles under 3 tonnes GVW have no measurable effect on subgrade stress and
deterioration.

Design Example
A road is to be constructed to access a watershed. Because of erosive conditions and traffic
volumes, only 5 cm of rutting can be tolerated. Expected traffic volume is high (greater than 1,000
axle loads).

Three vehicle types are using the road:

1. Utility truck - 10 tonnes GVW; 4,500 kg single wheel load (9,000 kg axle load on rear axle,
loaded).

2. Dump truck -15 tonnes GVW with two axles; (11 tonnes rear axle load or 5.5 tonnes per dual
wheel).

3. Log truck - 36 tonnes GVW with 5 axles, rear tandem axle load equals 15.9 tonnes or 7.95
tonnes per tandem wheel set.

Soil tests: Visually segment the road into logical construction segments based on soil type. Take
soil strength measurements with vane shear device. Measurements should be taken during wet soil
conditions, its weakest state. Take at least 10 vane shear readings at approximately 10 cm and 40
cm below the surface (in mineral soil). Tabulate readings in descending order from largest to
smallest value. Your design shear strength is the 25th percentile shear strength--the value at which
75 percent of the soil strength readings are higher.

Vane Shear
   
Readings
1. 0.58 kg/cm²  
2. 0.58  
3. 0.50  
4. 0.46  
5. 0.45
6. 0.45
7. 0.40  
8. 0.37  
--> 0.36 (25 percentile) - Design strength
9. 0.36
to be used in calculation.
10. 0.32  
11. 0.32  
12. 0.30  

Subgrade strength for design purpose is taken as 0.36 kg/cm².

Ballast Depth Calculation: Calculate the soil stress value without fabric for little rutting (less than 5
cm for more than 1,000 axle loads).

q = 2.8 * 0.36 = 1.01 kg/cm²

(Conversion factor: Multiply kg/cm² by 14.22 to get psi. This gives a value of 14.33 psi in this
example).

In the case of the utility truck with 4,500 kg (10,000 Ibs) wheel load, enter Figure 56 at 14.33 on the
bottom line and read upwards to the 4,500 kg (10,000 Ibs) single wheel load. A reading of 42 cm
(16.5 in.) is obtained. Since 7 - 12 cm additional ballast is needed to compensate for intrusion from
the soft subgrade, a total of 49 - 54 cm of ballast is required. When fabric is used, a factor of 5.0
(little rutting for high traffic volumes) is applied to determine the ballast depth.
 q = (5.0 * 0.36 * 14.22) + 25.6 psi

A reading of 28 cm (11 in.) is obtained from Figure 56 indicating a saving of 21-26 cm of rock when
fabric is used.

The same analysis is carried out for the other vehicles. Ballast depth required to support the other
vehicles is shown in Table 24.

Table 24. Required depth of ballast for three design vehicles. Road designed to withstand large
traffic volumes ( > 1,000 axle loads) with less than 5 cm of rutting.

Log truck
Utility truck Dump truck
Bearing 36 t GVW
10 t GVW 15 t GVW
Capacity 7,850 kg
4 500 kg 5,500 kg
q (17,500 Ibs)
(10,000 Ibs) (12,000 Ibs)
C*Nc*14.22 Tandem
Single wheel Dual wheel
wheel
  Ballast Thickness
Without*
     
Fabric
41 + 10 = 51
42 + 10 = 52 40 + 10 = 50
14.33 psi cm
cm cm
(1.01 kg/cm²)
With **
     
Fabric
25.6 psi
(1.80 31 cm 28 cm 24 cm
kg/cm²)
* 7 -12 cm additional rock is needed to compensate for
contamination from the soft subgrade.
** The fabric separates the subgrade from the ballast.
No intrusion of fines into subgrade.

The dump truck (15 t GVW) represents the most critical load and requires 52 cm of rock over the
subgrade to provide an adequate road surface. If fabric were to be used, the utility truck (10 t GVW)
would be the critical vehicle. The rock requirement would be reduced by 21 cm to 31 cm. A cost
analysis would determine if the cost of fabric is justified.

The above example shows that a simple, 2 axle truck can stress the subgrade more than a 36
tonne log truck. The engineer should consider the possibility and frequency of overloading single-
axle, single wheel trucks. Overloading a 4,500 kg (10,000 Ibs) single wheel load truck to 6,750 kg
(15,000 lb) increases the the rock requirements from 51 to 62 cm.

Figure 56. Ballast thickness curves for single wheel loads (from Steward, et al., 1977).
Conversion factors: 1 inch = 2.5 cm ; 1 kg/cm² = 14.22 psi.
Multiply (kg / cm²) with 14.22 to get (PSI)
Figure 57. Ballast thickness curves for dual wheel loads (from Steward, et al., 1977).
Conversion factors: 1 inch = 2.5 cm ; 1 kg/cm² = 14.22 psi.
Multiply (kg / cm²) with 14.22 to get (PSI)
Figure 58. Ballast thickness curves for tandem wheel loads (form Steward et al 1977).
Conversion factors: 1 inch = 2.5 cm; 1 kg/cm² = 14.22 psi.
Multiply (kg / cm²) with 14.22 to get (PSI)
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Burroughs, Jr., E. R., G. R. Chalfant and M. A. Townsend. 1976. Slope stability in road construction.
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Bureau of Land Management. 220 pp.

Prellwitz,R. W. 1975. Simplified slope design for low volume roads in mountaineous areas. in:
Low  volume roads. Proceedings, June 1975. Special Report 160. Transp. Research Board,
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., pp. 65-74.

Reid, L.  M. 1981. Sediment production from gravel-surfaced forest roads, Clearwater Basin,
Washington. Publ. FRI-UW-8108, Univ. of Washington, Seattle. 247 p.

Reid, L. M. and T. Dunne. 1984. Sediment production from forest road surfaces. Water Resources
Research 20:1753-61.

Steward, J. E., R. Williamson, and J. Mohney. 1977. Guidelines for use of fabrics in construction
and maintenance of low volume roads. Nat. Tech. Info. Svc. Springfield, VA 22161. 172 pp.

USDA, Forest Service. 1973. Transportation Engineering Handbook, Slope design guide. Handbook
No. 7709.11.

CHAPTER 4
 DRAINAGE DESIGN
4.1 General Considerations

Roads will affect the natural surface and subsurface drainage pattern of a watershed or individual
hillslope. Road drainage design has as its basic objective the reduction and/or elimination of energy
generated by flowing water. The destructive power of flowing water, as stated in Section 3.2.2,
increases exponentially as its velocity increases. Therefore, water must not be allowed to develop
sufficient volume or velocity so as to cause excessive wear along ditches, below culverts, or along
exposed running surfaces, cuts, or fills.

Provision for adequate drainage is of paramount importance in road design and cannot be
overemphasized. The presence of excess water or moisture within the roadway will adversely affect
the engineering properties of the materials with which it was constructed. Cut or fill failures, road
surface erosion, and weakened subgrades followed by a mass failure are all products of inadequate
or poorly designed drainage. As has been stated previously, many drainage problems can be
avoided in the location and design of the road: Drainage design is most appropriately included in
alignment and gradient planning.

Hillslope geomorphology and hydrologic factors are important considerations in the location, design,
and construction of a road. Slope morphology impacts road drainage and ultimately road stability.
Important factors are slope shape (uniform, convex, concave), slope gradient, slope length, stream
drainage characteristics (e.g., braided, dendritic), depth to bedrock, bedrock characteristics (e.g.,
fractured, hardness, bedding), and soil texture and permeability. Slope shape (Figure 59) gives an
indication of surface and subsurface water concentration or dispersion. Convex slopes (e.g., wide
ridges) will tend to disperse water as it moves downhill. Straight slopes concentrate water on the
lower slopes and contribute to the buildup of hydrostatic pressure. Concave slopes typically exhibit
swales and draws. Water in these areas is concentrated at the lowest point on the slope and
therefore represent the least desirable location for a road.

Hydrologic factors to consider in locating roads are number of stream crossings, side slope, and
moisture regime. For example, at the lowest point on the slope, only one or two stream crossings
may be required. Likewise, side slopes generally are not as steep, thereby reducing the amount of
excavation. However, side cast fills and drainage requirements will need careful attention since
water collected from upper positions on the slope will concentrate in the lower positions. In general,
roads built on the upper one-third of a slope have better soil moisture conditions and, therefore,
tend to be more stable than roads built on lower positions on the slope.

Natural drainage characteristics of a hillslope, as a rule, should not be changed. For example, a
drainage network will expand during a storm to include the smallest depression and draw in order to
collect and transport runoff. Therefore, a culvert should be placed in each draw so as not to impede
the natural disposition of stormflow. Culverts should be placed at grade and in line with the
centerline of the channel. Failure to do this often results in excessive erosion of soils above and
below the culvert. Also, debris cannot pass freely through the culvert causing plugging and
oftentimes complete destruction of the road prism. Headwater streams are of particular concern
(point A, Figure 60) since it is common to perceive that measurable flows cannot be generated from
the moisture collection area above the crossings. However, little or no drainage on road crossings in
these areas is notorious for causing major slide and debris torrents, especially if they are located on
convex slope breaks.

Increased risks of road failures are created at points A and B. At point A, water will pond above the
road fill or flow downslope through the roadside ditch to point B. Ponding at A may cause
weakening and/or erosion of the subgrade . If the culvert on Stream 1 plugs, water and debris will
flow to point A and from A to B. Hence, the culvert at B is handling discharge from all three streams.
If designed to minimum specifications, it is unlikely that either the ditch or the culvert at B will be
able to efficiently discharge flow and debris from all three streams resulting in overflow and possible
failure of the road at point B.

Figure 59. Slopeshape and its impact on slope hydrology. Slope shape determines
whether water is dispersed or concentrated. (US Forest Service, 1979).

A road drainage system must satisfy two main criteria if it is to be effective throughout its design life:

1. It must allow for a minimum of disturbance of the natural drainage pattern.

2. It must drain surface and subsurface water away from the roadway and dissipate it in a way
that prevents excessive collection of water in unstable areas and subsequent downstream
erosion.
The design of drainage structures is based on the sciences of hydrology and hydraulics-the former
deals with the occurrence and form of water in the natural environment (precipitation, streamflow,
soil moisture, etc.) while the latter deals with the engineering properties of fluids in motion.

Figure 60. Culvert
and road locations have modified drainage patterns of ephemeral
streams 2 and 3. Locations A and B become potential failure sites. Stream 3 is
forced to accept more water below B due to inadequate drainage at A.

4.2 Estimating runoff

Any drainage installation is sized according to the probability of occurrence of an expected peak
discharge during the design life of the installation. This, of course, is related to the intensity and
duration of rainfall events occurring not only in the direct vicinity of the structure, but also upstream
of the structure. In snow zones, peak discharge may be the result of an intense warming period
causing rapid melting of the snowpack.

In addition to considering intensity and duration of a peak rainfall event, the frequency, or how often
the design maximum may be expected to occur, is also a consideration and is most often based on
the life of the road, traffic, and consequences of failure. Primary highways often incorporate
frequency periods of 50 to 100 years, secondary roads 25 years, and low volume forest roads 10 to
25 years.

Of the water that reaches the ground in the form of rain, some will percolate into the soil to be
stored until it is taken up by plants or transported through pores as subsurface flow, some will
evaporate back into the atmosphere, and the rest will contribute to overland flow or runoff.
Streamflow consists of stored soil moisture which is supplied to the stream at a more or less
constant rate throughout the year in the form of subsurface or groundwater flow plus water which is
contributed to the channel more rapidly as the drainage net expands into ephemeral channels to
incorporate excess rainfall during a major storm event. The proportion of rainfall that eventually
becomes streamflow is dependent on the following factors:
 1. The size of the drainage area. The larger the area, the greater the volume of runoff. An
estimate of basin area is needed in order to use runoff formulas and charts.
2. Topography. Runoff volume generally increases with steepness of slope. Average slope,
basin elevation, and aspect, although not often called for in most runoff formulas and
charts, may provide helpful clues in refining a design.
3. Soil. Runoff varies with soil characteristics, particularly permeability and infiltration capacity.
The infiltration rate of a dry soil, by nature of its intrinsic permeability, will steadily decrease
with time as it becomes wetted, given a constant rainfall rate. If the rainfall rate is greater
than the final infiltration rate of the soil (infiltration capacity), that quantity of water which
cannot be absorbed is stored in depressions in the ground or runs off the surface. Any
condition which adversely affects the infiltration characteristics of the soil will increase the
amount of runoff. Such conditions may include hydrophobicity, compaction, and frozen
earth.

A number of different methods are available to predict peak flows. Flood frequency analysis is the
most accurate method employed when sufficient hydrologic data is available. For instance, the
United States Geological Survey has published empirical equations providing estimates of peak
discharges from streams in many parts of the United States based on regional data collected from
"gaged" streams. In northwest Oregon, frequency analysis has revealed that discharge for the flow
event having a 25-year recurrence interval is Most closely correlated with drainage area and
precipitation intensity for the 2-year, 24-hour storm event. This is, by far, the best means of
estimating peak flows on an ungaged stream since the recurrence interval associated with any
given flow event can be identified and used for evaluating the probability of failure.

The probability of occurrence of peak flows exceeding the design capacity of a proposed stream
crossing installation should be determined and used in the design procedure. To incorporate this
information into the design, the risk of failure over the design life must be specified. By identifying
an acceptable level of risk, the land manager is formally stating the desired level of success (or
failure) to be achieved with road drainage structures. Table 25 lists flood recurrence intervals for
installations in relation to their design life and probability of failure.

Table 23. Flood recurrence interval (years) in relation to design life and probability of
failure.* (Megahan, 1977).

Design Life Chance of Failure (%)

(years) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
  recurrence interval (years)
5 48 23 15 10 8 6 5
10 95 45 29 20 15 11 9
15 100+ 68 43 30 22 17 13
20 100+ 90 57 40 229 22 17
25 200+ 100+ 71 49 37 28 21
30 200+ 100+ 85 59 44 33 25
40 300+ 100+ 100+ 79 58 44 34
50 400+ 200+ 100+ 98 73 55 42
* Based on formula P = 1 - (1 -1/T)n, where n = design life
(years), T = peak flow recurrence interval (years), P = chance of
failure (%).

EXAMPLE: If a road culvert is to last 25 years with a 40% chance of failure during the design life, it
should be designed for a 49-year peak flow event (i.e., 49-year recurrence interval).
When streamflow records are not available, peak discharge can be estimated by the "rational"
method or formula and is recommended for use on channels draining less than 80 hectares (200
acres):

Q = 0.278 C i A

where: Q = peak discharge, (m3/s)

i = rainfall intensity (mm/hr) for
 
a critical time period
  A = drainage area (km²).

(In English units the formula is expressed as:

Q=CiA

where: Q = peak discharge (ft3/s)

i = rainfall intensity (in/hr) for a
 
critical time period, tc
  A = drainage area (acres).

The runoff coefficient, C, expresses the ratio of rate of runoff to rate of rainfall and is shown below in
Table 26. The variable tc is the time of concentration of the watershed (hours).

Table 26. Values of relative imperviousness for use in rational formula. (American Iron

and Steel Institute, 1971).

Type of Surface Factor C

Sandy soil, flat, 2% 0.05-0.10
Sandy soil, average, 2-7% 0.10-0.15
Sandy soil, steep, 7 0.15-0.20
Heavy soil, flat, 2% 0.13-0.22
Heavy soil, average, 2-7% 0.18-0.22
Heavy soil, steep, 7% 0.25-0.35
Asphaltic pavements 0.80-0.95
Concrete pavements 0.70-0.95
Gravel or macadam pavements 0.35-0.70

Numerous assumptions are necessary for use of the rational formula: (1) the rate of runoff must
equal the rate of supply (rainfall excess) if train is greater than or equal to tc; (2) the maximum
discharge occurs when the entire area is contributing runoff simultaneously; (3) at equilibrium, the
duration of rainfall at intensity I is t = tc; (4) rainfall is uniformly distributed over the basin; (5)
recurrence interval of Q is the same as the frequency of occurrence of rainfall intensity I; (6) the
runoff coefficient is constant between storms and during a given storm and is determined solely by
basin surface conditions. The fact that climate and watershed response are variable and dynamic
explain much of the error associated with the use of this method.

Manning's formula is perhaps the most widely used empirical equation for estimating discharge
since it relies solely on channel characteristics that are easily measured. Manning's formula is:

Q = n-1 A R2/3 S1/2

where: Q = discharge (m3/s)
A = cross sectional area of the
stream (m²)
R = hydraulic radius (m),
(area/wetted perimeter of the
channel)
S = slope of the water surface
n = roughness coefficient of the
channel.

(In English units, Manning's equation is:

Q = 1.486 n-1 A R2/3 S1/2

where Q = discharge (cfs)

A = cross sectional area of
the stream (ft2)
R = hydraulic radius (ft)
S = slope of the water
surface
n = roughness coefficient
of the channel.)

Values for Manning's roughness coefficient are presented in Table 27.

Table 27. Manning's n for natural stream channels (surface width at flood stage less
than 30 m) (Highway Task Force, 1971).

Natural stream channels n

1. Fairly regular section:  
0.030 -
Some grass and weeds, little or no brush
0.035
0.035 -
Dense growth of weeds, depth of flow materially greater than weed height
0.050
0.050 -
Some weeds, light brush on banks
0.070
0.060 -
Some weeds, heavy brush on banks
0.080
0.010 -
Some weeds, dense willows on banks
0.020
For trees within channel, with branches submerged at high stage, 0.010 -
increase above values by 0.020
2. Irregular sections, with pools, slight channel meander; increase values 0.010 -
given above by 0.020
3. Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel, banks usually steep, trees
 
and brush along banks submerged at high stage:
0.040 -
Bottom of gravel, cobbles, and few boulders
0.050
0.050 -
Bottom of cobbles with large boulders
0.070
Figure 61. Determining high water levels for measurement of stream channel
dimensions.

Area and wetted perimeter are determined in the field by observing high water marks on the
adjacent stream banks (Figure 61). Look in the stream bed for scour effect and soil discoloration.
Scour and soil erosion found outside the stream channel on the floodplains may be caused by the
10-year peak flood. Examining tree trunks and brush in the channel and floodplain may reveal small
floatable debris hung up in the vegetation. Log jams are also a good indication of flood marks
because their age can be estimated and old, high log jams will show the high watermark on the
logs. The difficulty in associating high water marks with flow events of a specified recurrence
interval makes values obtained by this method subject to gross inaccuracy. If the 10-year flood can
be determined, flow levels for events with a higher recurrence interval can be determined roughly
from Table 28.

Table 28. Relationship of peak flow with different return periods. (Nagy, et al, 1980).

Peak flow return Factor of flood intensity

period (years) (10-year peak flow = 1.00)
10 1.00
25 1.25
50 1.50
100 1.80

A key assumption in the use of Manning's equation is that uniform steady flow exists. It is doubtful
that high gradient forested streams ever exhibit this condition. (Campbell, et al., 1982) When
sufficient hydrologic data is lacking, however, Manning's equation, together with observations of
flow conditions in similar channels having flow and/or precipitation records, provide the best
estimate of stream discharge for purposes of designing stream crossings. An example illustrating
the use of Manning's equation to calculate peak discharge is as follows:

EXAMPLE: A trapezoidal channel of straight alignment and uniform cross section has a bottom
width of 10 meters, side slopes 1:1, channel slope 0.003, and high water depth (25-year event) of 5
meters. The channel has weeds and heavy brush along its banks.
1. The wetted perimeter is equal to 10 + 2(5 / cos 45°) = 24.1 m.

2. The cross sectional area is equal to 1/2 x sum of parallel sides x perpendicular height = 0.5(10 +
20)(5) = 75 m².

3. The hydraulic radius is cross sectional area + wetted perimeter = 75 / 24.1 = 3.1 m.

4. Manning's n from Table 25 is n = 0.06

5. Discharge, Q, from Manning's equation = (0.06)-1 (75)(3.1)2/3 (0.003)1/2 = 146 m3/sec

(Velocity, if needed, can be computed by Q / A = 1.9 m/sec.)

4.3 Channel Crossings

4.3.1 Location of Channel Crossings

Channel crossings require careful design and construction. Functionally, they must (1) allow for
passage of the maximum amount of water which can reasonably be expected to occur within the
lifetime of the structure and (2) not degrade water quality or endanger the structure itself or any
downstream structures. It should be pointed out that most road failures are related to inadequate
water passage structures and fill design and placement as well as poor construction practices in
such locations.

Accelerated erosion brought about by failure of channel crossing structures can be caused by:

1. Inadequate design to handle peak flow and debris. Water will back up behind structure,
saturating the fill and creating added hydrostatic pressure. Water will overflow the structure
and the fill may be washed out.
2. Inadequate outlet design. By constricting flow through a small area, water velocity (along
with its erosive power) will increase. Outlets need to be properly designed in order to
withstand high flow velocities and thus avoid excessive downstream erosion and eventual
road failure.
3. Poor location of crossing. Crossings need to be located along relatively stable stretches
where stream bottoms and banks exhibit little signs of excessive erosion or deposition.
Meandering and/or multiple channels often indicate unstable conditions. If there is no
choice but to use a poor location, careful consideration of the type of crossing selected,
along with bank and stream bottom stabilization and protection measures, should be given.

There are three generally accepted methods used to cross channels on low volume roads--bridges,
fords, and culverts. The selection is based on traffic volume and characteristics, site conditions
(hydrologic/hydraulic conditions of channel), and management needs such as occasional closure,
continuous use, safety considerations, resource impact (fish, wildlife, sediment). Factors to consider
when selecting a crossing type are listed as follows:

1. Bridges: high traffic volume, large and variable water volume, high debris-potential,
sensitive channel bottom and banks, significant fish resource, large elevation difference
between channel and road grade
2. Culvert: Medium to low water volume, medium to low debris potential, fish resource not
significant, elevation difference between channel and road grade less than 10 meters, high
traffic volume
3. Ford: low to intermittent water flow, high debris potential, no fish resource, road grade can
be brought down to channel bottom, low traffic volume
All three channel crossing types require a careful analysis of both vertical and horizontal alignment.
In particular, careful analysis of curve widening requirements is imperative in relation to the
specified critical vehicle. Channel crossings are fixed structures where the road way width cannot
be temporarily widened. Road width, curvature, approach, and exit tangents govern the vehicle
dimensions which can pass the crossing.

Except for bridge locations, roads should climb away from channel crossings in both directions
wherever practical so high water will not flow along the road surface. This is particularly true for ford
installations.

4.3.2 Fords

Fords are a convenient way to provide waterway crossing in areas subject to flash floods, seasonal
high storm runoff peaks, or frequent heavy passage of debris or avalanches. Debris will simply
wash over the road structure. After the incident, some clearing may be necessary to allow for
vehicle passage. Figure 62 shows a very simple ford construction where rock-filled gabions are
used to provide a road bed through the stream channel.

Figure 62. Ford construction stabilized by gabions placed on the downstream

end. (Megahan, 1977).

There are some design considerations which need careful attention:

1. The ford should allow for passage of debris and water without diverting it onto the road surface.
The ford results in a stream bed gradient reduction. Therefore, debris has a tendency to be
deposited on top of a ford because of reduced flow velocity.

2. Fords should be designed with steep, short banks which help to confine and channel the stream
(Figure 63). The steepness and length of the adverse grade out of ford depends on the anticipated
debris and water handling capacity required as well as vehicle geometry (See Chapter 3.1.3).
Typically, the design vehicle should be able to pass the ford without difficulty. Critical vehicles
(vehicles which have to use the road, but only very infrequently) may require a temporary fill to
allow passage.

Figure 63. Profile
view of stream crossing with a ford. A dip in the adverse grade
provides channeling preventing debris accumulation from diverting the stream on
to and along the road surface. The profile of the ford along with vehicle dimensions
must be considered to insure proper clearance and vehicle passage. (After Kuonen,
1983)

An alternative to the above described ford is a "hardened" fill with culvert (Figure 64). This approach
is an attractive alternative for crossing streams which are prone to torrents. The prevailing low flow
conditions are handled by a small culvert and the occasional flash flood or debris avalanche will
simply wash over the road surface. The fill surface has to be hardened either by concrete or large
rock able to withstand the tremendous kinetic energy associated with floods and torrents. Vertical
curve design through the stream has to include an adverse grade as discussed for the typical ford.

Figure 64. Hardened fill stream crossings provide an attractive alternative for

streams prone to torrents or debris avalanches (Amimoto, 1978).
4.3.3. Culverts

Culverts are by far the most commonly used channel crossing structure used on forest roads.
Culvert types normally used, and the conditions under which they are used, areas follows:

Corrugated metal pipe (CMP) ........................................ All conditions except those noted below

CMP with paved invert .................................................. Water carries sediments erosive to metal

CM pipe-arch .............................................................. Low fills; limited head room

Multi-plate .................................................................. Large sizes (greater than 1.8 meters)

Reinforced concrete pipe (RCP) ....................................Corrosive soil or water, as salt water; short
haul from plant; unloading and placing equipment available

Reinforced concrete box .............................................. Extra large waterway; migratory fish way

Although more expensive than round culverts, pipe-arch or plate arch types are preferred over
ordinary round pipes. Pipe-arch culverts, beers having a more efficient opening per unit area than
round pipe for a given discharge, will collect bottom sediments over time when it is installed slightly
below the stream grade. They also require lower fills. However, during periods of low flow, water in
pipes with this shape may be spread so thin across the bottom that fish passage is impossible. A
plate-arch set in concrete footings is the most desirable type from a fish passage standpoint since it
has no bottom. The stream can remain virtually untouched if care is exercised during its installation.
(Yee and Roelofs, 1980)

Regardless of the type of culvert, they should all conform to proper design standards with regards to
alignment with the channel, capacity, debris control, and energy dissipation. They should all perform
the following functions:

1. The culvert with its appurtenant entrance and outlet structures should efficiently discharge
water, bedload, and floating debris at all stages of flow.
2. It should cause no direct or indirect property damage.
3. It should provide adequate transport of water, debris, and sediment without drastic changes
in flow patterns above or below the structure.
4. It should be designed so that future channel, and highway improvements can be made
without much difficulty.
5. It should be designed to function properly after fill has settled.
6. It should not cause objectionable stagnant pools in which mosquitoes could breed.
7. It should be designed to accommodate increased runoff occasioned by anticipated land
development.
8. It should be economical to build, hydraulically adequate to handle design discharge,
structurally durable, and easy to maintain.
9. It should be designed to avoid excessive ponding at the entrance which may cause
property damage, accumulation of sediment, culvert clogging, saturation of fills, or
detrimental upstream deposits of debris.
10. Entrance structures should be designed to screen out material which will not pass through
the culvert, reduce entrance losses to a minimum, make use of velocity of approach insofar
as practical, and by use of transitions and increased slopes, as necessary, facilitate
channel flow entering the culvert.
11. The outlet design should be effective in re-establishing tolerable non-erosive channel flow
within the right-of-way or within a reasonably short distance below the culvert, and should
resist undercutting and washout.
12. Energy dissipators should be simple, easy to build, economical and reasonably self-
cleaning during periods of low flow.
13. Alignment should be such that water enters and exits the culvert directly. Any abrupt
change in direction at either end will retard flow and cause ponding, erosion, or a buildup of
debris at the culvert entrance. All of these conditions could lead to failure. (See Figure 65
for suggested culvert-channel alignment configurations and Figure 66 for suggested culvert
grades. In practice, culvert grade lines generally coincide with the average streambed
above and below the culvert.)

Figure 65. Possible culvert alignments to minimize channel scouring. (USDA, Forest

Service, 1971).
Figure 66. Proper culvert grades. (Highway Task Force, 1971).
If there are existing roads in the watershed, examination of the performance of existing culverts
often serves as the best guide to determining the type, size, and accompanying inlet/outlet
improvements needed for the proposed stream crossing. For estimating streamflow on many forest
watersheds, existing culvert installations may be used as "control sections". Flow can be calculated
as the product of water velocity (V) and cross-sectional area (A):

Q=A*V

Cross-sectional area of water flowing in a round- culvert is difficult to measure, however a rough
estimate can be calculated from the following equation:

where
r = culvert radius
:
  d = measured depth of flow
  ß = angle (°) between radial lines to the bottom of the
 culvert and to the water surface (Figure 62)
  = cos-1 [(r-d) / r]

Figure 67. Definition sketch of variables used in flow calculations.

Velocity can be calculated using Manning's equation:

V = Q / A = (n-1) (R2/3) (S1/2)

wher
S = slope  
e:
n = Manning's roughness
   
coefficient
R = hydraulic radius
   
(meters)
(see
  Figur
e 67)

Values for coefficient of roughness (n) for culverts are given in Table 29.

Table 29. Values for coefficient of roughness (n) for culverts. (Highway Task

Force,1971).

Annular
Culvert
  corrugations (in) n
diameter (ft)*
*
corrugate
1 to 8 2-2/3 x 1/2 0.024
d metal
  3 to 8 3x1 0.027
concrete all diameters --- 0.012
* 1ft = 0.30 m, 1 in. = 2.54 cm

The types of flow conditions found in conventional circular pipes and pipe-arch culverts are
illustrated in Figure 68. Under inlet control, the cross-sectional area of the barrel, the inlet
configuration or geometry, and the amount of headwater or ponding are of primary importance.
Under outlet control, tailwater depth in the outlet channel and slope, roughness, and length of the
barrel are also considered. The flow capacity of most culverts installed in forested areas is usually
determined by the characteristics of the inlet since nearly any pipe that has a bottom slope of 1.5%
or greater will exhibit inlet control. At slopes of 3% or greater, the culvert can become self-cleaning
of sediment.

Figure 68. Hydraulics of culverts. (Highway Task Force, 1971).

Once the design peak discharge has been determined by one of the methods discussed above, the
size of pipe required to handle the discharge can be determined from available equations, charts,
tables, nomographs, etc., such as the ones presented in Figures 70, 71, 72, 73 and 74. Figure 69
provides an example of a work sheet which can be used for diameter and flow capacity calculations.
If outlet control is indicated (for example, in a low gradient reach where "backwater effects" may be
created at the outlet end), the reader is referred to Handbook of Steel Drainage and Highway
Construction Products (1971) or Circular No. 5 published by the U. S. Department of Commerce
(1963). Outlet control conditions are shown in Figure 74 for a corrugated metal pipe.

It is important to keep in mind that in addition to discharge from areas upstream of the installation,
the culvert must be able to handle accumulated water from roadside ditches recalling that roadside
ditches on roads lower on the slope intercept more subsurface water than those on roads higher on
the slope. Sudden surges from rapid snowmelt (if applicable) must also be allowed for. Organic
debris and bedload sediments can plug a culvert and can greatly reduce culvert efficiency. For
these reasons, an "oversized" culvert design may be indicated.

Inlet characteristics can greatly influence flow efficiency through the culvert. The end either (1)
projects beyond the fill, (2) is flush with a headwall, or (3) is supplemented with a manufactured
mitered steel end section. Inlets with headwalls are generally the most efficient followed by culverts
with mitered inlets and finally culverts with projecting entrances. When headwater depths are 1 to 2
times greater than culvert diameter, culverts with headwalls have an increase in flow capacity of
approximately 11 and 15%, respectively, over culverts with projecting entrances.

Procedure for Selection of Culvert Size

Note: Culvert design sheets, similar to Figure 69 should be used to record design data.
Step 1: List given data:

a. Design discharge Q, in m3/sec.

b. Approximate length of culvert, in meters.

c. Allowable headwater depth, in meters. Headwater depth is defined as the vertical distance from
the culvert invert (flow line) at the entrance to the water surface elevation permissible in the
approach channel upstream from the culvert.

d. Type of culvert, including barrel material, barrel cross-sectional shape and entrance type.

e. Slope of culvert. (If grade is given in percent, convert to slope in meters per meter).

f. Allowable outlet velocity (if scour or fish passage is a concern).

g. Convert metric units to english units for use with the nomographs.

Volume flow Q(m3/sec) to Q(cfs) : 1 m3/sec = 35.2 cfs (cubic ft/sec). Multiply Q(m3/sec) by 35.2 to
get Q(cfs)

Length, Diameter (meter) : 1 meter = 3.3 ft.; 1 cm = 0.4 inches. Multiply (cm) by 0.4 to get (inches).
Multiply (meter) by 3.3 to get (feet)

Step 2: Determine a trial size culvert:

a. Refer to the inlet control nomograph for the culvert type selected.

b. Using an HW/D (Headwater depth/Diameter)) of approximately 1.5 and the scale for the entrance
type to be used, find a trial size culvert by following the instructions for use of the nomographs. If a
lesser or greater relative headwater depth should be needed, another value of HW/D may be used.

c. If the trial size for the culvert is obviously too large because of limited height of embankment or
size availability, try different HW/D values or multiple culverts by dividing the discharge equally for
the number of culverts used. Raising the embankment height or using a pipe arch and box culvert
which allow for lower fill heights is more efficient hydraulically than using the multiple culvert
approach. Given equal end areas, a pipe arch will handle a larger flow than two round culverts.
Selection should be based on an economic analysis.

Step 3: Find headwater (HW) depth for the trial size culvert:

a. Determine and record. HW depth by use of the appropriate inlet control nomograph. Tailwater
(TW) conditions are to be neglected in this determination. HW in this case is found by simply
multiplying HW/D (obtained from the nomograph) by D.

Step 4: Check outlet velocities for size selected:

a. If inlet control governs, outlet velocity can be assumed to equal normal velocity in open-channel
flow as computed by Manning's equation for the barrel size, roughness, and slope of culvert
selected.
 Note: In computing outlet velocities, charts and tables such as those provided by U.S. Army
Corp of Engineers, Bureau of Reclamation, and Department of Commerce are helpful (see
Literature Cited).

Step 5: Try a culvert of another type or shape and determine size and HW by the above procedure.

Step 6: Record final selection of culvert with size, type, outlet velocity, required HW and economic
justification. A good historical record of culvert design, installation, and performance observations
can be a valuable tool in planning and designing future installations.

Instructions for Usinq Inlet Control Nomographs

1. To determine headwater (HW):

a. Connect with a straight edge the given culvert diameter or height (D) and the discharge Q, or Q/B
for box culverts; mark intersection of straightedge on HW/D scale mark (1).

b. If HW/D scale mark (1) represents entrance type used, read HW/D on scale (1). If some other
entrance type is used, extend the point of intersection found in (a) horizontally to scale (2) or (3) and
read HW/D.

c. Compute HW by multiplying HW/D by D.

2. To determine culvert size:

a. Given an HW/D value, locate HW/D on scale for appropriate entrance type. If scale (2) or (3) is
used, extend HW/D point horizontally to scale (1).

b. Connect point on HW/D scale (1) as found in (a) above to given discharge and read diameter of
culvert required.

3. To determine discharge (Q):

a. Given HW and D, locate HW/D on scale for appropriate entrance type. Continue as in 2a.

b. Connect point on HW/D scale (1) as found in (a) above, the size of culvert on the left scale, and
read Q or Q/B on the discharge scale.

c. If Q/B is read in (b) multiply by B to find Q.

Good installation practices are essential for proper functioning of culverts, regardless of the material
used in the construction of the culvert (Figure 75). Flexible pipe such as aluminum, steel, or
polyethylene, requires good side support and compaction, particularly in the larger sizes. It is
recommended that the road be constructed to grade or at least a meter above the top of the pipe,
the fill left to settle and then excavated to form the required trench.

The foundation dictates if bedding is needed or not. Proper foundation maintains the conduit on a
uniform grade. Most times, the culvert can be laid without bedding, however; a few centimeters of
bedding helps in installation of the culvert. When bedding is required, the depth should be 8 cm if
the foundation material is soil and 30 cm if it is rock.
Backfilling is the most important aspect of culvert installation. Ten percent of the loading is taken by
the pipe and 90 percent is taken by the material surrounding the pipe if backfilling is done correctly.
Backfill material should consist of earth, sand, gravel, rock or combinations thereof, free of humus,
organic matter, vegetative matter, frozen material, clods, sticks and debris and containing no stones
greater than 8 cm (3 in) in diameter. It should be placed in layers of no greater than 15 cm (6 in)
and compacted up to 95% of Proctor density at or near the optimum moisture content for the
material.

Figure 69. Sample work sheet for culvert dimension determination.

SUMMARY & RECOMMENDATIONS: Velocities read from chart 46,

47 - ''Design Charts for Open Channel Flow". (see p. 5-14). Velocities
as read from charts are about the same for each size, indicating change
in size has little effect. Size selected would be based on accuracy of
flood estimate. If 180 c.f.s. is conservative, select 54". Note that TW
must be greater than 10.1' for outlet control to govern for 54" pipe
flowing 180 c.f.s. This points out that accuracy in estimating TW depths
is unnecessary in some cases.

Figure 70. Nomograph for concrete pipes inlet control (U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1963).

Figure 71. Nomograph for corrugated metal pipe (CMP), inlet control. (U.S. Dept. of
Commerce, 1963).
Figure 72. Nomograph for corrugated metal arch pipe (CMP), inlet control. (U.S. Dept.
of Commerce, 1963).
Figure 73. Nomograph for box - culvert, inlet control. (U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1963).
Figure 74. Nomograph for corrugated metal pipe (CMP), outlet control. (U.S. Dept. of
Commerce,1963).
Figure 75. Proper pipe foundation and bedding (1 ft. = 30 cm). (USDA, Forest Service,
1971).
4.3.4 Debris Control Structures

A critical factor in the assessment of channel crossing design and structural capacity is its
allowance for handling or passing debris. Past experience has shown that channel crossings have
failed not because of inadequate design to handle unanticipated water flows, but because of
inadequate allowances for floatable debris which eventually blocked water passage through the
culvert. Therefore, each channel crossing has to be analyzed for its debris handing capacity.

When upstream organic debris poses an immediate threat to the integrity of the culvert, several
alternatives may be considered.

1. Cleaning the stream of floatable debris is risky and expensive. Since many of the hydraulic
characteristics of the channel are influenced by the size and placement of debris, its
removal must be carried out only after a trained specialist, preferably a hydrologist, has
made a site-specific evaluation of channel stability factors.
2. Various types of mechanical structures (Figures 76, 77 and 78) can be placed above the
inlet to catch any debris that may become entrained.
3. A bridge may be substituted in place of a culvert.
Figure 76. Debris control structure--cribbing made of timber.

Figure 77. Debris control structure--trash rack made of steel rail (I-beam) placed
over inlet.
Figure 78. Inletand outlet protection of culvert with rip-rap. Rocks used should
typically weigh 20 kg or more and approximately 50 percent of the rocks should be
larger than 0.1 m3 in volume. Rocks can also be replaced with cemented sand
layer (1 part cement, 4 parts sand).
Under high fills, inlets can be provided with upstream protection by rock riprap up to the high water
mark (Figure 78). Cambering may also be necessary to ensure the proper grade after fill settlement.

4.3.5. Bridges

Bridges often represent the preferred channel crossing alternative in areas where aquatic resources
are extremely sensitive to disturbance. However, poor location of footings, foundations, or
abutments can cause channel scour and contribute to debris blockage.

Bridges have been designed using a variety of structural materials for substructure and
superstructure. Selection of a bridge type for a specific site should take into consideration the
functional requirements of the site, economics of construction at that site, live load requirements,
foundation conditions, maintenance evaluations, and expertise of project engineer.

Some arbitrary rules for judging the minimum desirable horizontal and vertical stream clearances in
streams not subject to navigation may be established for a specific area based on judgment and
experience. In general, vertical clearances should be greater than or equal to 1.5 meters (5 feet)
above the 50-year flood level plus 0.02 times the horizontal distance between piers. Horizontal
clearance between piers or supports in forested lands or crossings below forested lands should not
be less than 85 percent of the anticipated tree height in the forested lands or the lateral width of the
50-year flood. (US Environmental Protection Agency, 1975)
Of course, longer bridge spans will require careful economic evaluations since higher
superstructure costs are often involved. Subaqueous foundations are expensive and involve a high
degree of skill in the construction of protective cofferdams, seal placement and cofferdam
dewatering. In addition to threats to water quality that can occur from a lost cofferdam, time and
money losses will be significant. Subaqueous foundations often limit the season of construction
relative to water level and relative to fish spawning activity. Thus, construction timing must be rigidly
controlled.

It is suggested that the maximum use be made of precast or prefabricated superstructure units
since the remoteness of many mountain roads economically precludes bridge construction with
unassembled materials that must be transported over great distances. However, the use of such
materials may be limited by the capability to transport the units over narrow, high curvature roads to
the site, or by the horizontal geometry of the bridge itself.

Another alternative is the use of locally available timber for log stringer bridges. An excellent
reference for the design and construction of single lane log bridges is Log Bridge Construction
Handbook, by M. M. Nagy, et al., and is published by the Forest Engineering Research Institute of
Canada. The reader is referred to this publication for more detailed discussions of these topics.

4.4 Road Surface Drainage

4.4.1 Surface Sloping

Reducing the erosive power of water can achieved by reducing its velocity. If, for practical reasons,
water velocity cannot be reduced, surfaces must be hardened or protected as much as possible to
minimize erosion from high velocity flows. Road surface drainage attempts to remove the surface
water before it accelerates to erosive velocities and/or infiltrates into the road prism destroying soil
strength by increasing pore water pressures. This is especially true for unpaved, gravel, or dirt
roads.

Water moves across the road surface laterally or longitudinally. Lateral drainage is achieved by
crowning or by in- or out- sloping of road surfaces (Figure 79). Longitudinal water movement is
intercepted by dips or cross drains. These drainage features become important on steep grades or
on unpaved roads where ruts may channel water longitudinally on the road surface.

Figure 79. Road cross section grading patterns used to control surface drainage.
Table 30. Effect
of in-sloping on sediment yield of a graveled, heavily used road
segment with a 10 % down grade for different cross slopes *

Transverse Sediment
grade Delivery
tonnes/ha/year
conventional
970
0-2%
5% 400
9% 300
12 % 260
* 4 meter wide road surface
4 - 16 trucks/day
3900 mm annual precipitation

Sloping or crowning significantly reduces sediment delivery from road surfaces. A study by Reid
(1981) showed a reduction in sediment delivery by increasing the transverse road surface grade. In
this particular case the road surfaces insloped from 5 to 12 percent were compared with
conventionally constructed road surfaces at grades of 0 to 2 percent. Sediment yield was reduced
by a factor of 3.0 to 4.5 when compared to a conventionally sloped road (Table 30).

Outsloping is achieved by grading the surface at 3 to 5 percent cross slope toward the downhill
side of the road. Outsloped roads are simple to build and to maintain. Disadvantages of outsloping
include traffic safety concerns and lack of water discharge control. When surfaces become slippery
(i.e., snow or ice cover, or when silty or clayey surfaces become wet), vehicles may lose traction
and slide toward the downhill edge. Outsloping should only be used under conditions where run-off
can be directed onto stable areas. If terrain is less than 20 percent slope and the road gradient is
less than 4 percent, outsloping is not an effective way of water removal.

Temporary roads or roads with very light traffic can be outsloped where side slopes do not exceed
40 percent. For safety reasons, when side slopes exceed 40 percent, traffic restrictions should be in
force during inclement weather. When outsloping is used for surface drainage, cross drains or dips
should be installed on the road surface (Figure 75). Spacing will depend on soil type, road surface
and road grade.

Insloping is used where a more reliable drainage system is required such as on permanent roads,
roads with high anticipated traffic volumes and/or loads, or in areas with sensitive soils or severe
climatic conditions. Insloping is achieved by grading the road surface towards the uphill side of the
road at a 3 to 5 percent grade. Water draining from insloped road surfaces is collected and carried
along the inside of the road either on the road surface itself or more commonly in a ditch line. The
ditch line can be omitted from the road template, thereby reducing the overall road width. This may
be desirable in steep terrain in order to reduce excavation (see also Section 3.2). However, this
option must be weighed against potential drainage problems along the uphill side of the road. Dips,
cross drains, or culverts must be installed and maintained to remove water from the road prism.

Crowned surfaces provide the fastest water removal since the distance water has to travel is cut in
half. The crowned surface slopes at 3 to 10 percent from either side of the road centerline. Crowned
surfaces and any associated cross drains or dips are difficult to maintain. Water has to be controlled
on both sides of the road through a ditch line and stable areas have to be provided for runoff water.
Ballast thickness is typically the largest in the center in order to achieve the correct crown shape.

4.4.2 Surface Cross Drains

Cross drains are often needed to intercept the longitudinal, or down-road, flow of water in order to
reduce and/or minimize surface erosion. In time, traffic will cause ruts to form, channeling surface
water longitudinally down the road. Longitudinal or down-road flow of water becomes increasingly
important with:

- increasing grades
- rutting frequency
- road surface protection

Figure 80. Design of outsloped dips for forest roads. A to C, slope about 10 to 15 cm

to assure lateral flow; B, no material accumulated at this point - may require
surfacing to prevent cutting; D, provide rock rip-rap to prevent erosion; E, berm to
confine outflow to 0.5 m wide spillway. (Megahan, 1977).
Figure 81. Design of insloped dips for forest roads. A to C, slope about 10 to 15 cm
to assure lateral flow; B, no material accumulated at this point - may require
surfacing to prevent cutting; D, provide rock rip-rap to prevent erosion; E, berm to
prevent overflow; F, culvert to carry water beneath road; G, widen for ditch and
pipe inlet (Megahan, 1977).

There are three types of cross drains used for intercepting road surface water: intercept-ing or
rolling dips, open top culverts, and cross ditches. Cross drains serve a dual purpose. First they must
intercept longitudinal road surface flow, and second they must carry ditch water across the road
prism at a frequency interval small enough to prevent concentration of flow. Ditch relief is discussed
in more detail in section 4.4.3 and 4.4.4.

Intercepting dips (Figures 80 and 81) when properly constructed, are cheaper to maintain and
more permanent than open-top culverts. However, their usefulness is limited to road grades less
than 10 percent. At steeper grades, they become difficult to construct and maintain.

Dip locations are determined at the time the grade line is established on the ground or during
vertical alignment design. The total length of the two vertical curves comprising the dip should be
sufficient to allow the design vehicle to pass safely over them at the design speed. The minimum
vertical distance between the crest and sag of the curves should be at least 30 cm (1 ft). It is
important that the dip be constructed at a 30 degree or greater angle downgrade and that the dips
have an adverse slope on the downroad side. The downroad side of the dip should slope gently
downward from the toe of the road cut to the shoulder of the fill. The discharge point of the dip
should be armored with rock or equipped with a down-drain to prevent erosion of the fill. Equipment
operators performing routine maintenance should be aware of the presence and function of the dips
so that they are not inadvertently destroyed.

Open top culverts are most effective on steeper road grades. Open top culverts (Figure 82) can be
made of durable treated lumber or poles or they may be prefabricated from corrugated, galvanized
steel. The trough should be 7 to 10 cm (3 to 4 in) wide and from 10 to 20 cm (4 to 8 in) deep. The
gradient required in order for open top culverts to be self cleaning is 4 percent or greater and, as
with dips, they should be angled 30 degrees downslope. In order to maintain their functionality they
should be inspected and cleaned on a frequent and regular basis.

Figure 82. Installationof an open-top culvert. Culverts should be slanted at 30

degrees downslope to help prevent plugging. Structure can be made of corrugated
steel, lumber or other, similar material. (Darrach, et al., 1982).

Figure 83. Cross ditch construction for forest roads with limited or no traffic.
Specifications are generalized and may be adjusted for gradient and other
conditions. A, bank tie-in point cut 15 to 30 cm into roadbed; B, cross drain berm
height 30 to 60 cm above road bed; C, drain outlet 20 to 40 cm into road; D, angle
drain 30 to 40 degrees downgrade with road centerline; E, height up to 60 cm, F,
depth to 45 cm; G, 90 to 120 cm. (Megahan, 1977).
Cross ditches or water bars, are typically used on temporary roads. They are the easiest and most
inexpensive method for cross drain installation (Figure 83). However, they impede traffic, wear out
quickly, and are difficult to maintain and are, therefore, not recommended except on very low
standard roads. In order to be effective, the cross ditch should be excavated into the mineral soil or
subgrade and not just into the dirt or surface layer. Water bars should be installed at a 30 degree
angle to the centerline of the road, and ditch and berm should be carefully extended to the cut bank
in order to avoid ditch water bypass. A berm should be placed in the cut bank ditch to divert water
into the cross ditch. Care should be taken that the berm and ditch is not beaten or trampled down
by traffic or livestock.

Spacing requirements for surface cross drains depend on road grade, surfacing material, rain
intensities, and slope and aspect. Spacing guides for surface cross drains are given in Table 31.

Table 31. Cross drain spacing required to prevent rill or gully erosion deeper than
2.5 cm on unsurfaced logging roads built in the upper topographic position [1] of
north-facing slopes [2] having gradient of 80 % [3] (Packer, 1967).

Road Material
Grade ( Hard Basa Granit Glaci Andesit Loes
%) sedime lt e al e s
nt silt
  Cross drain spacing, m
2 51 47 42 41 32 29
4 46 42 38 37 27 24
6 44 40 35 34 25 22
8 42 38 33 32 23 20
10 39 35 29 29 20 17
12 36 32 27 27 17 15
14 33 29 24 23 14 11
[1]. In middle topographic position, reduce spacing 5.5
m; in lower topographic position, reduce spacings 11
m.
[2]. On south aspects, reduce spacings 4.6m.
[3]. For each 10% decrease in slope steepness below
80%, reduce spacing 1.5m.

A Japanese open-top culvert spacing guide uses road grade as input (Figure 84) On steep grades,
spacing is similar to data given in Table 30. However, on gentler grades (2 - 8%), the Japanese
spacing guide provides for considerably wider spacings. This is a good illustration of a case where
local conditions take precedent over general guidelines developed for large geographical areas.)

Figure 84. Spacing standard for open-top culverts on forest road surfaces, Japanese
Islands. (Minematsu and Minamikata, 1983).

Equal attention must be given to location of cross drains in relation to road and topographic
features. Natural features such as slope breaks or ideal discharge locations which disperse water
should be identified and incorporated into the drainage plan as needed. Possible locations for cross
drains are shown in Figure 85.

Figure 85. Guide for locating cross drains. Several locations require cross drains
independent of spacing guides. A and J, divert water from ridge; A, B, and C, cross
drain above and below junction; C and D, locate drains below log landing areas; D
and H, drains located with regular spacing;. E, drain above incurve to prevent bank
cutting and keep road surface water from entering draw; F, ford or culvert in draw;
G, drain below inside curve to prevent water from running down road; I, drain
below seeps and springs. (Megahan, 1977).
4.4.3 Ditches and Berms

Ditches and berms serve two primary functions on upland roads: (1) they intercept surface run-off
before it reaches erodible areas, such as fill slopes, and (2) they carry run-off and sediment to
properly designed settling basins during peak flow events (when circumstances warrant the use of
settling basins). Ditches and berms are commonly located at the top of cut and fill slopes and
adjacent to the roadway, although midslope berms may be useful in controlling sediment on cut and
fill slopes before erosion control cover has been established.

The required depth and cross sectional area of a roadside ditch is determined by the slope of the
ditch, area to be drained, estimated intensity and volume of run-off, and the amount of sediment
that can be expected to be deposited in the ditch during periods of low flow. Triangular or
trapezoidal-shaped ditches may be utilized, whichever is appropriate. The ditch cross section is
designed so that it will produce the desired water velocity for a given discharge. Minimum full
capacity flow velocities should be 0.76 to 0.91 meters/second (2.5 to 3 feet/second) to permit
sediment transport. It is best to remember that, in shaping a ditch, given equal grade and capacity,
a wide, shallow cross section will generate lower water velocities with correspondingly lower erosion
potential than will a narrow, deep cross section. Maximum permissible velocities for unlined ditches
of a given soil type are listed in Table 32.
Table 32. Maximum permissible velocities in erodible channels, based on uniform
flow in straight, continuously wet, aged channels. For sinuous channels, multiply
allowable velocity by 0.95 for slightly sinuous, 0.9 for moderately sinuous, and 0.8
for highly sinuous channels. (U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975).

Maximum permissible
 
velocities (m/s)
Water
Water
Clear carrying
  carrying
water sand and
fine silt
gravel
Fine sand
0.46 0.76 0.46
(noncolloidal)
Sandy loam
0.52 0.76 0.61
(noncolloidal)
Silt loam
0.61 0.91 0.61
(noncolloidal)
Ordinary firm loam 0.76 1.07 0.67
Volcanic ash 0.76 1.07 0.61
Fine gravel 1.76 1.52 1.13
Stiff clay (very
1.13 1.52 0.91
colloidal)
Graded, loam to
1.13 1.52 1.52
cobbles (noncolloidal)
Graded, silt to cobbles
1.22 1.68 1.52
(colloidal)
Alluvial silts
0.61 1.07 0.61
(noncolloidal)
Alluvial silts (colloidal) 1.13 1.52 0.91
Coarse gravel
1.22 1.83 1.98
(noncolloidal)
Cobbles and shingles 1.52 1.68 1.98
Shales and hardpans 1.83 1.83 1.52

Table 33. Manning's n for open ditches

11
Ditch lining Mannig's n V
max
ft / meters /
1. Natural earth  
sec sec
a. Without vegetation
1) Rock
0.035 -
a) Smooth and uniform 20 6.0
0.040
0.040 -
b) Jagged & irregular 15 - 18 4.5 - 5.4
0.045
2) Soils
Coarse Gravel and Unified USDA        
 0.022 -
GW Gravel   6-7 1.8 - 2.1
0.024
0.023 -
GP Gravel   7-8 2.1 - 2.4
0.026
0.023 -
d 3-5 0.9 - 1.5
Loamy 0.025
gravelly soils GM
Gravel 0.022 -
u 2-4 0.6 - 1.2
0.020
Gravelly
Loam 0.024 -
GC   5-7 1.5 - 2.1
Gravelly 0.026
grained Clay
0.020 -
SW Sand   1-2 0.3 - 0.6
0.024
0.022 -
SP Sand   1-2 0.3 - 0.6
0.024
Sand and sandy 0.020 -
d 2-3 0.6 - 0.9
soils Loamy 0.023
 
Sand 0.021 -
u 2-3 0.4 - 0.9
0.023
Sandy 0.023 -
SC   3-4 0.9 - 1.2
Loam 0.025
Clay Loam
Sandy Clay 0.022 -
50 CL   2-3 0.6 - 0.9
Loam 0.024
Silty Clay
Silt Loam
0.023 -
LL ML Very Fine   3-4 0.9 - 1.2
0.024
Fine Sand Silt
grained Silts Mucky 0.022 -
OL   2-3 0.6 - 0.9
and clays Loam 0.024
50
0.022 -
CH Clay   2-3 0.6 - 0.9
0.023
0.023 -
MH Silty Clay   3-5 0.9 - 1.5
0.024
LL
0.022 -
OH Mucky Clay   2-3 0.6 - 0.9
0.024
0.022 -
Highly Organic PT Peat   2-3 0.6 - 0.9
0.025
2. With vegetation
a. Average turf      
0.050 -
1) Erosion resistant soil 4-5 1.2 - 1.5
0.070
0.030 -
2) Easily eroded soil 3-4 0.9 - 1.2
0.050
b. Dense turf      
0.070 -
1) Erosion resistant soil 6-8 1.8 - 2.4
0.090
0.040 -
2) Easily eroded soil 5-6 1.5 - 1.8
0.050
 0.050 -
c. Clean bottom with bushes on sides 4-5 1.2 - 1.5
0.080
d. Channel with tree stumps      
0.040 -
1) No sprouts 5-7 1.5 - 2.1
0.050
0.060 -
2) With sprouts 6-8 1.8 - 2.4
0.080
0.080 -
e. Dense woods 5-6 1.5 - 1.8
0.120
0.100 -
f. Dense brush 4-5 1.3 - 1.5
0.140
0.150 -
g. Dense willows 8-9 2.4 - 2.7
0.200
3. Paved (Construction)
a. Concrete, w/all surfaces: Good Poor  
0.012 -
1) Trowel finish 20 6.0
0.014
0.013 -
2) Float finish 20 6.0
0.015
0.014 -
3) Formed, no finish 20 6.0
0.016
b. Concrete bottom, float finished, w/sides of:      
0.015 -
1) Dressed stone in mortar 18 - 20 5.4 - 6.0
0.017
0.017 -
2) Ramdom stone in mortar 17 - 19 5.1 - 5.7
0.020
0.020 -
3) Dressed stone or smooth concrete rubble (riprap) 15 4.5
0.025
0.025 -
4) Rubble or random stone (riprap) 15 4.5
0.030
c. Gravel bottom, sides of:      
0.017 -
1) Formed concrete 10 3.0
0.020
0.020 -
2) Random stone in mortar 8 - 10 2.4 - 3.0
0.023
0.023 -
3) Random stone or rubble (riprap) 8 - 10 2.4 - 3.0
0.033
0.014 -
d. Brick 10 3.0
0.017
0.013 -
3) Asphalt 0.016
18 - 20 5.4 - 6.0
Maximum recommended
velocities

Figure 86. Ditch interception near stream to divert ditch water onto stable areas
instead of into the stream. (U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,1975).
The procedure for calculating flow rates is the same as that discussed in Section 4.2. The
corresponding roughness factors (Manning's n) for open channels are given in Table 33. Ditches in
highly erodible soils may require riprap, rock rubble lining, jute matting, or grass seeding. Riprap or
rubble-lined ditches will tend to retard flow enough to allow water movement while retaining the
sediment load at low flow periods. Lining ditches can reduce erosion by as much as 50 percent and
may provide economical benefits by reducing the required number of lateral cross drains when
materials can be obtained at low cost.

Ditch water should not be allowed to concentrate, nor should it be allowed to discharge directly into
live streams. A cross drain such as a culvert should carry the ditch water across and onto a
protected surface (Figure 81). Spacing of ditch relief culverts is discussed in Section 4.4.4 and 4.5.

The ditch grade will normally follow the roadway grade. However, the minimum grade for an
unpaved ditch should be 1 percent. Runoff intensity or discharge values needed to calculate ditch
size can be determined by calculations described below for culvert design. However, allowances
should be made for sedimentation, plus at least 0.3 m between the bottom of the roadway subgrade
and the full flow water surface. The suggested minimum size of roadside ditches is shown in Figure
87.
Figure 87. Minimum ditch dimensions.

Velocity of the ditch water is a function of cross section, roughness and grade. For a typical
triangular cross section the velocity can be calculated from Manning's equation:

V = n-1 * R2/3 * S1/2

where V equals velocity in meters/second and the other values are as defined in Chapter 4.2. For a
triangular channel with sideslopes of 1:1 and 2:1, flowing 0.3 meters deep, the hydraulic radius, R,
equals 0.12 m. Table 34 lists ditch velocities as a function of roughness coefficients and grade, and
Figure 88 provides a nomograph for the solution of Manning's equation.

In most cases ditch lines should be protected to withstand the erosion. For channels with grades
steeper that 10 percent, a combination of cross section widening, surface protection and increased
surface roughness may be required.

Table 34. Ditch velocities for various n and grades. Triangular ditch with side slope
ratio of 1:1 and 2:1, flowing 0.30 meters deep; hydraulic radius R = 0.12.

Slope n
(%) 0.02 0.03 0.04
  meters/sec
2 1.7 1.2 0.9
4 2.5 1.6 1.2
6 3.0 2.0 1.5
8 3.5 2.3 1.7
10 3.9 2.6 1.9
12 4.3 2.9 2.1
15 4.8 3.2 2.4
 18 5.3 3.5 2.6

Figure 88. Nomograph for solution of Mannin's equation  (U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1965).

EXAMPLE:

Determine whether the water velocity for a road ditch will be below critical levels for erosion. If
velocities are too high, make and evaluate changes (see also U.S. Forest Service, 1980). Ditch
dimension is a symmetrical, triangular channel, 0.39 m deep with 2.5:1 slopes with sandy banks
(SW) and a slope of 0.003 m/m.

Solution:

1. The hydraulic radius, R, is equal to area divided by wetted perimeter.

 R = 0.38 m² / 2.1 m = 0.18 m

Converting to english units, divide meters by 0.3 m/ft.

R = 0.60 ft

2. Obtain roughness coefficient from Table 32 (n = 0.020).

3. Obtain maximum allowable velocity 0.46 to 0.76 m/sec (Table 31). Convert to english units by
dividing by 0.3 m/ft.

Vmax = 1.5 to 2.5 ft/sec

4. From Figure 88, find the velocity for the specified ditch (2.9 ft/sec). Convert to metric by
multiplying by 0.3 m/ft.

Vditch = 0.87 m/sec

5. Compare the calculated ditch velocity with the maximum recommended velocity for sandy
channels:

Specified ditch maximum velocity

0.87 m/sec 0.46 - 0.76 m/sec

The ditch has too great a velocity given the conditions stated above. Therefore, measures must be
taken that will reduce the water velocity. Water velocity in ditches can be reduced by protecting the
channel with vegetation, rock, or by changing the channel shape. (With vegetative protection, the
friction factor (n) becomes 0.030 - 0.050 and the maximum recommended velocity becomes 0.9 -
1.2 m/sec.)

6. Obtain velocity for specified ditch with vegetative protection by referring to Figure 88 (1.9 feet per
second).

7. Compare the calculated ditch velocity with the maximum recommended velocity for vegetation
protected channels (average turf) with easily eroded soils:

Specified ditch maximum velocity

0.57 m/sec 0.9 - 1.2 m/sec

8. If the specified ditch has a lower velocity than the recommended maximum velocities, it should be
stable as long as the vegetation remains intact.

Berms can be constructed of native material containing sufficient fines to make the berm impervious
and to allow it to be shaped and compacted to about 90 percent maximum density. Berm
dimensions are illustrated in Figure 89.

Figure 89. Minimum berm dimensions.

4.4.4 Ditch Relief Culverts

Water collected in the cutslope ditch line has to be drained across the road prism for discharge at
regular intervals. Cross drains should be installed at a frequency that does not allow the ditch flow
to approach maximum design water velocities. Intercepting dips or open top culverts (Chapter 4.4.2)
perform adequately up to a certain point. However, these techniques are not adequate or
appropriate when the following conditions are present either in combination or alone:

- high traffic volumes or loads and characteristic rutting.

- steep side slopes.
- large volumes of ditch water from rainfall,snowfall, springs, or seepage.

Ditch relief culverts do not impact or impede traffic as dips and open-top culverts do. Intercepting
dips may become a safety hazard on steep slopes as well as being difficult to construct. It is also
undesirable to have large amounts of water running across the road surface because of sediment
generation and seepage into the subgrade.

The frequency, location and installation method of ditch relief culverts is much more important than
determining their capacity or size. Ditch relief culverts should be designed so that the half-full
velocities are 0.7 to 1.0 m/sec in order to transport sediment through the culvert and should be at
least 45 cm (18 inches) in diameter depending on debris problems. Larger culverts are more easily
cleaned out than narrow ones. Every subsequent relief culvert should be one size larger than the
one immediately upstream from it. This way, an added safety factor is built in should one culvert
become blocked.

As with dips, open top culverts, and water bars, ditch relief and lateral drain culverts should cross
the roadway at an angle greater than or equal to 30° downgrade. This helps insure that water is
diverted from the roadside ditch and that sediment will not accumulate at the inlet. Accelerated ditch
erosion may (1) erode the road prism making it unstable and unusable, and (2) cause culverts to
plug or fail, thereby degrading water quality.

Selection of proper location is as important as spacing. Spacing recommendations should be used

as a guide in determining the frequency of cross drain spacing. Final location is dictated by
topographic and hydrologic considerations. Considerations discussed for for cross drain locations
are also valid for culverts (see Figure 85). Considerations given for stream culvert installation, inlet
and outlet protection, should also be used for ditch relief culverts.

Culvert outlets with no outlet protection are very often the cause of later road failures. Normally,
culvert outlets should extend approximately 30 - 50 cm beyond the toe of the fill. Minimal protection
is required below the outlet for shallow fills. However, on larger fill slopes where the outlet may be a
considerable distance above the toe of the fill, a downspout anchored to the fill slope should be
used (Figure 90). Culvert outlets should be placed such that at least 50 meters is maintained
between it and any live stream. If this is not possible, the rock lining of the outlet should be
extended to 6 meters to increase its sediment trapping capacity (Figure 91). Coarse slash should be
placed near the outlet to act as a sediment barrier.

Where fills consist entirely of heavy rock fragments, it is safe to allow culverts to discharge on to the
slop. The size and weight of fragments must be sufficient to withstand the expected velocity of the
design discharge. Rock aprons (Figure 92) are the least costly and easiest to install. A guide for
selecting rock for use as riprap is illustrated in Figure 93.

Figure 90. Ditch relief culvert installation showing the use of headwall, downspout
and a splash barrier/energy dissipator at the outlet. Minimum culvert grade is 3 to 5
percent. Exit velocities should be checked. (U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975).

Figure 91. Ditchrelief culvert in close proximity to live stream showing rock dike to
diffuse ditch water and sediment before it reaches the stream. (U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1975).
Figure 92. Energy dissipators. (Darrach, et al., 1981).

Figure 93. Sizeof stone that will resist displacement by water for various velocities
and ditch side slopes. 1 ft.= 30 cm (U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1965).
The determination of culvert spacing for lateral drainage across the roadway is based on soil type,
road grade, and rainfall characteristics. These variables have been incorporated into a maximum
spacing guide for lateral drainage culverts developed by the Forest Soils Committee of the Douglas-
fir Region in 1957. The spacing estimates are designed for sections of road 20 feet wide and
include average cut bank and ditch one foot deep. Table 2 (Chapter 1.4.1) groups soils by standard
soil textural classes into ten erosion classes having erodibility indices from 10 to 100, respectively.
(Class I contains the most erodible soils and Class X the least erodible soils.) In order to arrive at an
erosion class for a particular soil mixture, multiply the estimated content of the various components
by their respective erosion index and add the results.

Example:

Total
Name of
% Content Erosion index Erosion
component
Index
rock 20 100 20
Fine Gravel 50 90 45
Silt Loam 30 70 21
      86
86 = Erosion
     
Class VIII

The spacing of lateral-drainage culverts can then be obtained from Table 34. The summary
equation used to calculate values in Table 34, expressed in metric units, is:

Y = (1,376 e0.0156X )(G R)-1

where: Y = lateral drain spacing (meters)

e = base of natural logarithms
 
(2.7183)
  X = erosion index
  G = road grade (%)
R = 25-year, 15-minute rainfall
 
intensity (centimeters/hour)

Values in Table 34 are based on rainfall intensities of 2.5 to 5 cm per hour (1 to 2 in/hr) falling in a
fifteen minute period with an expected recurrence interval of 25 years. For areas having greater
rainfall intensities for the 25 year storm, divide the values in the table by the following factors:

Rainfall intensity Factor

less than 2.5 cm/hr (1 Whatever the intensity
in/hr) (0.75, 0.85, etc.)
5 to 7.5 cm/hr (2 to 3
1.50
in/hr)
7.5 to 10 cm/hr (3 to 4
1.75
in/hr)
10 to 12.5 cm/hr (4 to 5
2.00
in/hr)

Roads having grades less than 2 percent have a need for water removal to prevent water from
soaking the subgrade or from overrunning the road surface. Thus, spacing for roads with 0.5
percent grades is closer than for roads with 2 percent grades. Usually, local experience will
determine the spacing needed for road grades at these levels.

Table 35. Guidefor maximum spacing (in feet) of lateral drainage culverts by soil
erosion classes and road grade (2% to 18%). (Forest Soils Comm., Douglas Fir Reg.,
PNW, 1957).

  Erosion clases [1] and Indices [2]

Road [1] I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X
grade (percent) [2] 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
  meters
2 270 368                
3 180 245 321 361            
4 135 183 240 271 305          
5 108 147 204 218 243 260 300      
 6 90 123 161 182 203 216 251 303    
7 77 105 137 155 174 186 215 260 309 363
8 68 92 120 135 152 162 188 227 270 317
9 60 81 107 120 135 144 167 201 240 282
10 54 74 96 108 122 131 150 182 216 254
11 50 66 87 99 111 118 137 165 197 231
12 45 62 80 92 102 108 125 152 180 212
13 42 57 74 84 93 101 116 140 167 195
14 39 53 69 78 87 93 107 129 155 182
15 36 50 65 72 81 90 101 122 144 170
16 35 47 60 68 77 84 93 114 135 159
17 32 44 57 65 72 80 89 107 127 150
18 30 41 54 60 68 75 84 107 120 148

4.5. Subsurface drainage

When groundwater cannot be effectively removed or intercepted by surface drainage, subsurface

drainage techniques are required. As discussed in previous sections of this workbook, if water is not
removed from subgrade or pavement structures it may create instability, reduce load bearing
capacity, increase the danger of frost action and create a safety hazard by freezing of the traveled
surface.

Field investigations carried out during the route reconnaissance and design stages may not always
reveal subdrainage problems. These less obvious problems can be effectively dealt with during
construction. Field investigations should be carried out during the wet season and may include soil
and/or geologic studies, borings or trenches to locate groundwater, inspections of natural and cut
slopes in the local area, and measurement of discharge when possible. Sites with potential slope
stability problems should be more thoroughly evaluated. When groundwater tables approach the
ground surface, such as in low, swampy areas, the gradeline should be placed high enough to keep
water from being drawn up into the fill by capillary action. Whenever possible, well graded granular
materials, such as coarse sand, should be used for fill construction. For a detailed discussion of
grading requirements for filter materials the reader is referred to the Earth Manual published by the
U.S. Department of the Interior (1974).

Three types of subdrainage systems are commonly used:

(1) Pipe underdrains. This system consists of perforated pipe placed at the bottom of a narrow
trench and backfilled with a filter material such as coarse sand. It is generally used along the toes of
cut or fill slopes. The trench should be below the groundwater surface and dug into a lower, more
inpervious soil layer to intercept groundwater. The drains may be made of metal, concrete, clay,
asbestos-cement, or bituminous fiber and should be 15 centimeters (6 inches) in diameter or larger.

(2) Drilled drains. This system consists of perforated metal pipes placed in holes drilled into cut or
fill slopes after construction.

(3) French drains. This system consists of trenches backfilled with porous material, such as very
coarse sand or gravel. This type of drain is apt to become clogged with fines and is not
recommended.

A major difficulty in selecting a drainage system is the lack of adequate performance data for
various drainage methods. A good knowledge of seasonal groundwater fluctuations, variation in
lateral and vertical permeability, and the ratio of vertical to lateral permeability are critical. Long term
monitoring of drainage performance is important in determining appropriate prescriptions for future
installations. For example, perforated drains are commonly prescribed but often will not function
properly as a result of clogging of pores with fines or from geochemical reactions leading to the
formation of precipitates. Several methods may be used to prevent plugging depending on soil
characteristics and material availability. The first is to enclose the perforated pipe with geotextile
fabric. Second, surround the pipe with an open graded aggregate material, which in turn is
surrounded by a fabric. The use of fabric eliminates the need for an inverted filter consisting of
various sized gravel and sand layers. Third, if fabric is not available, surround the pipe with a
graded aggregate filter. Although the cost of installing such a drainage system is high, it may
effectively reduce final road costs by decreasing the depth of base rock needed, thereby reducing
subgrade widths and associated costs for clearing, excavating, and maintenance.

LITERATURE CITED

Amimoto, P. Y. 1978. Erosion and sediment control handbook. California Division of Mines and
Geology, Department of Conservation. 197 p.

Beschta, R. L. 1981. Streamflow estimates in culverts. Oregon State University, Forest Researph
Laboratory, Res. Note. 67. 4 p.

Darrach, A. G., W. J. Sauerwein, and C. E. Halley. 1981. Building water pollution control into small
private forest and ranchland roads. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service and Soil
Conservation Service.

Forest Soils Committee of the Douglas Fir Region. 1957. An introduction to the forest soils of the
Douglasfir Region of the Pacific Northwest. University of Washington.

Highway Task Force. 1971. Handbook of steel drainage and highway construction products (2nd
Ed). American Iron and Steel Institute, 150 E 2nd Street; New York. 368 p.

Megahan, W.F. 1977. Reducing erosional impacts of roads. In: Guidelines for Watershed
Management. Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations, Rome. p 237-261.

Minematsu, H. and Y. Minamikata, 1983. Optimum spacing for open - top culverts on forest roads.
University of Agriculture and Technique, Tokyo. Jour. of J.F.S. 65(12):465-470.

Packer, P. 1967. Criteria for designing and locating logging roads to control sediments. Vol.1, No.
13.

Pearce, J. K. 1960. Forest engineering handbook. U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Land

Management. 220 p.

Reid, L.M. 1981. Sediment production from gravel-surfaced forest roads, Clearwater basin,
Washington. Publ. FRI-UW--8108, Univ. of Washington, Seattle. 247 p.

Searcy, J. K. 1967. Use of riprap for bank protection. Federal Highway Administration, Washington
D. C. 43 p.

USDA, Forest Service. 1971. Transportation engineering handbook. Handbook No. 7709.11.

________________. 1979. Technical guide, erosion prevention and control on timber sales areas.
Intermountain Region.
Yee, C. S. and T. D. Roelofs. 1980. Planning forest roads to protect salmonid habitat. U. S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. General Technical Report PNW-109. 26 p.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of Public Roads. 1963. Hydraulic Charts for the Selection of
Highway Culverts, Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 5.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation. 1974. Earth Manual, a water resources technical
publication. Second edition. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C.

CHAPTER 5
SURFACE AND SLOPE PROTECTIVE MEASURES
5.1 Introduction

Properly designed slope protection and stabilization has to include two components: a vegetational-
biological and a mechanical-structural component. For maximum effect, both components must be
integrally planned prior to road construction.

Properly designed and planted vegetative covers play a significant role in preventing surface
erosion and shallow mass failures. The function of root systems of live plants on shallow soils on
steep slopes is that of a binder for individual soil particles or aggregates. They act in several ways
to increase slope stability: (1) they bond unstable soil mantles to stable subsoils or substrata, (2)
they provide a cover of a laterally strong fine root systems close to the surface, and (3) they provide
localized centers of reinforcement in the vicinity of individual trees where embedded stems act like a
buttress pile or arch-abutment on a slope.

The structural-mechanical component can consist of conventional retaining walls, either the gravity
or cantilever type, or a reinforced earth structure. Structural-mechanical stabilization techniques are
called for in cases where the potential for deep-seated slope movement or high, lateral earth
stresses exists.

A simplified flow chart is shown in Figure 94 which indicates the appropriate combination of
methods to either maintain or achieve a stable and erosion-free slope. Implicit in any slope stability
discussion is the effect of water and the importance of proper drainage. Mechanical drainage
structures, such as culverts, ditches, water bars, is discussed in Chapter 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5. In
addition to mechanical controls, however, vegetation can provide a form of "biological" drainage
through plant transpiration. Root systems can effectively dewater soil mantles during their active
growing season, but often the periods of most danger from sloe failure and erosion do not coincide
with peak transpiration periods.

More detailed information concerning biotechnical slope stabilization, the combination of vegetative
and structural components can be found in Gray and Leiser (1982), Volgman (1979) and Schiechtl
(1978, 1980).

5.2 Surface Protection Measures

The simplest and most cost effective means of stabilizing bare soil surfaces is through the use of
vegetation or mulches. The objective of all surface stabilization techniques is to establish, as rapidly
as possible, a dense vegetative cover to minimize available sources for sediment. Native plants
generally require less expense and maintenance as well as being visually harmonious with the
natural landscape. Many exotic species have been cultivated specifically for erosion protection and
may also be suitable.

The body of research that points to road construction as the major cause of stream sedimentation in
mountainous environments also indicates that surface erosion on severely disturbed soils such as
road fills is highest immediately following disturbance and decreases rapidly over time. This
suggests that stabilization measures must be employed during and immediately following
construction. The methods chosen must provide rapid benefits, hence merely seeding disturbed
areas may not provide much relief. Transplanting living plants, fertilizing, or mulching exposed soil
surfaces may be required to achieve the desired level of protection.

Figure 94. Selection criteria for slope stabilization methods

5.2.1 Site Analysis

In order to ensure success of any revegetation effort, it is necessary to prepare an overall plan
which considers the climate, vegetation, and microsite (soils, microclimate, slope, and aspect).

Climatic information should center on rainfall frequency distribution and amount. Likewise,

average temperature, minimum/maximum temperatures, heating degree days and number of frost
free days are important points to consider. The vegetation analysis includes the suitability of native
or exotic (introduced) plant species for the specific area in question. Here, the focus should be set
on inventorying the entire spectrum of plant species that occupy a given site. The survey should
note the particular microsites, soils and aspects in which different species grow. Typical points to
consider include:

- which plants do well in a wide range of conditions

- which plants make good seed crops
- which plants root readily when partially buried or resprout from roots cut during construction
- which plants have the best attributes for erosion control (rapid, dense growth; growing season;
rooting characteristics).

Microsite evaluation should consider factors such as microclimate, aspect, topography and soils.
The microclimate is primarily affected by variations in the radiation balance and the immediate
surroundings. Changes in the radiation balance will affect microclimate regime and surface
temperatures -- two extremely important factors for plant survival. Examples are changing the
surface color or establishing a vapor barrier. Installing a vapor barrier to reduce evaporation losses
will result in increases in the surface temperature. By changing the surface to a light color, the
radiation absorbed by the surface can be reduced to compensate for the temperature rise. For
further information on the interaction of microclimate and vegetation, the reader is referred to Geiger
(1961, 1966).

Aspect and topography may reveal the need for specific site treatment either for plant survival
and/or local site stabilization and slope preparation to allow for plant establishment. Wet and dry
areas should be mapped for determining the need for special dewatering treatments or adoption of
a particular seed mix. Likewise slope angles greater than 40 degrees are often difficult to
revegetate, except in cases where slopes consist of decomposing bedrock or have a uniform, rocky
subsoil. Assessment of the degree of local surface erosion (e.g. shallow versus deep seated) will
determine the need for shallow rooted plant cover or a more deeply rooted plant species.

Soil analysis should consider the local soil profile and determine the predominant soil horizon
present on the finished surface. Road cuts or fills may expose layers, strata, or horizons which may
be significantly different from the surface soil which supports a given plant species community.
Factors to consider are pH, salinity, nutrient levels, and texture (water holding capacity).

5.2.2 Site Preparation

In order to ensure success of any revegetation effort, it is necessary to prepare a proper seedbed.
This may include reshaping the slope if gravity will cause "ravelling" of loose soil. A 1:1 slope ratio
or better is recommended to provide a good seeding surface. Slopes of 6 meters (20 feet) or more
should be broken up with small ditches or flat benches on the contour. Roughening the slope along
the contours will reduce the chance of rilling and will provide small depressions which retain the
seed. Oftentimes, construction work or tree and brush removal generally leave sites sufficiently
scarified to permit seed to reach mineral soil.

Site preparation efforts on shallow soils may permanently damage the seeding site. The small
volume of soil interlacing rocks may fall in the ditch line and be lost. Likewise, loose soil sidecast on
fill slopes is extremely prone to erosion. Compaction of this sidecast material with one pass of a
sheepsfoot roller will secure the soil to the slope and provide roughened surface for planting. Fill
slopes often are best treated with brush-layering or wattling in order to provide added mechanical
stability. Typically, fill slopes are more prone to deep seated erosion (rilling or gullying) than are cut
slopes.

5.2.3 Seeding and Planting

Type of seed, plant or cutting will determine the most appropriate planting technique. Herbaceous
species typically germinate rapidly when compared to woody species. Woody species often must be
planted to greater depths than herbaceous plants and may need mulching to keep them from drying
out before germination takes place. Woody plants often require protection from herbivores and
rodents because of their slow growth.

In addition to providing a dense, fibrous mat of protective material, seeded grasses and legumes[1]
improve the organic and nutrient balance of the soil. They also act as "nurse plants" to young native
species by providing shade and thereby reducing moisture loss from the soil. Grass seeding is often
considered detrimental to tree regeneration, although this need not be the case. For instance, in
southeast Alaska, grass seeding of exposed mineral soil helps establish spruce and hemlock
seedlings by reducing the disruptive influence of frost heave and by retarding alder invasion. Grass
species can also be selected such that competition with tree species for vital soil moisture during
critical growth stages is minimized.

Mixtures of at least three plant species is recommended to assure continuous, even protection
across a slope. In addition to factors mentioned at the beginning of this section, other factors to
consider in selecting an appropriate mixture include:

- slope stability, angle, aspect, and exposure

- general climatic conditions, including conditions at the time of planting
- competitive ability of species to be planted in relation to native weed species or desired ultimate
vegetation establishment
- susceptibility to foraging by livestock, rodents, and game
- visual and esthetic considerations
- physical and chemical characteristics of the soil.

It is impossible to recommend specific grass seed mixtures in this document. Likewise, seeding
rates depend upon the number of live germinant seeds per unit weight and not simply on seed
weight. For example, one kilogram of subterranean clover contains 34,000 seeds whereas one
kilogram of timothy grass has 590,000 seeds--a 17.3 fold difference. In general, 1,100 to 1,600 live
pure seed per square meter (100 to 150 per square foot) are sufficient seed densities for roadside
erosion control in temperate climates (Berglund, 1978). It may be desirable to increase this rate in
critical areas--culvert and bridge installations and road fill slopes--and decrease it in less critical or
arid areas. Because of wide variations between sites and adaptability of individual grass and forb
species around the globe, appropriate specialists should be consulted in each case in order to tailor
the seed mixture to site conditions. These specialists include soil scientists, agronomists,
ecologists, range conservationists, wildlife biologists, and landscape architects.

Generally, a vigorous, fast-spreading legume is included in the seed mixture because of its
beneficial effects in replenishing soil nitrogen. Care must be taken, however, in ensuring that the
chosen legume has been treated with an innoculant of the associated root bacteria. A problem
associated with most legumes is their high palatability to livestock, deer, elk, and other game.
Grazing animals will trample the soil and mechanical structures and create a more erosive condition
than existed prior to the treatment. It is therefore recommended that legumes not be included in
seed mixtures for sites readily accessible to game animals, cattle, sheep, or goats unless the
legume is known to be unpalatable to animals (Adams, et al., 1983).

Road construction oftentimes results in the loss of the very thin mantle of fertile topsoil leaving a
relatively infertile residual subsoil. Fertilizers are often required to provide young plants with
sufficient nutrients. Again, variability from site to site requires the expertise of a specialist in order to
determine proper fertilizer selection and application rates. In general, fertilizer prescriptions are
developed on the basis of the amount of total nitrogen in the soil. If a soil test shows total nitrogen
to be greater than 0.2 percent, no fertilizer is needed.

Fertilization normally occurs together with seeding either prior to or near the end of the rainy
season. Two applications--one prior to and one after the rainy season--are extremely effective.
Refertilization may also be needed in following years due to reductions in vigor of the crop. If
fertilizer costs are prohibitive or supplies limited, it may be desirable to concentrate efforts on such
key areas as large fills and culvert and bridge emplacements.

[1] Any one of a large group of plants of the pea family (Leguminosae). Because of their ability to
store and fix nitrogen, legumes, such as alfalfa, are often used in rotation with other cash crops to
restore soil productivity.

5.2.4 Application Methods

Techniques used in establishing grasses include hand-operated cyclone seeders, truck-mounted

broadcast seeders, seed drills, and hydroseeders. Drilling is best as it places the seed directly in the
soil at a controlled depth and seeding rate, but may be impossible on steep cut banks and fills.
Hydroseeding is the application of seed, fertilizer, and mulch in a slurry of some sort of viscous
water soluble binder, such as wood fiber, from a truck-mounted tank. This method is most suitable
for large areas and steep slopes where plastering of materials is necessary to achieve uniform
coverage. It is also expensive and sometimes impractical due to climatic, terrain, or road access
conditions. Hand planting is generally effective for small areas and is often the least expensive.
Covering the seed with at least 0.5 to 1 centimeter of soil is critical. Rainfall may help cover it, but
raking or dragging seeded areas with tire chains, sections of cyclone fence, or similar objects is the
most effective.

Soils which are heavily disturbed or which have little surface organic material to retard water runoff
need protection afforded by any readily available mulching materials. Such materials include
excelsior, straw, shredded logging residue or slash, and slurried wood or ground paper fibers.
Excelsior provides the best protection but is very expensive. Straw mulch is very effective when
applied at a rate of 5.5 metric tons per hectare (2 tons per acre) and secured to the surface either
mechanically by punching it into the surface with the end of a shovel or chemically with a liquid
"tackifier" such as emulsified asphalt. Table 36 shows the effectiveness of different mulches
subjected to a rainfall rate of 64 mm (2.5 in) per hour on a 20 percent slope with 15 cm (6 in) of sift
loam over compacted calcareous till. Figure 91 outlines a decision matrix to use in order to choose
the most effective erosion control combination for a given set of site and climatic conditions.

Table 36. Erosion control and vegetation establishment effectiveness of various mulches on

highways in eastern and western Washington. Soils: silty, sandy and gravelly loams, glacial till
consisting of sand, gravel and compacted silts and clays (all are subsoil materials without topsoil
addition). Slope lengths: approximate maximum of 50 m (165 ft). Application rates: Cereal straw -
5,500 kg/ha (2 t/ac); Straw plus asphalt - 5,500 kg/ha (2 t/ac) and 0.757 I/Kg (200 gal/t),
respectively; Wood cellulose fiber- 1,345 kg/ha (1,200 Ibs/ac); Sod - bentgrass strips 46 cm (18 in)
by 1.8 m (6 ft) pegged down every third row.

Surface Cover
Straw & Wood
  Jute Excelsior Straw Asphalt Sod
Asphalt Fiber
Rating
Erosion Control
Sheet
erosion 9.0 10.0 8.0 10.0 6.0 3.0 10.0
1:1 slope
Sheet
erosion 9.0 10.0 9.0 10.0 7.0 6.0 10.0
2:1 slope
 Sheet
erosion
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 9.0 10.0 10.0
3:1 +
slope
Rill
erosion 6.0 10.0 8.0 10.0 6.0 3.0 10.0
1:1 slope
Rill
erosion 8.0 10.0 9.0 10.0 7.0 5.0 -
2:1 slope
Rill
erosion
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 9.0 10.0 10.0
3:1 +
slope
Sump
erosionl 10.0 8.0 6.0 7.0 3.0 3.0 8.0
1:1 slope
Slump
erosion 10.0 9.0 7.0 8.0 5.0 4.0 9.0
2:1 slope
Slump
erosion Slumps usually do not occur.
3:1 slope
Vegetation Establishment
1.5:1
glasial
7.5 9.0 7.5 8.5 7.5 6.0 -
till cut
slope
2:1 glasial
till cut 8.9 9.5 8.0 9.3 8.7 6.2 -
slope
2:1 sandy
loam 9.0 10.0 9.0 10.0 7.5 8.5 10.0
fill slope
2.5:1 silt
loam 5.0 10.0 - 7.8 6.0 - -
cut slope
Effectiveness rating: 10.0 = most
effective, 1.0 = not effective.

Figure 95. Selection criteria for surface cover establishment methods in relation to erosion risk.
When using straw as a mulch, it is recommended that only "clean" straw be used to prevent the
introduction of noxious plants. Wood fiber should be applied at a rate of 1.4 to 1.6 metric tons per
hectare (0.5 to 0.6 tons per acre). At higher rates, wood fiber improves erosion control but inhibits
plant establishment. When mulching follows seed and fertilizer application, rather than in
combination with seeding and fertilizing (as is the case sometimes with hydroseeding), there is a
much greater chance that seed will be in direct contact with mineral soil and will germinate more
readily. Hydroseeding a fiber-seed-water slurry can entrap 60-70 percent of the seed in the mulch
layer.

5.2.5 Wattling and filter strips

Oftentimes grass cover alone is insufficient to prevent erosion on long, steep slopes. Wattling or
filter strips work to break the slope into short segments so that the kinetic energy of water flowing
over the surface is dissipated. Many different methods and materials can be employed to achieve
this objective. Heede (1975) successfully used submerged burlap strips 30 cm (1 ft) wide, placed
vertically into the ground on the contour 0.5 to 1 meter (1.5 to 3 ft) apart from each other to control
rilling in semi-desert regions. Filter windrows can be fabricated from slash accumulated during road
construction and can easily be constructed simultaneously along with the road (Cook and King,
1983). A rough estimate of production rates for windrow construction during one demonstration is
52 m/hour (170 ft/hour) using a track-mounted Caterpillar 235 hydraulic pull shovel (a large
backhoe). Sediment trapping efficiency was estimated at between 75 and 85 percent. Windrows in
this demonstration consisted of logs not less than 0.45 m (18 in) diameter secured against
undisturbed stumps, rocks, or trees on fill slopes immediately above and parallel to the toe of the
slope. Slash (tops, limbs, and brush not exceeding 15 cm (6 in) in diameter and 3.7 m (12 ft) in
length were then placed above the logs in neat piles (also see Chapter 6.3.3, Figure 119 ).

Table 36 is included to provide guidance in determining appropriate windrow widths based on the
length of the slope and type of material used to construct the windrow.

Wattling (Figure 96) consists of combined mechanical and natural stabilization techniques in which
stakes are placed on the contour 0.5 m (1.6 ft) apart and at 1.2 m (4 ft) intervals between rows. A
trench is then dug 20 cm (8 in) wide and 25 cm (10 in) deep against or immediately above the
contour stakes. Bundles of live vegetative materials (such as Salix spp., Bambusa spp., Cassia
sepium or other locally available material) 13 cm (5 in) in diameter and 3 m (10 ft) long are placed in
the trench overlapping end and tail. The wattling bundles are then covered with soil so that part of
the branches and leaves above ground are left visible. It is very important that the soil is worked
thoroughly into the interstices of the wattles. During the installation workers should walk on the
wattles as much as possible to insure maximum compaction and working the soil into the bundles.

Incorrect installation of wattles may actually aid in soil slumping because of collection of water in the
wattle trenches. It is therefore important that soil is thoroughly worked into the wattles and no trench
remains to be filled with water. Likewise firm staking is important particularly in areas where frost
heaving is a problem. An average 10 person crew can treat 200 m² to 250 m² (2,000 to 2,500 ft2) in
a day (Sheng, 1977b). More detailed information on wattling procedure and installation can also be
found in Kraebel (1936), Grey and Leiser (1982), and Schiechtl (1978, 1980).

Table 37. Windrow protective strip widths required below the shoulders[1] of 5 year old[2] forest
roads built on soils derived from basalt[3], having 9 m cross-drain spacing[4], zero initial obstruction
distance[5], and 100 percent fill slope cover density[6].(U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
1975).

Obstructio Protective windrow width by type of obstruction

n spacing
Log Rock Slas
Trees
Depression s s h Herbaceou
and
s and s
stump
or mounds brus vegetation
s
h
meters
0.3 10.6 11.2 11.6 12.1 12.5 13.1
0.6 11.3 12.2 13.1 14.0 14.9 15.9
0.9 11.9 13.1 14.3 15.9 17.4 18.6
1.2 12.2 14.0 15.9 17.7 19.5 21.3
1.5 12.5 14.6 17.0 19.2 21.6 23.8
1.8   15.2 18.0 20.7 23.5 26.2
2.1   15.9 18.9 22.2 25.6 28.7
2.4   16.2 19.8 23.5 27.1 30.8
2.7   16.5 20.4 24.7 29.0 32.9
3.0       25.9 30.5 35.1
3.4       27.8 31.7 36.9
3.7           38.7
[1] For protective strip widths from centerlines of proposed
roads, increase widths by one-half the proposed road width.
[2] If storage capacity of obstructions is to be renewed when
roads are 3 years old, reduce protective strip width by 7 m.
[3] If soil is derived from andesite, increase protective strip width
by 30 cm; from glacial till, increase 1 m; from hard sediments,
increase 2.4 m; from granite, increase 2.5 m; from loess,
increase 7 m.
[4] For each increase in cross-drain spacing beyond 9 m,
increase protective strip width 30 cm.
[5] For each 1.5 m increase in distance to the initial obstruction
beyond zero (or the road shoulder), increase protective strip
width 1.2 m.
[6] For each 10 percent decrease in fill slope cover below a
density of 100 percent, increase protective strip width 0.30 m.

Figure 96. Preparation and installation procedure for contour wattling, using live willow stakes
Shown are (a) stems of cut brush wattles; (b) live willow stakes that have rooted sprouts; (c) inert
construction stakes driven through wattles; (d), (e), and (f) vegetation (grasses, shrubs, and
trees) (after Kraebel, 1936).

5.2.6 Brush Layering

Contour brush layering (Figure 97) involves embedding green branches of shrubs or trees on
successive horizontal layers into the slope. Brush layering is different from wattling in that (1)
branches are placed into the slope perpendicular to the strike instead of parallel creating better
resistance to shallow shear failure, (2) staking is not required, (3) brush layers and surfaces can be
reinforced with wire mesh or other material, (4) brush layers can be incorporated into the
construction process of a fill. That is, brush layers are laid down, the next lift of soil is placed and
compacted, and the process is repeated.

Contour brush layering is comparable to the "reinforced earth" concept where the cuttings or
branches act in the same fashion as the reinforcing strips.

Figure 97. Brush layer installation for slope stabilization using rooted plants for cut slope and green
branches for fill slope stabilization.
According to Schiechtl (1978, 1980) three brush layering techniques may be used. The first
technique uses brush layers consisting of rooted plants or rooted cuttings only. Approximately 5 to
20 rooted seedlings per meter are required (See Figure 97).

The second technique utilizes green cuttings or branches from alder, cottonwood or willow. On cut
slopes, cuttings from 0.5 to 2.0 meters in length are used. On fill slopes, cutting length can vary
from 2.0 to 5.0 meters. This method is particularly suited for use in critical and sensitive areas.

The third technique is a combination of the first two methods where rooted seedlings or cuttings are
installed together with branches or cuttings. From 1 to 5 rooted cuttings per meter are required.

In all three methods, the material should be placed with the butt ends slightly dipping into the fill (20
percent) and the tips protruding a few centimeters. Vertical spacing of brush layers can vary from
0.5 to 1.5 meters depending on soil type, erosion hazard, slope angle and length of slope. A good
practice is to vary the vertical spacing on long slopes with short spacings at the bottom and
increasing the spacing towards the upper end of the slope.

A variation to the contour brush layering approach where the layers are positioned along the
contours or horizontally is to arrange the layers at a 10 - 40 percent incline. This variation is called
for on wet, heavy soils or slopes with numerous small springs. Water collecting in the berms or
brush layers is drained off and does not stagnate and infiltrate into the slope.

Installation procedures typically proceed from bottom to top. Fill slope installation is simple.
However, care should be taken that the brush layer dips into the slope at least 20 percent. The next
soil layer is placed on top and compacted. Cut slope installation requires the opening of a ditch or
berm. As with fills, work progresses from bottom to top. The excavation of the upper berm is used
for filling-in and covering the lower brush layer.

5.2.7. Mechanical Treatment

Mechanical surface stabilization measures consist of diversion ditches and terraces, serrations, or
scarification and can be used in conjunction with vegetative methods discussed above. These
methods generally require detailed engineering design and location. T. C. Sheng (1977a) discusses
several different methods for the construction of bench terraces together with tables providing
design information and costs.

Serrations consist of steps of 60 to 120 cm (2 to 4 ft) cut vertically and horizontally along the
normal, intended slope gradient. After treatment, the slope is seeded, fertilized, and mulched as
discussed in Chapter 5.2.3. The steps provide improved seedbeds free of sliding forces normally
experienced on steep slopes. Serrations are only effective on cut slopes of soft rock or similar
material that will stand vertically or near vertically for a few years in cut heights of approximately
one meter. Likewise, this method is not applicable to soil types where the rate of slough is so high
that vegetative cover is buried and destroyed. If acceptable slope material is soft, the slope should
be allowed to slough before seeding until about one-third of the steps are filled. Otherwise, grass
may be destroyed by the excessive rate of initial slough.

Roughened or scarified slopes may not be as esthetically pleasing to the eye as smoothly graded
cut and fill slopes, but they are far more effective in increasing infiltration and impeding runoff.
Scarified slopes also provide small depressions for the retention of seed and also help mulch to
better adhere to the slope. Roughening may be accomplished by several means including deep
cleated bulldozers traveling up and down the slope, sheepsfoot rollers, rock rippers, and brush
rakes mounted on bulldozers. The path of the roughened slope should trend perpendicular to the
direction of flow.

5.3 Mass Movement Protection

Deep seated mass failures can be dealt with in three ways. The methods are categorized by the
way they affect soil stability.

1. Avoidance Methods: Relocate road on a more stable area (for large, unstable fills
probably by far the most appropriate approach).
2. Reducing Shear Stress: This is achieved through excavation of unacceptable materials. It
creates a reduction in soil weight and can be accomplished by: a) removal of soil mass at
the top of the potential slide, b) flattening of cut slopes above the road, c) benching of cut
slopes.
3. Increasing Shear Strength: This is achieved through retaining structures. They can be
grouped into a) rock buttresses at the toe of fill slope, b) cribs or gravity retaining walls at
toe of fill or cut, and c) piling walls, likewise at the toe of fills or cuts.

Engineering and structural methods for stabilizing slopes can be grouped into four categories:

1. Excavation and filling techniques. This would include excavating the toe of an earth flow
until successive failures result in a stable slope, removing and replacing failed material with
lighter, more stable material, or recompacted debris, excavating to unload upper portions of
a mass failure, and filling to load the lower portions of a mass failure (most likely in
conjunction with other loading or restraining structures).
2. Drainage techniques. This would include efforts to remove or disperse surface water (as
discussed in Chapter 4), drainage of tension cracks, using rock fill underlain by filter cloth to
prevent upward migration of water into the road prism, insertion of trench drains, perforated,
horizontal drains, or drainage galleries, insertion of vertical drains or wells discharged by
syphons, or pumps, and electro-osmosis (the use of direct current passing between
wellpoints and steel rods placed midway between the rods to increase the drainage rate) for
drainage of low permeability soils.
 3. Restraining structures. These include retaining walls, piles, buttresses, counterweight
fills, cribs, bin walls, reinforced earth, and pre-stressed or post-tensioned soil or rock
anchors (Figure 98). Organizations such as highway departments and railroads have
developed charts and tables giving earth pressures for the design of retaining walls that
require a minimum of computation. Nearly all of these charts and tables are based on the
Rankine formula which describes earth pressures as a function of unit weight and internal
angle of friction of the backfill material.
4. Miscellaneous techniques. Grouting can be used to reduce soil permeability, thereby
preventing the ingress of groundwater into a failure zone. Chemical stabilization, generally
in the form of ion exchange methods, is accomplished by high pressure injection of
specificion exchange solutions into failure zones or into closely spaced pre-drillled holes
throughout the movement zone. Heating or baking of clay soils can sometimes improve
their strength, and, rarely, freezing of soils will help gain temporary stability. Localized
electro-osmosis can be used to form in situ anchors or tie-backs. Suppression of natural
electro-osmosis can be used to reduce unfavorable groundwater pressures. Blasting is
sometimes used to disrupt failure surfaces and to improve drainage.

Figure 98. Types of retaining walls.

For correcting cut or fill failures, a detailed investigation into the reason for the failure, particularly
the position and geometry of the failure surface and other potential failure surfaces, is required prior
to prescribing ameliorative measures. The neutral line concept, discussed by Hutchinson (1977)
and Sidle, et al. (1985), is of particular interest in assessing the impact of cuts and fills on factors of
safety. The neutral line describes where the load attributed to fill material will have no effect on the
original factor of safety. If the load falls up-slope of the neutral line, the factor of safety will
decrease; if it is downslope of the neutral line, the factor of safety will decrease.

The use of any of these stabilization techniques requires extensive site specific investigations into
the mechanics of soils, groundwater, and bedrock occurring on the site. It is advisable to utilize the
most experienced geotechnical or highway engineer available in order to provide the most effective
design possible. As can be inferred from the above discussion, any of these techniques will be quite
costly to design and install. Furthermore, the success of such measures in functioning adequately
through time is highly dependent on the skill of the design engineer and the degree of maintenance
employed after construction. Hence, avoidance of areas where structural stabilization measures are
required will result in considerable short term and long term cost savings, and the major opportunity
for reducing landslide risk is at the route planning stage.

The purpose of a retaining structure is to provide stability against sliding or failure and protection
against scour and erosion of a slope, or the toe or cutface. The typical retaining structure on forest
roads is a gravity retaining wall which resists earth pressure by the force of its own weight.
Excavation and/or fill volume can be significantly reduced particularly on steep side slopes (see also
discussion in Chapter 3.2).

The volume of cribs or retaining walls should be 1/6 to 1/10 of that of the total moving mass to be
retained. As a rule, the foundation or base should at least extend 1.2 to 2.0 meters below the slip
plane in order to be effective.

The forces acting on a retaining wall are similar to those acting on a natural slope. These forces are
be grouped into resisting forces (forces resisting failure) and driving forces (forces causing failure)
as illustrated in Figure 99.

Failure of a retaining wall can be brought about through

- sliding along its base

- bearing capacity failure
- overturning

Figure 99. Forces acting on a retaining wall.

For low toe walls or toe-bench structures it is usually possible to use standard designs. Standard
designs have been developed on the basis of soil mechanics and past performance. Standard
designs have been developed by a number of sources and are typically available on request. These
sources include manufacturers of retaining wall systems (e.g. gabions, crib walls, welded-wire walls,
geotextiles), trade associations (e.g. American Wood Preservers Institute), and state and federal
agencies (e.g. Forest Service, Highway Administration, local transportation departments). Standard
designs can be used safely provided they conform with the local conditions The factors or
conditions to consider include maximum wall height, surcharge conditions, strength and finish of
structural members, inclination requirements, construction requirements, backfill material, soil
conditions at base, and groundwater conditions.

An example of a standard log crib wall is shown in Figure 100. A thorough discussion of timber
walls is provided by Schuster et al. (1973). Timber crib walls and gabion structures can withstand
some limited, differential base settlement without a significantly affecting the retaining action.
Drainage characteristics of the backfill and crib material is important because of potential water
pressure build-up. Most standard designs assume free draining sand or gravel fills.

Gabions are rectangular containers made of heavy steel wire and filled with cobble-sized rocks (10
to 30 cm in diameter). A typical gabion retaining wall is shown in Figure 101. Advantages of gabion
structures are ease of construction, tolerance of uneven settlement, and good drainage
characteristics. Gabion walls are particularly suited in areas where only small, fragmented rocks are
available. Typically, they can be built without heavy equipment. Both crib and gabion walls lend
themselves to incorporation of vegetative systems to provide additional strength over time as well
as providing a more esthetically pleasing appearance.
Gravity retaining structures utilizing standard designs are typically limited to a height of less than 6.0
meters. Structures requiring a larger height have to be designed based on site-specific soil
mechanical conditions.

Figure 100. Example of a standard crib wall design. (Wash. State Dept. of Highways).

Figure 101. Low gabion breast walls showing sequence of excavation, assembly, and filling. (From
White and Franks, 1978).

LITERATURE CITED

Adams, T. E. and B. L. Kay. 1983. Seeding for erosion control in mountain areas of California.
Cooperative Extension, Univ. of California. Leaflet No. 21356. 3 p.

Berglund, E. R. 1978. Seeding to control erosion along forest roads. Oregon State University
Extension Service. Circular No. 885. 19 p.

Bowers; H.D. 1950. Erosion control on California highways, State of California, Dept. of Public
Works, Div. of Highways, Sacramento, Calif. 70 pp.

Cook, M. J., and J. G. King. 1983. Construction cost and erosion control effectiveness of filter
windrows on fill slopes. US Dept. of Agriculture Forest Service. Research Note INT-335,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. 5 p.

Geiger, R. 1961. Das Klima der bodennahen Luftschicht. Friedrich Vieweg and Sohn,
Braunschweig, Germany. (English translation, 1968. The climate near the ground. Harvard
University Press.)

Gray, D. H. and A.T. Leiser, 1982. Biotechnical slope protection and erosion control. Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company, New York. 271 p.

Heede, B. H. 1975. Submerged burlap strips aided rehabilitation of disturbed semi-arid sites in
Colorado and New Mexico. US DA, Forest Service. Research Note RM-302. 8 p.

Hutchinson, J. N. 1977. Assessment of the effectiveness of corrective measures in relation to

geological conditions and types of slope movement. Bull. Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol., 16, pp 131-155.
Kraebel, C.J. 1936. Erosion control on mountain roads. USDA Circular No. 380, Wahington D. C.,
43p.

Kuonen, v. 1983. Wald and Gueterstrassen. Eigenverlag CH - 81222 Pfaffhausen, Switzerland

743p.

Schiechtl, H. M. 1980. Bioengineering for land reclamation and conservation. The University of
Alberta Press, Edmonton, Canada. 404 p.

Schiechtl, H.M. 1973. Sicherungsarbeiten im Landdschaftsbau. Grundlagen, lebende Baustoffe,

Methoden. Callway, Munich. 244 p.

Sheng, T. C. 1977a. Protection of cultivated slopes: terracing steep slopes in humid regions. In:
Guidelines for Watershed Management. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Rome, Italy. p. 147-171.

Sheng, T. C. 1977b. Wattling and staking. In: Guidelines for Watershed Management. Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. p. 289-293.

Sidle, R. C., A. J. Pearce, and C. L. O'Loughlin. 1985. Hillslope Stability and Land Use. Wat. Res.
Mon. Ser., No. 11., Am. Geophys. Un., Washington, D. C. 140 p.

US Environmental Protection Agency. 1975. Logging Roads and Protection of Water Quality. EPA
910/9-75-007. 312 p.

Volgmann, W. 1979. Landschaftsbau. Verlag Ulmer, Stuttgart, Fed. Rep. Germany, 280 p.

Washington Stale Highway Dept., Olympia, Washington.

White, C.A., and A. L. Franks, 1978. Demonstration of erosion and sediment control technology,
Lake Tahoe Region of California, State Water Resoources Control Board, Final Report, 393 pp

USDA, Forest Service. 1973. Transportation Engineering Handbook, Slope Design Guide.
Handbook No. 7709.11.

CHAPTER 6
ROAD CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
6.1 Road Construction Techniques

6.1.1 Construction Staking

Prior to the construction activity the design information has to be moved from the plan to the
ground. This is accomplished by staking. Slope stakes are an effective way to insure compliance
with the design standards and to keep soil disturbance to an absolute minimum. Various staking
methods can be employed. (Dietz et al., 1984; Pearce, 1960) The method discussed here is but one
example.
Stakes, marking various road design points, are typically obliterated during the clearing and
grubbing phase. In order to relocate the stakes (centerline, slope stakes) it is helpful to establish
reference points outside the clearing limits. Reference points should be set at least 3 to 5 meters
behind the uphill clearing limits. On the average, reference points (or RP's) should be set at least
every 70 to 100 meters. Typically, reference points are placed at points where the center line
alignment can be easily re-established, such as points of curvature. Figure 102 shows the
necessary stakes and stake notation needed by the equipment operator to construct a road.

Stakes are used by the equipment operator in locating where to begin cutting. If the selected
starting point is too high, considerably more material has to be cut in order to construct the proper
subgrade (Figure 103). For example, if the cut results in a 20 percent wider subgrade,
approximately 50 percent more volume has to be excavated. (See Section 3.2.2.) If the cut is
placed too low, an overstepped cut slope or extra side casting may result, both of which are
undesirable.

Starting the cut at the proper point becomes more important as the side slope increases. As a rule,
slope stakes should be set when sideslopes exceed 40 to 45 percent depending on the sensitivity of
the area and the operator's experience.

The use of RP's (Reference Points) or slope stakes for proper excavation is shown in Figure 104.
Here, the engineer stands on the preliminary centerline of the construction grade and sights for the
RP. A slope reading of 30 percent and a slope distance of 5.53 m is recorded. Converting the slope
distance of 5.53 m to a horizontal distance of 5.30 m and to a vertical distance of 1.59 m allows the
engineer to determine how much the "present" or preliminary centerline has to be shifted to conform
with the design centerline. The RP tag requires 6.50 m horizontal distance to centerline with a
vertical drop of 4.80 m. From that information, it can be seen that an additional 1.56 m [4.80 - (1.59
+ 1.65) = 1.56] has to be cut and the present location has to be shifted by 1.2 m (6.50 - 5.30 =
1.20). Height of instrument or eye-level is assumed to be 1.65 m.

Figure 102. Road cross section showing possible construction information.

Figure 103. The effect of improperly starting the cut as marked by the slope stake. Starting the cut
too high results in excess excavation and side cast. Starting the cut too low leaves an overstepped
cut bank.

Figure 104. Construction grade check. Engineer stands on center of construction grade and sights
to RP tag. Measured distance and slope allow for determination of additional cut.
6.1.2. Clearing and Grubbing of the Road Construction Area

Preparing the road right-of-way or construction area is referred to as clearing and grubbing. During
the clearing phase, trees are felled. Grubbing refers to the clearing and removal of stumps and
organic debris. Trees should be felled and cleared a minimum of 1 to 3 m from the top of the cut or
toe of the fill (Figure 105). The logs can be decked outside the construction area (Figure 105, B to
E) or skidded away.

Figure 105. Clearing limits in relation to road bed widths. Significant quantities of organic materials
are removed between B and E. Stumps are removed between B and D. Stumps may be left
between D and E. Organic debris and removed stumps are placed in windrows at F to serve as filter
strips (see Section 6.3.1).

This additional width between construction width and forest edge ensures that space is available to
deposit organic debris outside the road construction width and that there is no overlap between
forest edge and construction area.
A good construction practice to follow is to remove stumps that are within the construction width
(Figure 105, B to E). Trees should be felled to leave a stump 0.8 to 1.2 m high. This helps
bulldozers in stump removal by providing added leverage.

Organic overburden or topsoil typically has to be removed over the full construction width (Figure
105, B to D). This is especially true where organic layers are deep or considerable sidecast
embankment or fills are planned. Organic material will decompose and result in uneven settlement
and potential sidecast failure. Organic material should be deposited at the lower edge of the road
(Figure 105, E to F). This material can serve as a sediment filter strip and catch wall (see Section
6.3.1), however care should be taken that this material is not incorporated into the base of the fill.
Past road failures show that fill slope failures have been much more frequent than cut slope failures
(70 percent and 30 percent, respectively). In most cases, poorly constructed fills over organic side
cast debris was the reason for the failures.

During the grubbing phase, or preparation phase, a pioneer road is often constructed to facilitate
equipment access, logging equipment movement, and delivery of construction materials, such as
culverts. This is often the case when construction activities are under way at several locations. If
pioneer roads are constructed, they are often built at the top of the construction width and are
usually nothing more than a bull dozer trail. When considerable side hill fill construction is planned,
however, the dozer trail should be located at the toe or base of the proposed fill. The trail will serve
as a bench and provide a catch for the fill to hold on (Figure 106).

Figure 106. Pioneer road location at bottom of proposed fill provides a bench for holding fill material
of completed road.

6.2 General Equipment Considerations

The method and equipment used in road construction is an important economic and design factor in
road location and subsequent design. A road to be built by an operator whose only equipment is a
bulldozer requires a different design than a road to be built by a contractor equipped with hydraulic
excavator, scrapers, and bulldozer. Table 38 lists common road construction equipment and their
suitability for the different phases of road construction. A bulldozer can be used in all phases of road
construction from excavation and drainage installation to final grading. The front end loader
performs well in soft material. Front end log loaders can be fitted with a bucket extending their
usefulness under the correct conditions.

6.2.1 Bulldozer in Road Construction

Probably the most common piece of equipment in forest road construction is the bulldozer equipped
with straight or U-type blades. These are probably the most economical pieces of equipment when
material has to be moved a short distance. The economic haul or push distance for a bulldozer with
a straight blade is from 17 to 90 meters depending on grade. The road design should attempt to
keep the mass balance points within these constraints.

The road design should consider the following points when bulldozers are to be used for road
construction.

1. Roads should be full benched. Earth is side cast and then wasted rather than used to build up
side cast fills.

2. Earth is moved down-grade with the aid of gravity, not up-grade.

3. Fill material is borrowed rather than pushed or hauled farther than the economic limit of the
bulldozer.

4. Rock outcrops should be bypassed. Unless substantial rock blasting is specified requiring drilling
and blasting equipment, solid rock faces should be avoided (This, however, is primarily a road
locator's responsibility.)

Table 38. Road construction equipment characteristics. (from OSU Extension Service, 1983).

Dump
Front end Hydraulic Farm
Criteria Bulldozer trucks
Loader excavator tractors
or scrapers
Excavation Digs and Minor Digs, Scrapers Minor digging
mode (level pushes; digging of swings, & can load and carrying;
of control of adequate soft deposits; themselves; good control
excavated control material; excellent 'top down' because it
materials) (depends lifts & control; can subgrade handles
on blade carries; avoid excavation;
type) good mixing used for
control materials small
long- quantities
distance
material
movement;
excellent
control
Operating 91 m; 91 m on 23 m No limit 31 m
distance for pushing good (limited to except by (approximately)
materials downhill traction swing economics;
movement preferred surfaces distance) trucks must
be loaded
Suitability Adequate Good Limited to Good for Not suitable
for fill smaller fills larger fills
construction
Clearing Good Adequate Excellent Not suitable Handles only
and small materials
grubbing
(capacity to
handle logs
and debris
Ability to Adequate Digging Excellent Not suitable Adequate for
install limited to small tasks
 drainage soft
features materials
Operating Moderate, Relatively Moderate Very high Low
cost per depending low to high, but
hour on productivity
machine excellent
size
Special Widely Cannot dig Good for Limited to Very
limitations available; hard roads on moving dependent on
or can match material; steep material site conditions
advantages size to job; may be hillsides; long and operator
can do all traction can do all distances; skill
required limited required can haul
with good except rock, rip
operator spread rap, etc.
rock for
rock
surfacing

When using bulldozers, the practice of balancing cut and fill sections should be used only when:

- sideslopes do not exceed 45 to 55 percent

- proper compaction equipment is available such as a "grid roller" or vibrating or tamping roller

- fills have a sufficient width to allow passage of either compaction equipment or construction
equipment, such as dump trucks.

Adequate compaction cannot be achieved with bulldozers alone. The degree of compaction exerted
by a piece of equipment is directly related to its compactive energy or ground pressure. Effective
ground pressure is calculated as the weight of the vehicle divided by the total ground contact area,
or the area of tires or tracks in contact with the surface. Bulldozers are a low-ground pressure
machine and therefore are unsuitable for this process. Ground pressure of a 149 kW (200 hp), 23
tonne bulldozer (Cat D7G, for example) is 0.7 bar (10.2 lb / in2). By comparison, a loaded dump
truck (3 axles, 10 m3 box capacity) generates a ground pressure of 5 to 6 bar (72.5 to 87.1 lb / in2).

Comparative production rates for various size bulldozers are shown in Figure 107. One should note
that production curves are based on:

1. 100 % efficiency (60 minutes/hour),

2. power shift machine with 0.05 minute fixed time,
3. machine cuts for 15 m then drifts blade load to dump over a high wall,
4. soil density of 1,370 kg/m3 (85.6 Ib/ft3) loose or 1790 kg/ m3 (111.9 Ib/ft3) bank,
5. coefficient of traction > 0.5, and
6. hydraulic controlled blades are used.

Figure 107. Maximum production rates for different bulldozers equipped with straight blade in
relation to haul distance. (from Caterpillar Handbook, 1984).
The graph provides the uncorrected, maximum production. In order to adjust to various conditions
which affect production, correction factors are given in Table 39. Adjustment factors for grade
(pushing uphill or downhill) are given in Figure 108.

Table 39. Job condition correction factors for estimating bulldozer earth moving production rates.
Values are for track-type tractor equipped straight (S) blade. (Caterpillar Handbook, 1984)

TRACK TYPE WHEEL TYPE

 
TRACTOR TRACTOR
OPERATOR    
Excellent 1.00 1.00
Average 0.75 0.60
Poor 0.60 0.50
MATERIAL    
Loose stockpile 1.20 1.20
Hart to cut; frozen--    
with tilt cylinder 0.80 0.75
without tilt cylinder 0.70 -
cable controlled blade 0.60 -
Hard to drift; "dead" (dry,
non-cohesive material) or 0.80 0.80
very sticky material
SLOT DOZING 0.60 - 0.80 -
SIDE BY SIDE DOZING 1.15 - 1.25 1.15 - 1.25
VISIBILITY --    
Dust, rain, snow, fog,
0.80 0.70
darkness
JOB EFFICIENCY --    
50 min/hr 0.84 0.84
40 min/hr 0.67 0.67
DIRECT DRIVE
   
TRANSMISSION
 (0.1 min. fixed time) 0.80 -
BULLDOZER*    
Angling (A) blade 0.50 - 0.75 -
Cushioned (C) blade 0.50 - 0.75 0.50 - 0.75
D5 narrow gauge 0.90 -
Light material U-blade
1.20 1.20
(coal)
* Note: Angling blades and cushion blades are not
considered production dozing tools. Depending on job
conditions, the A-blade and C-blade will average 50-75% of
straight blade production.

Figure 108. Adjustment factors for bulldozer production rates in relation to grade. (Caterpillar

Performance Handbook, 1984).

EXAMPLE:

Determine the average hourly production of a 200 hp bulldozer (D7) equipped with a straight blade
and tilt cylinder. The soil is a hard packed clay, the grade is 15 percent favorable, and a slot dozing
technique is used. The average haul or push distance is 30 m. The soil weight is estimated at 1,200
kg/m3 loose, with a load factor of 0.769 (30 % swell). An inexperienced operated is used. Job
efficiency is 50 min/hour.

The uncorrected maximum production is 430 m3 loose/hour (from Figure 107) bulldozer curve D7S.
Applicable correction factors are:

Job efficiency
0.84
(50 min/hr)
Poor operator 0.60
Hard to cut soil 0.80
Slot dozing
1.20
technique
Weight
0.87
correction
Production = Maximum Production * Correction Factor

= (430 m3 loose/hr) (0.84) (0.60) (0.80) (1.20) (0.87) = 181 m3 loose/hour

Production (bank m3) = (181 m3 loose/hr) (0.769) = 139 bank m3/hr

Production rates for bulldozers are also influenced by grade and side slopes. Percent change in
haul distance with respect to changes in grade are shown in Table 40. As side slope increases,
production rate decreases. Typical production rates for a medium sized bulldozer in the 12 to 16
tonne range (for example, Cat D6) are shown in Table 41.

Table 40. Approximate economical haul limit for a 185 hp bulldozer in relation to grade. (Production
rates achieved are expressed in percent of production on a 10 percent favorable grade with 30 m
haul). (Pearce, 1978).

Haul Grade (%)
distance
(meter) -10 -5 0 +5 +10 +15 +20
  percent
15 54 72 90 126 161 198 234
23 43            
30   44 56 76 100 122 144
37     47        
45       54 70 86 102
60       42 54 65 77
75         43 52 62
90           43 51
105             43

Bulldozers, to summarize, are an efficient and economical piece of equipment for road construction
where roads can be full benched and excavated material can be side cast and wasted. It should be
noted, however, that side cast material is not compacted. Typically, this type of construction
equipment should only be used when: (1) side slopes are not too steep (ideally less than 50
percent), (2) adequate filter strips are provided along the toe of the fill, together with a barrier
(natural or artificial) to catch side cast material, and (3) erosion is not considered to be a significant
factor either as a result of soil type, precipitation regime, or both. Under these circumstances,
bulldozers can be used on slopes steeper than 50 percent. If sideslopes exceed 60 percent, end
hauling and/or use of a hydraulic excavator is highly recommended. Side cast wasting from
bulldozer construction represents a continuous source for raveling, erosion, and mass failures. On
steep slopes, bulldozers should only be used in combination with special construction techniques
(trench excavation, see Section 6.3.1).

Table 41. Average production rates for a medium sized bulldozer (12 - 16 tonnes) constructing a 6
to 7 m wide subgrade.

Sideslope (%) 0 - 40 40 - 60 > 60

Production rate in
12 - 18 8 - 14 6-9
meters/hour

6.2.2 Hydraulic Excavator in Road Construction

The hydraulic excavator is a relatively new technology in forest road construction. This machine
basically operates by digging, swinging and depositing material. Since the material is placed, as
opposed to pushed and/or sidecast, excellent control is achieved in the placement of the excavated
soil. This feature becomes more important as the side slope increases. Fill slope lengths can be
shortened through the possibility of constructing a catch wall of boulders along the toe of the fill.
This feature is particularly important when side slopes increase to over 40 percent.

Mass balance along the centerline is limited to the reach of the excavator, typically about 15 to 20
meters. However, because of excellent placement control, construction of a balanced cross section
can be achieved with considerably less excavation. Raveling disturbance and erosion is reduced as
well because of lesser excavation and little or no downhill drifting of embankment material (Figure
109).

Figure 109. Fillslope length reduction by means of catch wall at toe of fill. (See also Figure 55).

Production rates for hydraulic excavators are given in Table 42. Production rates are shown for
three different side slope classes. The values given are for a medium sized excavator with a 100
kW power rating (e.g., CAT 225, Liebherr 922).

Table 42. Production rates for hydraulic excavators in relation to side slopes, constructing a 6 to 7
m wide subgrade.

Side slope Production rate

% meter / ...hour
0 - 40 12 - 16
40 - 60 10 - 13
> 60 8 - 10

The excavator production rate approaches the dozer production rate as side slope increases. There
are now indications that excavator production rates are higher than dozer production rates on
slopes steeper than 50 percent. This difference will increase with increased rock in the excavated
material. The bucket of the excavator is much more effective at ripping than the dozer blade.
Excavators are also more effective at ditching and installing culverts.
6.3 Subgrade Construction

6.3.1 Subgrade Excavation with Bulldozer

Proper construction equipment and techniques are critically important for minimizing erosion from
roads during and after the construction. There are clear indications that approximately 80 percent of
the total accumulated erosion over the life of the road occurs within the first year after construction.
Of that, most of it is directly linked to the construction phase.

In order to keep erosion during the construction phase to an absolute minimum, four elements must
be considered.

1. Keep construction time (exposure of unprotected surfaces) as short as possible.

2. Plan construction activities for the dry season. Construction activities during heavy or extended
rainfall should be halted.

3. Install drainage facilities right away. Once started, drainage installation should continue until
completed.

4. Construct filter strips or windrows at the toe of fill slopes to catch earth stumps and sheet erosion
(see Section 6.3.5).

The formation or construction of the subgrade begins after the clearing and grubbing (stump
removal) phase. Three basic construction techniques are commonly used: side cast fills and/or
wasting, full bench construction with end haul, and balanced road sections with excavation
incorporated into layered fills (Figure 110).

Side cast and wasting traditionally has been the most common construction method. It also has
been responsible for the highest erosion rates and making large areas unproductive. In this method,
most if not the full road width is placed in undisturbed soil (Figure 110). Excavated material is side
cast and wasted, rather than incorporated into the road prism. The advantage is uniform subgrade
and soil strength. It is unlikely that the travelled road width will be involved in fill failures. An obvious
disadvantage is the potential for erosion of loose, unconsolidated side cast material.

Side cast construction is the preferred construction method for bulldozers. The bulldozer starts the
cut at the top of the cutslope, and excavates and side casts material until the required road width is
achieved (Figure 111). It is important that the cut be started exactly at the "top of cut" construction
stake (point B, Figure 105) and the cutting proceed with the required cut slope ratio (see Section
6.1.4). Depending on the type of blade (S - or U - blade) the bulldozer can push or drift excess or
excavated material up to 100 meters in front of the blade along the road section to deposit it in a
stable place.

As the side slope becomes steeper, less and less of the side cast material is incorporated into the
side fill. Bull dozer equipment has very little placement control especially on steeper side slopes
where "sliver-fills" often result (Figure 112). These fills perform marginally, at best, and "full
benching" with side cast and wasting of excavated material is preferred by many road builders. The
result is a stable road surface but with a very unstable waste material fill.

Figure 110. Three basic road prism construction methods.

Figure 111. Road construction with a bulldozer. The machine starts at the top and in successive
passes excavates down to the required grade. Excavated material is side cast and may form part of
the roadway.
Figure 112. Sliver fills created on steep side slopes where ground slope and fill slope angles differ
by less than 7º and fill slope height greater than 6.0 meters are inherently unstable.
Side cast or wasted material cannot remain stable on side slopes exceeding 60 to 70 percent.
Under such conditions excavated material has to be end hauled to a safe disposal area. This
requires dump trucks and excavators or shovels for loading and hauling.

Unwanted side cast may result from dozer excavation on steep side slopes because of lack of
placement control. In order to contain side cast loss within the construction width of a full bench
road the so-called "trench-method" has been successfully used in the Pacific Northwest (Nagygyor,
1984). In this method the right-of-way timber is felled parallel to the road center line. Trees and
stumps are not removed. They will act as a temporary retaining wall for loose, excavated material
(Figure 113). A pioneer road is built at the top of the cut by drifting material against and on top of
the felled trees. Initial excavation and side cast loss can therefore be kept to a minimum. When rock
is encountered, dirt drifted against or on top of trees will form a temporary bridge to allow passage
of construction equipment.

Actual excavation is started about 10 to 12 meters from the loader by cutting a blade-wide trench
and drifting the material towards it. Loose material which escapes during this process is caught by
the felled trees and slash. As the cut gets deeper material will fall inside the trench from both sides
(Figure 113). Debris, stumps, tops and branches are pushed and loaded together with the
excavated material, if it is not placed in designated fills. Otherwise it can be separated out at this
point.

Figure 113. Trench-excavation to minimize sidehill loss of excavation material. Debris and material
falls into trench in front of the dozer blade. Felled trees and stumps are left to act as temporary
retaining walls until removed during final excavation.
6.3.2 Fill Construction

Fill construction is required to cross draws, creeks, flats or swampy areas and when excess
excavation has taken place. Road fills support traffic and therefore must withstand considerable
abuse. Only mineral soil, free of organic debris such as stumps, tree tops and humus should be
used. Fills should be constructed and built up in layers (Figure 114). Each layer, or lift, should be
spread and then compacted. Lift height before compaction depends on the compaction equipment
being used. Typically lift height should be about 30 cm and should not exceed 50 cm. A bulldozer is
not a good machine for compacting fills because of their low ground pressure characteristics. Fills
across draws or creeks are especially critical since they may act as dams if the culvert should plug
up. It is considered poor practice to build fills by end dumping instead of layering and compacting
(Figure 115).

Figure 114. Fills are constructed by layering and compacting each layer. Lift height should not
exceed 50 cm. Compaction should be done with proper compaction equipment and not a
bulldozer (from OSU Ext. Service 1983).

Figure 115. Fills which are part of the roadway should not be constructed by end dumping.  (from
OSU Ext. Service, 1983).
6.3.3 Compaction

Proper compaction techniques result in significant cost reduction and reductions in erosion. Erosion
potential is directly proportional to the excavation volume especially if it is side cast in
unconsolidated and loose fills. Conventional side cast techniques where most of the road surface is
excavated into a stable hill side results in approximately 25 to 35 percent more excavated material
when compared to "balanced" road design and construction where the excavation is incorporated
into the road prism. In the former case, most if not all of the excavated Material is wasted as loose
side cast material readily available for erosion. In the latter case, it has been incorporated into the
fill, properly compacted, and presumably unavailable for erosion.

The key to a stable, balanced road design is proper compaction of fill material. Haber and Koch
(1982) quantified costs for erosion and compaction for several types of sediment control treatments
on roads in southwest Idaho. This study represents an excellent example of applying uniform
criteria to examine differences between standard and non-standard construction techniques.

Costs were initially determined for each activity using two methods: (1) local (Boise) labor and
equipment rates, taxes, insurance, and servicing (repair and maintenance) including 10 percent
profit and risk margin, and (2) Regional Equipment Blue Book Guidebook which include margins for
profit and risk, fuel, oil, lubrication, repairs, maintenance, insurance, and incidental expenses. After
actual costs for each activity were calculated, average cost per unit and average crew cost was
determined based on design quantities. A comparison was then made between actual costs for
"non-standard" treatments and actual costs of standard treatments.

Average observed production rates for all activities were calculated for use in predicting time and
costs associated with "non-standard" construction techniques. Figure 116 illustrates an example of
their results in determining the cost of three different methods of embankment placement. These
methods are: (1) side cast embankments with no compactive effort, (2) layer placed (less than 30
cm (12 in) thick) embankments in which each layer is leveled and smoothed before each
subsequent layer is placed (some compaction is obtained during the leveling process as the
bulldozer passes over the material), and (3) controlled compaction in which embankments are
placed in layers (less than 20 cm (8 in) thick) followed by compaction with water and vibratory roller
to achieve relative density of 95 percent.

As expected, side cast embankment construction per volume costs the least and controlled
compaction the most. (Road 106781 was shorter and only a small quantity of earth was moved
resulting in a higher unit cost.) Total cost, however, for a road expressed in cost per unit length may
be very similar for side cast embankment and layered placement considering the fact that total
excavation volume may be up to 35 percent less for the latter case. As mentioned before, most of
this excavated material is now consolidated rather than loose. Combined with proper fill slope
surface treatment and filter windrows very little erosion can be expected.
It is worth noting that production rates of manual labor for excavation work are generally 3.8 to 4 m3
(5 yd.3) of dirt during eight hours of work (Sheng, 1977). However, these rates will vary widely
depending on terrain, soil, environmental, and psychological conditions of the work crew.

Figure 116. Excavation cost comparison for three different embankment construction techniques ( 1
cu.yd. = 0.9 m3). (after Haber and Koch, 1983).

6.3.4 Subgrade Construction with Excavator

Excavators are becoming more and more common in road construction. Because of their excellent
placement control of excavated material, they are ideal machines for construction under difficult
conditions. The backhoe or excavator should be the preferred machine on steep side slopes. The
construction sequence differs from the bulldozer approach and is explained below.

The excavator works from a platform or pioneer road at the lower end of the finished road.

1st pass: Pioneering of log and stump removal accomplished in the fist pass. Just enough
overburden is moved to provide a stable working platform (Figure 117). Logs are piled at the lower
side of the clearing limit.

2nd pass: After completion of the first pass the operator begins retracing its path. During this pass
unsuitable material is stripped and placed below the toe of the fill (Figure 118).

3rd pass: During the third pass, now working forward again, the exposed mineral soil is dug up for
the embankment construction. At the same time a ditch is prepared and the cut slope smoothed and
rounded. The portion of pioneer road or platform which consist of organic debris is outside the load
bearing road surface fill (Figure 119).

On steep side slopes the excavator is able to place large boulders at the toe of the fill (in a ditch
line) and place excavated material against it (Figure 55 and 109). Total excavation and exposed
surface area can be kept to a minimum.

Figure 117. First pass with excavator, clearing logs and stumps from construction site. Working
platform or pioneer road just outside of planned road surface width.
Figure 118. Second pass with excavator, removing or stripping overburden or unsuitable material
and placing it below pioneer road.

Figure 119. Third pass, finishing subgrade and embankment fill over pioneer road. Road side ditch
is finished at the same time.
6.3.5 Filter Windrow Construction

Erosion from newly built fill slopes can effectively be trapped through filter strips or windrows made
of slash and placed at the toe of the fills. This measure is particularly important and effective where
the road crosses a draw or creek. The effect of such filter strips on soil loss from new fill slopes is
shown in Table 43. Fill erosion from newly built slopes can be reduced by more than 95 percent
over a 3 year period (Cook and King ,1983). This time period is sufficient in most cases to allow for
other measures such as surface seeding, mulching, or wattling to become established.

Table 43. Fill slope erosion volume for windrowed and nonwindrowed slopes during a 3 year period
following construction (Cook and King, 1983).

Filter
Slope
Windrow (no Unprotected
Class*
windrow)
  m3 / 1000 m
1 0.30 33.29
2 0.65 64.30
*class 1: vertical fill height < 3
meter
class 2: vertical fill height 3 to 6
meter

Construction of filter strips:

1. Suitable material from the clearing and pioneering activity should be stockpiled at designated
areas either above or below the clearing limits. Slash should consist of tops, limbs and branches,
not to exceed 15 cm in diameter and 3,5 m in length. Stumps and root wads are not suitable
material and should be excluded.

2. Windrows are constructed by placing a cull log (reasonably sound) on the fill slope immediately
above and parallel to the toe of the fill (Figure 120) for the fill material to catch against. The log
should be approximately 40 cm in diameter and should be firmly anchored against undisturbed
stumps, rocks or trees.
3. Slash should be placed on the fill above the cull log. The resulting windrow should be compacted,
for example, by tamping it with the bucket of an excavator. It is important that part of the slash be
embedded in the top 15 cm of the fill. Filter strips are built during subgrade construction in order to
maximize their effectiveness. Care should be taken so as not to block drainage structures (outlets )
or stream channels.

Figure 120. Typical filter windrow dimensions built of slash and placed on the fill slope immediately
above the toe. The windrow should be compressed and the bottom part embedded 15 cm in the fill
slope. (after Cook and King, 1983).

LITERATURE CITED

Caterpillar. 1984. Caterpillar Performance Handbook, No. 14. Peoria, Illinois.

Cook, M.J. and J.G. King,1983. Construction cost and erosion control effectiveness of filter
windrows on fill slopes. USDA Forest Service, Research Note INT-335, November 1983.

Dietz, P., W. Knigge and H. Loeffler. 1984. Walderschliessung. Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg and
Berlin, Germany.
Haber, D. and T. Koch. 1983. Costs of erosion control construction measures used on a forest road
in the Silver Creek watershed in Idaho. U.S. Forest Service, Region 1 and University of Idaho,
Moscow, Idaho.

Nagygyor, S.A. 1984. Construction of environmentally sound forest roads in the Pacific Northwest.
In (ed Corcoran and Gill) C.O.F.E./U.F.R.O. Proceedings, University of Maine, Orono, and
University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, April 1984, p.143 - 147.

Oregon State University. 1983. Road construction on woodland properties. Or. St. Univ. Ext. Cir.
1135. Corvallis, Oregon. 24 p.

Pearce, J. K. 1960. Forest Engineering Handbook. US Dept. of Interior. Bureau of Land

Management. 220 p.

CHAPTER 7
ROAD MAINTENANCE
7.1. Introduction

Road maintenance is essential in order to (1) preserve the road in its originally constructed
condition, (2) protect adjacent resources and user safety, and (3) provide efficient, convenient travel
along the route. Unfortunately, maintenance is often neglected or improperly performed resulting in
rapid deterioration of the road and eventual failure from both climatic and vehicle use impacts. It
follows that it is impossible to build and use a road that requires no maintenance.

In order to plan for road maintenance needs, it is important to keep a complete set of "as built"
plans and records of all maintenance operations and observations. The as built plan should contain
the following:

1. Complete job index

2. Complete history of project from planning stage to construction
3. Photographic records
4. Exact location and observations of any unstable conditions in relation to the road location
5. Exact location of culverts and other drainage features
6. Wet areas that may have required additional excavation and replacement with more
suitable ballast backfield materials
7. All major changes made to the original plan

Probably the most valuable tool for any maintenance program is the knowledge and experience
gained by individuals performing the maintenance. Every effort should be made to retain competent,
knowledgeable, and experienced individuals in these positions not only from the standpoint of
instituting and executing a good maintenance program, but for future road planning needs as well.

In deciding on an appropriate level of maintenance for a particular road or road segment,

consideration must be given to the amount and type of vehicle use and physiographic and climatic
variables which may impact drainage structures. A useful guide to the types and frequency of
maintenance activities appropriate for a given road is shown in Table 43.

7.2 Drainage System Maintenance

Drainage structures must be kept free of debris and obstructions. On newly constructed roads, or in
upstream areas where heavy earth moving is taking place (e.g., urban development, logging,
mining, etc.), cleaning may have to be more frequent.

Grass growing in ditches, unless it is dense enough to cause a major impediment to flow, should
not be removed during cleaning. Likewise, shoulder and cut banks must not be undercut.

Table 44. Typical road maintenance activities appropriate for a given road use level.

Management
Types of Activities
Decision for
That Could Be Expected
Road
Always open - Regularly scheduled running surface
reshaping or repair
- Regularly scheduled ditch and culvert
cleaning, repair
- Yearly brush, tree, snag safety check,
removal
- Yearly stream trash removal around channel
crossings
- Yearly reseeding and/or fertilizing of cut and
fill slopes
- Yearly fence, cattle guard check
- Snow thaw road check and repair
- Storm damage and pollution control
structure check and repair
- Seasonal check of signs and notices
Closed-usable - Periodic dust control near inhabited or work
areas
- Pre and post rainy season channel crossing
and ditch maintenance
- Storm damage and pollution control
structure check and repair
- Yearly brush, tree, snag safety check,
removal
- Yearly reseeding and/or fertilizing of cut and
fill slopes
- Periodic check of closure controls and signs
- Yearly fence, cattle guard check
Closed-not - Pre and post rainy season channel crossing
usable and ditch maintenance
- Yearly stream trash removal around channel
crossings
- Yearly inspection and maintenance of
drainage structures
- Road outsloped and/or water barred;
channel crossings usually removed
- Periodic check of closure controls and signs
Reactivate- - Reconstruct channel crossing structures
unusable (culverts, etc.)
- Reinstall ditches and cross drains, if needed
- Clear debris, slides, trees; remove hazard
trees and brush
- Regrade and finish road surface
 - Sign and post as needed
- Check, repair, or install fence as needed
- Reconstruct road to higher standard if
necessary

The objective in "pulling a ditch" is to grade the ditch so as to clean it of debris that could divert flow
from the ditch on to the road surface. Hand clearing with a shovel is effective when the work load is
light or the presence of structures (e.g. cross drains or culvert inlets) make it impractical to use
heavy equipment. With a grader, the following procedure is followed:

1. Flag all culverts and cross drains

2. Remove snags, rocks, and other hazards before grading begins

3. Cut only the ditch bottom and shoulder; avoid undercutting the cut slope; do not redress the cut
slope

4. Spread fines into the road with surface reworking

5. Avoid working around culverts or other channel crossing structures so as to minimize damage to
inlets

Debris in and around culverts should be removed by hand or by grapples or tongs rather than by
heavy equipment working directly in the stream. Stream channels should be completely free of
floatable debris (branches, leaves, small logs, construction material, garbage, etc.) for at least 30 m
(100 feet) upstream. If plugging of a particular culvert occurs frequently and a debris deflector or
"trash rack" was not included in the original design, one should be installed as part of the
maintenance program.

7.3 Road Surface Maintenance

Road surfaces should be reworked only as necessary to provide a smooth running surface and a
good crown or slope for drainage. All-season roads will require continual monitoring for surface and
subgrade wear or deterioration. Rutting and loss of ballast often occur during rainy season use.
Snow removal equipment can also destroy the road surface by removing or altering the crown and
removing ballast. A plan should be in place to provide ballast when necessary to maintain continued
use of the road.

On non-surfaced roads, a grader on the first pass should move material from the shoulder to a
windrow in the center of the roadway. On the second pass, the blade should be centered on the
windrow and continue working along the roadway. The blade should be adjusted so as to provide a
slight slope or crown and should avoid cutting too deep into the road surface. Any excess material
should be stored in the berm--not sidecast over the edge of the fill.

A wide variety of chemicals are commonly used to treat road surfaces to minimize wear, reduce
dust, or de-ice. However, many of these products provide only minimal benefit and represent a
potential hazard to water quality (US Environmental Protection Agency, 1975). Oil based dust
palliatives must be used very carefully where the potential for entering surface or groundwater
exists. Likewise, salts such as sodium chloride (NaCI) and calcium chloride (CaCl2), along with
additives to prevent caking, rust, and corrosion, can cause acute and chronic toxicity in aquatic
organisms and fish, contamination of groundwater supplying public and domestic water users, and
death to vegetation adjacent to the road. Maximum salt concentrations can be found at soil surfaces
nearest the road, but because they can be readily leached, salts can easily enter groundwater. High
concentrations of salts have been found in streams during dry season low flows when the major
component contributing to stream flow consists of groundwater.

Sulfite waste liquor from pulping operations is used extensively for dust abatement, however, it too
has a potential for adversely impacting water quality through its high biochemical oxygen demand.
Fortunately, though, the BOD-containing agents in pulping liquors will oxidize rapidly on the road
surface. Controlled application during dry weather to prevent runoff will minimize impacts.

Herbicides used to control roadside vegetation represent the final class of road maintenance
compounds that present a potential health or water pollution hazard if used incorrectly. Compounds
such as dioxin, contained in 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T, are extremely toxic even in minute quantities.

Practices and methods to help minimize impacts from road chemicals include:

1. control application. Use only as much chemical as needed, both in concentration and rate
of application, to provide the desired effect. Chemical manufacturers provide detailed
information on the label of the container concerning dilution requirement, application rate
and method, worker safety precautions, spill cleanup procedures, and other useful
information. Be aware of weather conditions. Do not apply chemicals immediately prior to or
during rainfall. Provide adequate training, performance standards, and supervision of
application personnel and equipment. Perform trial applications to determine if calculated
application rate is adequate. Keep records of chemical compounds used, the target species
identified, concentration and application rates, vegetative growth stage (pre- or post-
emergent), any unusual vegetative or environmental factors present during the application,
and results of the application.
2. Use extra caution near streams. Avoid applying chemicals where the road crosses a
channel and for 20 m (60 ft) on either side. If necessary, provide a filter strip between the
road and the stream. Prevent spillage near or into streams. Do not, under any
circumstances, discharge unused chemical into a stream.
3. Disposal of excess chemical and container treatment. Clean and rinse equipment and
storage containers in an area where waste water can be safely collected and treated. If
necessary, collect and ship excess hazardous chemicals to an authorized hazardous waste
disposal facility.

7.4 Emergency Storm Response

An effective way of dealing with storm damage to roads and property is to provide for an emergency
response program in which personnel and equipment can be mobilized as needed on short notice.
This concept is similar in practice to that dealing with emergency measures used in fire control. The
purpose of the plan is to:

1. Prevent loss of life or injury

2. Prevent damage to soils, streams, fisheries, and other resources

3. Prevent and/or minimize damage to capital improvements, private property, roads, and other
features

4. Provide for efficient, economical, and necessary use of available finances, equipment, and
personnel

5. Evaluate structural and resource damage when it occurs and determine needs for corrective
measures to prevent further damage
Necessary items to include in a storm response action plan are:

1. A system to collect and analyze weather, soil, and road conditions

2. A communication system between personnel responsible for activating the storm action plan

3. Establishment of organizational plans and responsibilities for prevention and control of storm
damage

4. Methods of financing and documenting costs of personnel and equipment; outline of individuals
authorized to use finances, personnel, and equipment

5. Telephone numbers for providing public information and communication with law enforcement
and other public agencies

6. Provisions for monitoring the effects of storms and efforts to prevent damage; reconnaissance
and estimates of extent of damage to structures and resources; preliminary cost estimates

7. Storm damage reporting procedures

Weather data should be collected daily and should include daily amounts of precipitation,
cumulative precipitation per storm, total per season, month, etc. Any information indicating run-off
amounts, snow pack accumulation/melt rates, temperature, temperature changes, wind and
barometric pressure should be noted. Additional or more frequent information updates can be
requested as conditions warrant. A rating system for storms, such as that used for fires, can be
developed based on historical data and/or local knowledge. For each condition, a specific set of
activities ranging from observation to full region-wide patrols and work teams will be identified.

7.5 Road Abandonment and Reclamation

Forest roads are often designed for temporary or intermittent use in which two situations may exist:
(1) the road is planned for closure with the intent of reconstructing at some point in the future, or (2)
the road is planned for permanent closure. In the first instance, if the interval of non-use is relatively
short, a physical barricade blocking all entrances to the road may be all that is required provided
that periodic checks are made throughout the non-use period to ensure that road drainage
structures, erosion control measures, and other slope protection measures are functioning properly.
A barricade may consist of a locked gate or a variety of crude barriers constructed of native
materials--rock, slash, cull logs, etc.

If periodic checks and maintenance cannot be performed (e.g. during heavy snow pack conditions)
other measures in addition to barricading need to be taken. These measures might include installing
a system of rolling dips or water bars, outsloping, and stabilizing all cut and fill slopes (see Chapter
4). Scarification and revegetation of exposed surfaces, including the roadway itself, may be
appropriate depending on the type of road surface, the potential for erosion, and the non-use
period.

When an extended non-use period is planned and the risk of environmental damage from failure is
significant, a partial restoration of the original ground profile may be considered. The objective here
is to convert a portion of surface water flow back to subsurface flow and to provide more efficient
surface runoff capacity. An effective method, called "Kanisku" closure, can be used on sideslopes
less than 60 percent and is illustrated in Figure 121. If terrain and road conditions permit the use of
this technique without significant loss of soil over the edge of the fill, this procedure can be
accomplished with an angle-blade bulldozer. This technique is not appropriate on end haul
constructed roads, on ballasted or surfaced roads, on some soil types, or in regions with high
precipitation.

Figure 121. "Kanisku" closure is effective on side cast constructed roads on slopes up to 60

percent in areas with low to moderate precipitation.

Stream crossings on intermittent-use roads require special attention. In addition to guidelines

presented elsewhere in this book, design, construction, and maintenance considerations for
intermittent-use roads include:

1. Minimize the amount of culvert fill.

2. Use generous culvert end area estimates.
3. Design for permanent installation.
4. Plan for supplemental maintenance checks if there is any doubt as to the ability of the
installation to withstand heavy storm events.
5. If a stable installation is technically or economically infeasible, include subsequent culvert
removal if it can be accomplished with minimal water quality impact. If not, avoid the site.

Temporary log stringer bridges can be used when a stream crossing installation would require a
large amount of fill. With short non-use periods, it may be more economical to design a "longer life"
temporary bridge and leave it in place. With longer non-use periods, it is advisable to use a minimal
cost structure and remove it after use.

For channel crossing structures that have functioned satisfactorily for years, the best solution, in
most cases, is to leave it in place and restore it to its original condition (remove debris, clean
ditches, revegetate side slopes, reshape road surface crown). For those crossings having a high
failure risk, continued maintenance or partial or entire removal are the only choices, difficult as they
may be. If removal is chosen, the use of proper equipment and attention to timing can aid in
reducing the severity of water quality impacts. If total removal cannot be accomplished for technical
or economic reasons, a possible solution is a relief dip in the culvert fill (Figure 122). A relief dip
does not preclude the need for stabilization, but, rather, reduces the water quality impact upon
failure by directing the course of overflow water and reducing the amount of available sediment.

In the case of permanent closure, methods described above may be appropriate, making sure that
all culverts and bridges are removed and excess fill is hauled to a safe disposal area. Additionally, it
is also desirable to break up the road surface with deep penetrating hydraulic ripper teeth. This aids
in restoring soil permeability and enhancing revegetation.

For esthetic reasons, it may be desirable to completely restore the original ground profile, or
"deconstruct" the road. One way to accomplish this is to temporarily store excavated material and
then pack it back into the roadway following use. More commonly, excavated material is side cast,
and following use, pulled back up into the road prism with hydraulic shovel or dragline. On slopes
greater than 60 percent, it is highly recommended that excavation and side cast pullback be
accomplished during the same dry season. After deconstruction, the site is revegetated including
tree establishment where appropriate. Follow-up planting or fertilizing may be necessary for several
years following restoration.

Figure 122. Relief dip reduces the potential impact of culvert failure by reducing the amount of
potential sediment.

LITERATURE CITED

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1975. Logging roads and protection of water quality. EPA
910/9-75-007, NTIS, Springfield, VA 22161. 312 pp.