2006 AMA Sprayer

ISSN 0084-5841
VOL.37, No.2, SPRING 2006

Yoshisuke Kishida, Publisher & Chief Editor
Contributing Editors and Cooperators
- AFRICA - Verma, S.R. (India)

Kayombo, Benedict (Botswana) Soedjatmiko (Indonesia)
Fonteh, Fru Mathias (Cameroon) Behroozi-Lar, Mansoor (Iran)
El Behery, A.A.K. (Egypt) Minaei, Saeid (Iran)
El Hossary, A.M. (Egypt) Sakai, Jun (Japan)
Pathak, B.S. (Ethiopia) Snobar, Bassam A. (Jordan)
Bani, Richard Jinks (Ghana) Chung, Chang Joo (Korea)
Djokoto, Israel Kofi (Ghana) Lee, Chul Choo (Korea)
Some, D. Kimutaiarap (Kenya) Bardaie, Muhamad Zohadie (Malaysia)
Houmy, Karim (Morocco) Pariyar, Madan (Nepal)
Igbeka, Joseph C. (Nigeria) Ampratwum, David Boakye (Oman)
Odigboh, E.U. (Nigeria) Eldin, Eltag Seif (Oman)
Oni, Kayode C. (Nigeria) Chaudhry, Allah Ditta (Pakistan)
Kuyembeh, N.G. (Sierra Leone) Mughal, A.Q. (Pakistan)
Abdoun, Abdien Hassan (Sudan) Rehman, Rafiq ur (Pakistan)
Saeed, Amir Bakheit (Sudan) Devrajani, Bherular T. (Pakistan)
Khatibu, Abdisalam I. (Tanzania) Abu-Khalaf, Nawaf A. (Palestine)
Baryeh, Edward A. (Zimbabwe) Nath, Surya (Papua New Guinea)
Tembo, Solomon (Zimbabwe) Lantin, Reynaldo M. (Philippines)
Venturina, Ricardo P. (Philippines)
- AMERICAS - Al-suhaibani, Saleh Abdulrahman (Saudi Arabia)
Cetrangolo, Hugo Alfredo (Argentina) Al-Amri, Ali Mufarreh Saleh (Saudi Arabia)
Naas, Irenilza de Alencar (Brazil) Chang, Sen-Fuh (Taiwan)
Ghaly, Abdelkader E. (Canada) Peng, Tieng-song (Taiwan)
Hetz, Edmundo J. (Chile) Krishnasreni, Suraweth (Thailand)
Valenzuela, A.A. (Chile) Phongsupasamit, Surin (Thailand)
Aguirre, Robert (Colombia) Rojanasaroj. C. (Thailand)
Ulloa-Torres, Omar (Costa Rica) Salokhe, Vilas M. (Thailand)
Magana, S.G. Campos (Mexico) Singh, Gajendra (Thailand)
Ortiz-Laurel, H. (Mexico) Pinar, Yunus (Turkey)
Chancellor, William J. (U.S.A.) Haffar, Imad (United Arab Emirates)
Goyal, Megh Raj (U.S.A.) Lang, Pham Van (Viet Nam)
Mahapatra, Ajit K. (U.S.A.) Nguyen Hay (Viet Nam)
Philips, Allan L. (U.S.A.) Hazza’a, Abdulsamad Abdulmalik (Yemen)
- ASIA and OCEANIA - - EUROPE -
Quick, G.R. (Australia) Kaloyanov, Anastas P. (Bulgaria)
Farouk, Shah M. (Bangladesh) Kic, Pavel (Czech)
Hussain, Daulat (Bangladesh) Have, Henrik (Denmark)
Mazed, M.A. (Bangladesh) Pellizzi, Giuseppe (Italy)
Gurung, Manbahadur (Bhutan) Wanders, A. Anne (Netherlands)
Wang, Wanjun (China) Pawlak, Jan (Poland)
Illangantileke, S. (India) Marchenko, Oleg S. (Russia)
Ilyas, S. M. (India) Kilgour, John (U.K.)
Michael, A.M. (India) Martinov, Milan (Yugoslavia)
Ojha, T.P. (India)
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This is the 127th issue since its maiden isue in the Spring of 1971
EDITORIAL
We had excessively chilly weather in December and January in Japan. In the middle of February, it was warmer than
most years and, in Tokyo, the cherry trees began to bloom at the end of March, which was much earlier than in most
years. It may have been caused by global warming. In May, soon after cherry blossoms, we had a season of fresh green
in Tokyo.
The Symposium on Agricultural Machinery Education, organized by the Japanese Society of Agricultural Machin-
ery, took place in Tokyo in early April. The symposium was primarily concerned with the changes in the agricultural
machinery research and educational system within the organizational changes of universities, with respect to the terms
of agriculture, agricultural engineering, and agricultural machinery disappearing from the name of university depart-
ments.
This is not only in Japan but, also, in advanced nations in Europe and North America. The agricultural research and
educational system is, primarily, going to change in advanced nations, while the importance of agricultural develop-
ment never changes with continued growth of population and concerns about food security. Developing countries are
yearning for the transfer of useful agricultural mechanization technology from developed countries. However, the con-
ditions which support such transfer of technology are likely to fade in developed countries. The symposium on agricul-
tural machinery education should be held not only in Japan but also all over the world.
The Japanese term “agriculture” contains the concept of interaction between mankind and other life systems. Sus-
tainable harmonization with other life systems is the only way that mankind can continue to exist on the globe. It
should be kept in mind that we can make progress through such harmonization with other life systems or nature.
AMA specializes in agricultural mechanization for developing countries. Mechanization of agriculture will be more
important in the future for developing countries. AMA continues to use the key word of “agricultural machinery” in
cooperation with all the people concerned.
Yoshisuke Kishida
Chief Editor
Tokyo, Japan
May, 2006
CONTENTS
AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA
Vol.37, No.2, May 2006
Yoshisuke Kishida 7 Editorial

S.K. Dash, D.K. Das 9 Performance Evaluation of Bullock Drawn Puddlers
R.F. Orge, R.B. Benito 12 Design of a Knapsack Sprayer for Local Fabrication
Ahmad Tabatabaeefar 17 Current and Future Trends and Constraints in Iranian Agricultural
Ali Hajeiahmad Mechanization
V.I.O. Ndirika, A.J. Buys 24 Comparative Evaluation of the Performance of Intermediate Agri-
cultural Processing Technologies with Traditional Processing Tech-
niques for Cereal Crops in South Africa
H. Raheman, R.K. Sahu 29 Computer-Aided Design of Extended Octagonal Ring Transducer
for Agricultural Implements
S.S. Sivakumar, R. Manian 34 Optimization of Seed Rate of Direct Rice Seeder as Influenced by
K. Kathirvel Mechine and Operational Parameters
B. Shridar, P.K. Padmanathan 42 Reliability Analysis of Different Makes of Power Tillers
R. Manian
Mohammad-H. Saiedi Rad 48 Design and Development of a Two-Raw Saffron Bulb Planter
I.K. Tastra, Erliana Ginting 51 Determination of the Optimum Moisture Content for Shelling
Richard Merx Maize Using Local Shellers
Ali Aybek, Ismet Boz 58 The Influence of Various Factors on Tractor Selection
Bahattin Akdemir, Birol Kayisoglu 62 Effect of Impeller Materials on Centrifugal Pump Characteristics
Senel Kocoglu
Devanand Maski, T. Guruswamy 68 Performance Evaluation of a Safflower Harvester
Moustafa A. Fadel 72 Semi-Automatic VRT-Based Fertilization System Utilizing GPS
Ahmed El-Mowafy
Abdul Elghaffar Jomaa
A.F. Alonge, A.M. Olaniyan 79 The Effect of Dilution Volume, Water Temperature and Pressing
Time on Oil Yield from Thevetia Kernel during Extraction
R.J. Bani, M.N. Josiah, E.Y. Kra 84 Postharvest Losses of Tomatoes in Transit
Shin-Norinsha Co., Ltd. 87 The Present State of Farm Machinery Industry
Abstracts 92
Book Review 95
★　　　　　　　　★　　　　　　　　★
Instructions to AMA Contributors........................4 Back Issues......................................................... 103

Co-operating Editor...........................................100
Performance Evaluation of Bullock Drawn Puddlers
by
S. K. Dash D. K. Das
Associate Professor Professor and Head
Department of Farm Machinery and Power, Department of Farm Machinery and Power,
College of Agric. Engineering and Technology, College of Agric. Engineering and Technology,
Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology,
P.O. Bhubaneswar-751 003, Orissa P.O. Bhubaneswar-751 003, Orissa
INDIA INDIA
over the country plough was found working a number of times.

Abstract
to be 71.4l percent. This puddler Five bullock drawn puddlers of
This experiment was conducted in was recommended for use in the different makes were procured and
the farmers’ fields with five bullock farmers’ fields. the puddling operation was per-
drawn puddlers viz. the Implement formed in the farmers’ fields. The
Factory puddler, the CAET puddler, five puddlers were the Implement
the APAU puddler, the UP Agro factory puddler (Fig. 1), the CAET
Introduction
Industries harrow cum puddler and puddler (Fig. 2), the APAU puddler
the rotary blade puddler. The pud- Puddling is the mechanical ma- (Fig. 3), the UP Agro-industries disc
ding operations of these five imple- nipulation of soil in the presence of harrow cum puddler (Fig. 4) and the
ments were compared with that of water to mix fertilizer, manure and rotary blade puddler (Fig. 5). The
the country plough relative to the plant nutrients with soil uniformly performance of the above five imple-
puddling index, power requirement, throughout the field to reduce per- ments were compared with the coun-
field capacity, puddling efficiency colation loss of water and to facili- try plough with respect to puddling
and the cost of operation. The pud- tate the transplanting of seedlings index, power requirement, field ca-
dler manufactured in the College of by making the soil softer and more pacity, field efficiency, cost of pud-
Agricultural Engineering and Tech- level. The puddling operation is per- dling, energy saving and crop yield.
nology (CAET puddler) was found formed by the bullock-drawn coun- The best puddler amongst them was
to be the best with a puddling index try plough as the traditional practice selected and recommended for use
of 83.l0 percent, energy requirement and by several improved puddlers. in the farmers’ fields.
of 4.38 kwh/ha, field capacity of Not only does the puddler do good
0.l46 ha/hr, field efficiency of 70.l9 job churning the soil but, also, the
percent and operating cost of Rs. power requirement can be reduced
Theoretical Consideration
l29.l7 per hectare. The net energy as compared to the traditional meth-
saving per hectare for this puddler od of puddling by country plough The evaluation of puddling per-
Fig. 1 Implement factory puddler Fig. 2 CAET puddler Fig. 3 APAU puddler
VOL.37 NO.2 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 9
formance such as puddling index, corded throughout the test for each
Materials and Methods
field capacity, field efficiency and treatment and the results were ana-
cost of operation were determined This test was conducted in the lysed. The mean values of puddling
based on the following theory. farmers’ fields. The farmers provid- indices, field efficiencies, infiltration
Puddling index: The puddling ed all inputs and carried out all the rates, cost of operations and yields
index is the ratio of the volume of operations, as per recommendations, were compared with the mean val-
settled soil to the total volume of from tillage to harvest. The test ues for the country plough. Also, the
soil sample and is expressed as a plots were selected with uniform net energy saving and cost over the
percentage. size, slope, drainage, soil texture country plough were calculated and
V and irrigation facilities. The soil shown in Table l. It was found that
PI = Vs x 100 ...........................(1)
t samples were collected and tested the highest speed of 2.99 km/hr and
Where, before the experiment. The experi- draft of 80.81 kgf was observed in
PI = puddling index in per cent, ment used a RBD design with three T3 followed by T2 (2.8 km/hr, 80.72
Vs = volume of settled soil and replications. Net plot size was 20 m kgf), T1 (2.36 km/hr, 77.6 kgf), T4
Vt = total volume of soil sample. x l5 m. The study was conducted (2.06 km/hr, 8l.57 kgf) and T5 (2.25
A higher value of puddling index with the following treatments. km/hr, 56.23 kgf). This speed and
indicates the better quality of pud- T1 = Ploughing by MB plough draft relationship was due to varia-
dling. + puddling by Implement Factory tion in weights of the implements in
Theoretical field capacity: Theo- puddler addition to the width and depth of
retical field capacity is the rate of T2 = Ploughing by MB plough + puddling.
field coverage that would be ob- puddling by CAET puddler The effective field capacities for T1
tained if the puddler is operated con- T3 = Ploughing by MB plough + to T6 were 0.175, 0.146, 0.156, 0.106,
tinuously without interruption such puddling by APAU puddler 0.090, 0.014 ha/h, respectively. The
as turning at the ends and unclog- T4 = Ploughing by MB plough + least area was puddled by country
ging the blades, and is expressed in puddling by UPAI disc harrow cum plough due to increased number of
ha/hr (Equation 2). puddler operations and minimum width of
Effective field capacity: The ef- T5 = Ploughing by MB plough + coverage. The maximum value of
fective field capacity is the actual puddling by rotary blade puddler puddling index was T2 (83.10 per-
rate of coverage. It includes the time T6 = Ploughing by country plough cent) followed by T3 (78.79 percent),
lost from such events as making ad- + puddling by country plough T1 (73.85 percent), T5 (65.00 percent),
justments, turning at ends and un- The Parijat, Jaya and Ratna paddy T4 (63.51 percent and the lowest
clogging the blades and is expressed varieties were grown. Other inputs was T6 (54.85 percent). The highest
in ha/hr (Equation 3). like fertilizer, manure, irrigation value of puddling index of T2 was
The cost of operation was deter- and pesticide were kept constant for attributed to better churning of soil
mined by knowing the number of all the experiments. by the CAET puddler with widest
labour and bullock hours used to blade and a blade angle of 30 to 50
cover one hectare of land along with degrees. The field efficiencies for T1
Results and Discussion
the fixed and variable cost of the to T6 were 70.30, 70.19, 68.72, 70.30,
implement. The experimental data were re- 71.20 and 60.40 percent respective-
ly. The maximum depth of puddling
Working width of puddler (m) x Speed (km) was observed with T2 (19.80 cm)
Tf = 10 .........................(Equation 2)
followed by T3 (l9.38 cm), T5 (l7.10
Effective field capacity cm), T4 (16.30 cm), T1 (15.60 cm)
Field efficiency (percent) =
Theoretical field capacity x 100.....(Equation 3)
and T6 (8.00 cm). Due to this depth
of penetration of the implement the
draft requirement was also varied.
Comparing the effect of puddling
with the grain yield under different
treatments, the highest yield was ob-
served with T2 (17.60 q/ha) followed
by T3 (17.00 q/ha), T1 (14.41 q/ha),
T4 (l2.3 q/ha), T6 (9.40 q/ha) and T5
(9.00 q/ha). This was due to better
Fig. 4 UP Agro-industry Fig. 5 Rotary blade puddler puddling and provided favourable
disc harrow cum puddler conditions for better growth of the
10 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2006 VOL.37 NO.2
crops. puddling index with 83.10 percent. “Measurement of quality of pud-
Minimum energy was required From an economic point of view, dler”. Journal of ISAE, Vol 1 (1).
for T1 (2.97 kwh/ha) followed by T5 the Implement Factory puddler was Badhe, V. T., Gupta L. P. and Bhole,
(3.94 kwh/ha), T2 (4.38 kwh/ha), T3 found to be the best followed by N. G. l984. “Performance index
(4.47 kwh/ha), T4 (4.50 kwh/ha) and the APAU puddler, the CAET pud- for puddler”. Paper presented at
T6 (21.28 kwh/ha). When the net en- dler, the UPAI harrow cum puddler XXI annual convention of ISAE
ergy saving for each type of puddler and the rotary blade puddler. But, at New Delhi.
was compared with that of country comparing all other aspects such as ■■
plough it was observed that maxi- puddling index, power requirement,
mum energy could be saved for T1 field capacity, field efficiency and
(86.04 percent) followed by T5 (81.48 yield, the CAET puddler was found
percent), T2(78.99 percent), T3 (78.85 to be the best. This puddler was rec-
percent), T4 (71.41 percent). The cost ommended for use by the farmers of
of operation per hectare were Rs. this state for puddling.
103.14, 129.17, 118.97, 176.41, 211.33
and Rs. 1,210.71 for T1 to T6 treat-
ments, respectively. Accordingly REFERENCES
the net saving in cost from T1 to T5
was Rs. 1,107.51, 1,081.54, 1,091.74, Agrawal M. C., Singh, R., Batra,
1,034.30 and 999.38, respectively, M. L. and Agrawal, R. P. L978.
in comparison with the country “Evaluation of different imple-
plough. ments for puddling of rice soils”,
IL RISO, Anme XXVIL, No.4
Awadhwal. N. K. and Singh, C.
P. 1981. “Puddling of rice soils:
Conclusion
effect of puddling on hydraulic
The results of this study showed conductivity and pores space”.
that maximum energy saving was Paper presented at XVIII Annual
achieved with the Implement Fac- Convention of ISAE at Kernal.
tor puddler. However, when it was Annual report of Research and De-
compared with other puddlers with velopment Wing.l984-85. Imple-
respect to the puddling index, it oc- ment Factory, Satyanagar, Bhu-
cupied the third position. The CAET baneswar.
puddler had the highest value of Bhole N. G. and Arya, A. C. l964.
Sl.
Parameters T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
No.
1 Speed, km/h 2.36 2.80 2.99 2.06 2.25 2.10
2 Draft, kgf 77.60 80.72 80.81 81.57 56.23 49.91
3 Time required for puddling one ha, hr 5.73 6.86 6.67 9.42 11.05 69.83
4 Field capacity, ha/hr 0.175 0.146 0.156 0.106 0.090 0.014
5 Theoretical field capacity, ha/hr 0.250 0.208 0.227 0.150 0.024 0.128
6 Field efficiency, percent 70.30 70.19 68.72 71.30 71.20 60.40
7 Width, m 1.06 0.75 0.76 0.73 0.57 0.12
8 Depth of puddling, cm 15.60 19.80 19.38 16.30 17.10 8.00
9 Total energy requirement, kwh/ha 2.97 4.38 4.47 4.50 3.94 21.28
10 Grain yield, q/ha 14.45 17.60 17.00 12.30 9.00 9.40
11 Straw yield, q/ha 30.67 38.80 35.55 30.90 25.70 13.50
12 Puddling index, percent 73.85 83.10 78.79 63.51 65.00 54.85
13 Dispersion of slit clay, percent 16.40 38.10 35.20 9.40 13.60 3.70
14 Total energy per quintal of grain yield, kwh/q 0.205 0.248 0.262 0.365 0.437 2.28
15 Saving of energy, percent 86.04 71.41 78.99 78.85 81.48 -
16 Cost of operation, Rs./ha 103.14 129.17 118.97 176.41 211.33 1,210.71
17 Saving of cost, Rs. 1,107.57 1,081.54 1,091.74 1,034.30 999.38 -
Table 1 Performance results of puddlers
Design of a Knapsack Sprayer for Local Fabrication
by
R. F. Orge R. B. Benito
Senior Science Research Specialist
Undergraduate Student,
Philippine Rice Research Institute
Central Luzon State University,
Central Luzon State University,
Muñoz, Nueva Ecija
Muñoz, Nueva Ecija
Philippine
Philippine
there have been dramatic advances the pesticide each time the tank
Abstract
in pesticide application technology is refilled. Moreover, these spray-
A lever-operated knapsack sprayer in the past decades, the LOK sprayers do not have a mechanism to
with features to improve efficiency er is still the principal tool used by maintain pressure adequate for a
and safety in pesticide application our farmers today. uniform nozzle discharge, which is
was designed and fabricated. The In the Philippines, despite the necessary to attain a more accurate
prototype, which was 2 kg lighter popularity and high demand of and effective pesticide application.
than existing Taiwan sprayers, fea- LOK sprayers, there has been no This study is, therefore, designed
tured a 13-liter capacity plastic tank, effort to manufacture them locally. to develop a low cost and easy to
a plunger-type pump assembly, a In the past, there were about 4 or 5 fabricate LOK sprayer with features
pressure chamber made from PVC local manufacturers importing the to improve efficiency and safety in
plastic pipe, a pressure regulator to sprayer parts (stainless steel tank, pesticide application.
control the operating pressure at a brass pump and fittings, etc.) and
pre-set level, and a fine-mist, low- assembling them. But because of the
volume nozzle. high price of stainless steel, these
At least 50 % reduction in the local manufacturers found it hard to
number of tank loads per hectare compete with the existing Taiwan Design Criteria
could be achieved with the designed sprayer, which is taking much of the The sprayer was designed based
sprayer. This enabled farmers to market (Yang, 1988 as cited by Res- on the following criteria:
save time in spraying as well as urreccion and Cutay, 1991). Farmers Low cost. The design was made
reduce the risk of pesticide contami- usually buy LOK sprayers on the as simple as possible to make it easy
nation every time a spray solution is basis of price with little or no con- to fabricate using local fabrication
prepared. sideration for the choice of nozzle, materials, tools and equipment. The
In general, the design of the pro- durability or ease of operation (Mat- ultimate target was to lower the cost
totype sprayer was acceptable to the thews, 1990). enough for it to compete with the
farmers interviewed. Some sugges- Existing farmers’ sprayers are price of existing farmers’ sprayers.
tions were offered by these farmers equipped with high discharge noz- Easy to repair/maintain. Compo-
for further refinement of the design. zles suitable for for every hectare nent parts were designed to be com-
treated, and about 200 to 400 liters patible with the existing farmers’
of water per hectare are needed sprayers for easy maintenance and
(Awadhwal et al, 1992). This not replacement of parts.
Introduction
only delays the spraying operation, Durable. This considered the
The use of pesticides has been since the 16-liter capacity sprayer corrosive effects of the chemicals
and will remain both necessary and tank has to be refilled at least 10 and the mechanical loads of critical
essential to help meet the increasing times. It also increases the risk of parts during operation and handling.
need for enough food for the world’ exposure to pesticide contamina- Safe and comfortable to use.
s increasing population. Although tion since the operator has to handle Minimizing the operator’s risk of
pesticide contamination was given times the displacement of the pump Field testing was conducted in a
prime consideration in designing (Thornhill, 1991). 15 m x 40 m plot at PhilRice field
every part of the sprayer. Likewise, Pressure regulator. This was de- with rice plants (manually broad-
for ease of operation, the sprayer signed to complement the nozzle in casted) at booting stage and water
was designed to be as light as possi- order to maintain nozzle discharge, level at 3 cm. Volume of spray ap-
ble - not to exceed 20 kg at full tank even if the operating pressure fluc- plied was verified as well as the
capacity. The possibility of reducing tuates due to excessive or non- density of droplets delivered by the
the force applied at the handle dur- uniform frequency of pumping by nozzle. The density of droplet was
ing pumping was also explored. the operator. determined by collecting droplet
Efficient. A mechanism that could Tank. Designing and fabricat- samples in the field using water
prevent (or, at least, minimize) pres- ing a new tank entailed additional sensitive papers that were placed
sure fluctuations during operation, cost, hence, commercially available at a distance above the ground sur-
regardless of irregular or excessive plastic containers were considered. face equivalent to 50 % of the plant
pumping of the operator, was incor- This required the pump as well as height and 0.5 m horizontal distance
porated in the design. Maintaining the pressure chamber to be installed apart, for a total span of 8 m per-
the pressure results in a uniform outside of the tank, unlike the exist- pendicular to the direction of travel
nozzle discharge, which is one im- ing sprayers. Necessary supports of the sprayer operator.
portant factor reqired to attain the were designed to rigidly hold parts A representative farmers’ sprayer
desired amount of pesticide to be in place. (Fig. 1) was also tested, along with
applied. Cut-off valve. A commercially the designed sprayer to have some
available cut-off valve was used. basis of comparison. The sprayer
Design of Parts Various designs are commercially was equipped with a twin-orifice
Nozzle. The design of the CRDI available however; the one that re- nozzle but, during testing, one of
low-volume nozzle (Orge, et al, quired one-hand manipulation was the orifices was closed.
1992) was considered and modifica- selected.
tions were made to allow for mass Filtering system. The water used Farmers’ Participation in Proto-
fabrication through a plastic mold- in mixing the pesticide usually type Development
ing process. An orifice size of 1.0 came from an irrigation or drain- The designed sprayer, after be-
mm (Hewitt, 1984) was selected. age canal that, in most cases, is not ing tested at PhilRice, was brought
Component parts of the nozzle were free from sand and other impurities. to eight farmers in Munoz, Nueva
designed to permit easy cleaning (to Hence, the need for a good filtering Ecija for trial testing in the field.
eliminate the idea of blowing with system. The sprayer was designed Str uctured questionnaires were
mouth) when clogging occurred. to accommodate 2 stages of filtering prepared and used as a guide to
Pump. The design of pump com- to eliminate, or, at least minimize, gather feedback from these farmers
ponents, particularly the cylinder clogging. regarding the design, operation and
and the plunger, considered the performance of the prototype.
adverse effect of repeated loads dur- Testing and Evaluation
ing pumping. In the existing spray- The prototype was tested both Fig. 1 The farmers' sprayer
ers, the pump ranked first in terms in the laboratory and in the field. (Taiwan model)
of parts that easily get damaged, Laboratory tests included determin-
repaired or replaced (Resurreccion ing nozzle and pump performance
and Cutay, 1991). This was because, parameters (discharge, droplet den-
of all the parts, it is the one that is sity, angle of swath and volumetric
exposed to high pressure and re- efficiency) at varied operating pres-
peated load. For farmers’ sprayers, sures (15, 30 and 45 psi). Droplet
the pump cylinder experiences tan- density was determined by counting
gential (tensile) stress varying from droplet samples from water sensitive
0 to 1,000 psi or more for each suc- papers (WSP) placed on the ground
tion and compression stroke, which with the nozzle passing 30 cm above
is repeated at least 2,400 times for them at about 1 m/s speed. Results
every hectare sprayed. were analyzed to determine the ap-
Pressure chamber. In order to pro- propriate operating pressure of the
vide a pulsation-free delivery at the sprayer, which was the basis for de-
nozzle, the capacity of the compres- signing and calibrating the pressure
sion chamber was made at least 10 regulator.
Fig. 2 The designed LOK sprayer Table 1 Performance of the two LOK sprayers tested at
three operating pressures under laboratory condition
Nozzle discharge Droplet density Swath angle Volumetric
Pressure (ml/min) (no./cm 2) (degrees) efficiency (%)
(psi)
D* F D F D F D F
15 224.4 476.4 163 113 80 84 64.1 66.1
30 302.4 623.6 203 199 88 88 72.5 74.6
45 360.0 736.8 244 186 88 92 78.6 79.7
Mean 295.6 612.3 203 166 85.3 88 71.7 73.5
*D: designed sprayer, F: farmers' sprayer
cause possible pescitide contamina- simple tools.

tion of the operator. A pressure regulator (Fig. 3), fab-
As shown, the protot y pe was ricated from PVC pipe and fittings
equipped with a 13-liter capacity and other local materials, was con-
plastic container that serves as its nected at the outlet of the pressure
tank. The larger opening served as chamber. This maintained a uniform
the main inlet while the smaller one pressure of the liquid going to the
Fig. 3 The prototype's served as the suction inlet where nozzle, even at varying pressures at
pressure regulator
PVC fittings and a hose connected the pressure chamber due to irregu-
it to the valve assembly. The valve lar pumping.
assembly controled the flow of the The prototype was equipped with
liquid from the tank to the pressure a hollow cone-type nozzle with
chamber during each suction and parts fabricated from plastic resins
compression stroke of the pump. using simple molding techniques
The pump could be operated by except the orifice that was made
either the left or right hand just like from stainless metal sheet.
the existing farmers’ sprayer. It was The prototype weighed 20.5 kg at
equipped with a longer handle to full tank capacity, and was lighter
lessen the force of pumping. The than the existing farmers sprayer by
pump cylinder, which was made 2 kg.
The Test Prototype from brass tube (normally sold as
Figure 2, shows the designed a replacement part for the existing Laboratory Test Results
LOK sprayer after several improve- farmers’ sprayer) was reinforced Nozzle and pump performance.
ments were made in the initial pro- with fiber glass for durability. It was The designed sprayer had a signifi-
totypes. Improvements were mainly installed in such a way that, like the cantly lower nozzle discharge than
focused on the design of major parts plunger, it could easily be removed the farmers’ sprayer (Table 1). This
such as pump, pressure chamber and and replaced by the farmers using was expected since the orifice of
pressure regulator and their place-
ment with reference to the tank. A Fig. 4 Performance curve of the designed pressure regulator
major problem encountered and ad- Output pressure, psi
dressed in the initial prototype was 70
w/o Pressure regultr�
outp
the leak at the pump that, because it
60 Input P increasing�
is installed outside the tank, could Output P decreasing inpu
50
Table 2 Field performance of the two LOK sprayers
tested at PhilRice field
40
Parameter
Designed Farmers' w/o
sprayer sprayer 30
Spray volume, liters/ha 35 95
Number of tank loads per hectare* 2.7 5.7 20
Average pumping frequency, strokes/min 16 16
Walking speed while spraying, m/s 0.46 0.65 10
Width covered per pass, m 3.8 3.4
0
*Tank capacity 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
designed sprayer: 13 liters, farmers' sprayer: 16 liters Input pressure, psi
Table 3 Farmers' comment on performance of the designed was adjusted by turning the screw
sprayer as compared to their existing sprayers that controls the magnitude of com-
Better Same Worse pressive force exerted by its spring
Performance parameters
No.* % No. % No. % on the diaphragm.
Operation
Pumping operation 5 62.5 - - 3 37.5 Results of Field Tests at PhilRice
Ergonomics Volume applied. Field test results
Weight 8 100.0 - - - - confirmed the significant differ-
Ease of filling the tank 3 37.5 - - 5 62.5 ence of the volume of liquid applied
Ease of cleaning 3 37.5 - - 5 62.5 per unit area between the designed
Performance and the existing sprayer (Table 2).
No. of tank loads 3 37.5 5 62.5 - - Although the designed sprayer had
Uniform discharge 5 62.5 3 37.5 - - a smaller tank than the existing
Size of droplet 4 50.0 4 50.0 - - sprayer, with it, the frequency of
Density of droplet 5 62.5 3 37.5 - - refilling the tank was reduced by 50
Overall performance - - 8 100.0 - - %. This reduction could be more if
*Number of respondents having the same comment (total = 8) the walking speeds in operating the
two sprayers were the same. Dur-
the designed sprayer had a 0.5 mm might be too exhausting for the oping testing of the designed sprayer,
smaller diameter than the exist- erator. The 30 and 15 psi pressures, however, the operator seemed to
ing sprayer. Droplet density, on the on the other hand, could already swing the lance farther (which re-
other hand, was relatively lower in satisfy the minimum required drop- sulted to a wider coverage per pass)
the existing sprayer as compared to let density set which was 100 to which could have affected his walk-
the designed sprayer. Although no compensate for the 20 droplets/cm 2 ing speed.
actual measurements were done, minimum requirement in the plant The reduction in spray volume
the droplets in the designed sprayer (Hewitt, 1984). However, the angle mea nt t hat , w it h t he de sig ne d
appeared to be smaller compared of swath was relatively low at 15 psi. sprayer, a farmer could save time
to those in the existing sprayer. The Follow up tests; however, revealed in spraying and, most importantly,
two sprayers had comparable volu- that operating the sprayer at 20 psi reduce the risk of pesticide contami-
metric efficiencies. pressure could already satisfy the nation when handling chemicals
The only basis for selecting the set requirements. when refilling of the tank. If the
desired operating pressure was the Pressure regulator performance. two orifices of a twin nozzle were
nozzle performance. The 45 psi As shown in Fig. 4, the device’s used (which was what some farmers
pressure produced more fine and output pressure ranged from 18 to were doing), this reduction could be
drift-prone droplets (as visually 22 psi for input pressures of 20 to doubled.
observed) compared to lower pres- 70 psi. As expected, the output pres- Droplet density. Under field condi-
sures. Moreover, the pumping force sure tended to decrease at higher tions, the average droplet density of
required to maintain such pressure input pressures. The output pressure the designed sprayer was relatively
Fig. 5 Droplet density of the two LOK sprayer tested at PhilRice Fig. 6 Acceptability of the design of parts
field (Arrows indicate location where operator passed) of the prototype sprayer
Droplet density, No./cm2 Acceptability, %
120 100
Designed splayer�
existing
100 Existing splayer
80
80
60
60 designe
40
40
20
20
0 0
0 � 1 � 2 � 3 � 4 � 5 � 6 � 7 � 8 Tank Handle Pump P Chamber P Regltr Nozzle
Distance, m Sprayer part
low as compared to that of the exist- sprayers. In their overall assess- gestions of the farmer respondents
ing sprayer. Like the existing spray- ment, they found the performance may be already sufficient to come
er, however, it satisfied the mini- of the designed sprayer comparable up with the final design of the spray-
mum requirement of 20 droplets/ to their sprayers (Table 3). er although additional tests at farm-
cm2. The effect of overlapping spray On design. In general, the design ers’ fields and gathering of feedback
coverage during each pass was more of the prototype parts were accept- would be more appropriate.
obvious with the farmers’ sprayer able to the farmer respondents (Fig.
than with the designed sprayer. This 6). Of all the parts, the pressure
was manifested by the rise in drop- regulator, the nozzle and pump were REFFERENCES
let density between operator paths. the most acceptable to them. Some
A more uniform coverage was seen suggestions, however, were given Awadhwal, N. K., G. R. Quick and
when the droplet density remaind for further improvement of the de- E. F. Cabrido. 1992. Spinning
the same at any location relative to sign (Table 4). The most common brush very-low-volume pesticide
the path of the operator. suggestion was on increasing tank applicator. Paper presented during
and pump capacity and placing the the 42nd PSAE Annual National
pump inside of tank. Some wanted Convention held at MMSU, Batac,
a cover for the pressure chamber for Ilocos Norte.
Results of Farmers’ Field
safety and aesthetic reasons. Half Hewitt, L. M. 1984. Spray applica-
Tests
of the respondents suggested a lon- tion technology. Mimeographed.
The Respondents ger hose and lance for the designed Matthews, G. A. 1990. Visit to
Each of the eight farmer respon- sprayer. IRRI. A consultancy report (mim-
dents who had tried operating the eograph).
designed sprayer owned Taiwan Orge, R. F., L. T. Pascua and D.
sprayers and 2 to 6 hectares of rice Castro. 1992. Design and devel-
Conclusion and Recom-
farms. They usually sprayed their opment of a low-volume sprayer
mendations
fields 2 to 3 times each cropping nozzle. Paper presented during
period at 6 to 8 tank loads (16 liters This study was designed to de- the 42nd PSAE Annual National
per tank load) per hectare. velop a low cost and easy to fabri- Convention held at MMSU, Batac,
cate LOK sprayer with features to Ilocos Norte, April 22-24, 1992.
Farmers’ Comments improve efficiency and safety in Regional Network For Agricultural
On performance. All of the farmer pesticide application. Machiner y. 1983. R NAM test
respondents noticed the advantage Results of field tests revealed that codes and procedures for farm
of the designed sprayer as being the performance of the prototype machinery. Technical Series No.
lighter than their sprayers. Five out sprayer was better than that of the 12.
of the eight respondents also noted existing sprayers commonly used Resurreccion, A. N. and S. M. F.
that the designed sprayer was easier by the farmers. This was further CUTAY. 1991. Paper presented to
to pump and had a better nozzle confirmed when the prototype was the workshop on small sprayers
perfor mance compared to their tested by selected farmers. The sug- standards, safety and future direc-
tion, November 18-20, Bombay,
Table 4 Farmers' suggestions for further improvement of the prototype India.
Thornhill, E. W. 1991. Some views
Frequency*
Sprayer part Suggestions for improvement on side lever knapsack sprayers.
No. %
Paper presented to the workshop
Increase tank capacity 6 75.0
Tank on small sprayers standards, safe-
Widen tank inlet 2 25.0
Modify shape so as not to touch the shoulder
ty and future direction, November
Handle 4 50.0 18-20, Bombay, India.
and back while pumping
Increase pump capacity 6 75.0 ■■
Pump
Pump should be inside of tank 6 75.0
Pressure chamber Provide cover 5 62.5
Nozzle Adjustable nozzle 1 12.5
Delivery hose Increase length 4 50.0
Lance Increase length 5 62.5
Threaded connections for durability and
Connections 1 12.5
leak proofing
* Total n = 8
Current and Future Trends and Constraints
in Iranian Agricultural Mechanization
by
Ahmad Tabatabaeefar Ali Hajeiahmad
Associate Professor Agricultural Machinery
Head of Agricultural Machinery Engineering Department
Engineering Department University of Tehran,
University of Tehran, Karaj, IRAN
Karaj, IRAN
[email protected]
areas at the expense of the migra- ares of horticultural trees. The two
Abstract
tion of human resources and capital main farming systems are irrigation
Iranian agricultural mechaniza- investment must be avoided. (41.9 %) and rain fed (dry land; 41.2
tion continues to experience a lack % (MAJ, 2004). The Azarbayjan
of technical or scientific manage- province has the highest percentage
ment, or mismanagement in general. of cultivated land at 8.9 % of total
Introduction
What does the future hold? The (MAJ, 2004).
key objectives of this study were to Iran is 1.65 million square kilome- The total area under cultivation
identify farming power, estimate the ters in size and is 25º to 47º latitude and the timeliness and efficiency
inventory of agricultural equipment and 39º longitude, north of the equa- of crop husbandry is strongly influ-
at the farming household level, and tor. The average elevation is 1,200 m enced by the amount of available
to identify the status of manufac- above sea level with the lowest eleva- farm power and its efficient use.
turing, sales, and services and the tion being Lootchaleh at 56 m above The increased usage of farm power
constraints and opportunities for im- sea level and the highest elevation for cultivation creates increased
provement, particularly in agricul- being at Mt. Damavand at 5,610 m. demand for agricultural machinery
tural mechanization and production. The country currently has 30 prov- for harvesting and storage and gen-
T here a re t wo mai n fa r m i ng inces and 282 major cities. Climatic erates employment opportunities in
systems in Iran; irrigated and rain conditions are desert and semi-des- the agricultural service industry. It
fed (dry land). The main crops are ert with 30-250 mm annual rainfall, is therefore important to establish
wheat, oats, peas, alfalfa, and rice. along with cold and moderate moun- the quantity of available farm power
There are three types of farming tainous regions. Cold mountainous and its application in various agri-
power and farming households. regions average over 500 mm annual cultural activities (soil preparation,
For agricultural mechanization rainfalls and encompass an area of sowing, weeding, spraying, harvest-
development, the government must 40,000 square kilometers. Moderate ing, processing, etc). The key objec-
support more research and develop- mountainous regions, which cover tives of this study were:
ment opportunities, hire qualified about 300,000 square kilometers of • To identify the farming power
youth and willing graduates and the country, average 250-600 mm of sources in the country (manual, ani-
increase international cooperation. rainfall annually. A narrow strip of mal and motorized), their relation-
Increased financing of agricultural northern Iran between the Caspian ship to farming systems, and how
machinery manufacturing is also Sea and the Alborz Mountains has they are expected to change in the
necessary along with the distribu- an annual rainfall of 600-2,000 mm near future.
tion of tractor power based on re- (MAJ, 1999). • To estimate the inventory of ag-
gional, technical needs. A program Iran has over 14.9 million hect- ricultural equipment at the farming
of expansion and education should ares of agricultural land, with 12.4 household level.
be developed. Government policy million hectares under annual crops • To identify the amount of agri-
that hinders development in rural and approximately two million hect- cultural equipment that is manufac-
Table 1 Principal crops and Table 2 Share of principal of about 969 thousand tons agricul-
area under cultivation farming systems tural commodities with a value of
Year 2004 Year 2004 683 million dollars. This reflects a
Principal Total Percent 5 % increase relative to 1999 (MAJ,
crops Yield Area Principal farming
output systems Area of total
(‘000t)
(t/ha) (‘000ha)
(‘000ha) arable 2000). There have been 2-3 years of
Wheat 14,568 2.20 6,608 area drought, which has strongly affected
Oats 2,940 1.84 1,600 Irrigated 6,255 41.94 agriculture. Agricultural costs have
Rice 2,542 4.16 611 Dry land* 6,145 41.21 increased sharply, which has put
Cereal 21,977 2.42 9,092 Permanent crop** 2,513 16.85 such a high cost for the production
Alfalfa 4,367 7.38 592 Total 14,913 100.00 of some crops that they are unrea-
Melon 3,748 19.91 188 *Dry land: rain fed sonable to produce. There has been
Pistachio 185 0.43 431 **Permanent crop: horticulture a definite increase in greenhouse
Pomegranate 692 11.16 62 production recently.
Circus fruits 4,121 15.67 263 cial services and the development of
a thriving black market. Also, the cost
tured locally or imported and the of living for farmers is frequently Methodology and Results
available service facilities. higher than their annual income. Ira-
• To identify the constraints and nian population has increased 3.1 % 1. Farming Systems, Farming
opportunities for improvement in over past 10 years, however the per- Households, Agricultural Produc-
the sustainable livelihood of farm- cent employed has not increased at tion, and Farm Power Sources
ing households, particularly in rela- the same level, indicating an 18.9 % The main crops are wheat, oats,
tion to agricultural mechanization increase in the unemployed. The ag- peas, alfalfa, and rice, each utilizing
and agricultural production. ricultural sector contributes 20.04 % more than 500,000 hectares (MAJ,
of the gross national product, which 1997-01, 2000, 2004). There are
Overview of the Current Econom- is relatively low with respect to the three types of farming power avail-
ic and Social Situation service sector (Mojtahedi, 1996, able: human, animal and motorized
Iran has a population 68 million MAJ, 2000, MAJ, 1998-01). (single and twin axle tractors) (Ta-
and an overall agricultural force of Average farm size is about five batabaeefar, 1998).
23,806,251 (35 %) (Third Yearbook hectares and has an annual yield 1.1 Principal Crops and Area Un-
of Agriculture, 2004). The number of 3,500 kg of wheat per hectare, der Cultivation
of people engaged in agriculture which sells for about 11.76 million Wheat, oats, peas, alfalfa, and rice
increases at a rate of about 15 %. rials. This is barely a subsistence have average yields, in both systems,
However, since the urban popula- level. Farmers increase their income of 2.4, 1.84, 2.37, 7.38, and 4.16 tons/
tion increased 42.6 % over the past with the sale of other goods or with ha respectively, as shown in Table
10 years, it is evident that people are a second job to make ends meet. 1. Citrus fruits, apples, pistachios
moving out of rural areas to the cit- Some far mers have cash crops, and dates are the main horticultural
ies. Reasons for this migration are which amount to 30-40 million rials crops (MAJ, 1997-01, 2002, 2004
the occupational opportunities, so- per year. There has been an export and Personal interviews, 2002).
Cultivated land and yield, %
12
10
0
Khorasan Khuzistan Kermansha Azarbayjan Lorastan Ardabill Zanjan Isfahan Gillan Bousheher Kahkoleh Charmehal Semnan Yazd
Fars Azarbayjan Kerman Golastan Hamedan Kurdestan Mazenderan Markazi Ghazvin Tehran Elam Systan and Hormozgan Qom
Provinces
Fig. 1 Cultivated land and its yield by province
Table 3 Distribution of farming systems by farming household
Farming households
Principal Small Medium Large Total
farming No. of Households Percent of No. of Households Percent of No. of Households Percent of Percent of
systems (‘000ha)
(‘000) (‘000ha) total area (‘000) (‘000ha) total area (‘000) (‘000ha) total area total area
Irrigated 2,381 2,108 35 2,158 2,409 40 1,202 1,505 25 6,022 100
Dry land NDA 1,578 25 NDA 1,263 20 NDA 3,473 55 6,314 100
Total 3,686 30 3,672 30 4,978 40 12,336 100
NDA: No date available
Khorasan province has the high- industrial cooperatives exist. about 3,195 kg/ha (MAJ, 2000).
est percentage of annual crops, with 1.1.2 Principal Farming Systems Dry land farming system uses
10.93 % of the total cultivated area, and Farming Households all the three power sources. Some
followed by Khuzistan, Azarbaijan, Distribution of farming systems farmland is steep or hard to reach
Fars, Loristan, and Kordestan prov- by farming household is shown in and the distribution of farmland is
inces. These six provinces account Table 3 for small, medium and large non-uniform. In these cases, there
for 42.6 % of the total cultivated scale farming. Small-scale farmers is more reliance on human power.
land. Tehran, Isfahan, Mazanderan, rely more on manpower and less Principal dry land farming will show
Kerman, and Gilan provinces have on other power. These small-scale an increase in the use of twin axial
higher yields per land area. The to- farms are less than two hectares and tractors in the future. There has
tal annual crop production is 47.62 account for 7-83 % with about 35 been some indication of this from
million tons, with 87.19 % from ir- % irrigated and 25 % dry land. The 1995-2000 that shows a decrease in
rigated land and the rest from dry average-farming households are human power sources. The average
land farming. Other provinces have 1.3-5 people. (Personal interviews, wheat yield is about 593 kg/ha in
lower output, as shown in Fig. 1 2002 and Tabatabaeefar, 2002). dry land farming (MAJ, 2000).
(MAJ, 1998-01, 1997-01, 2000, 2001, 1.1.3 Principal Farming Systems, Conservation agriculture is not
2004). Figs. 2 and 3 show grain Power Sources and Conservation strongly considered in Iran. There is
and cereal yields per province. The Agriculture a hope for the future since produc-
central provinces yield about 4 mil- Irrigated farming uses all the three tion is not increasing and the soil is
lion tons of grain, with the Lorastan power sources, but mainly the trac- becoming less fertile.
province having the highest yield. tor twin axial as shown in Table 4. Virtually every farmer has a shov-
1.1.1 Principal Farming Systems Single axial tractors are extensively el and a hoe and some have tractors
Irrigated and dry land crops total used in paddy fields. There is some but most use rented tractors. A small
41.94 % and 41.21 %, respectively, traditional agriculture; however, the number of households use single
as shown in Table 2. Under both trend is towards less human and ani- axial tractors.
farming systems, small farm hold- mal power and more tractor power in Greenhouses provide higher in-
ings, tenant farming, share crop- annual crop agriculture. In irrigated come and higher yields in a smaller
ping, cooperatives, and government- farming, the average wheat yield is area. However, crops are sprayed
Grain yield, thousand tons

4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Markazi Fars Mazenderan Golastan Azarbayjan Azarbayjan Isfahan Kerman Ardabill Ghazvin Zanjan Charmehal Elam Qom
Khorasan Khuzistan Gillan Lorastan Hamedan Kermansha Kurdestan Bousheher Systan and Tehran Kahkoleh Semnan Yazd Hormozgan
Provinces
Fig. 2 Grain yield by province
Table 4 Principal irrigated farming systems ufacturing Corp.) and 0.7 % was
Propotion of arable area in each farming system Propotion of Darvana models (MAJ, 2001).
cultivated by power source (%) arable area under 2.2 Inventory of Tools and Equipment
Year
Draft Tractors tractors conservation at the Farming Household Level
Hand Total agriculture
animals single axle twin axle
About 87% of farmers own twin
1995 14 5 3 78 100
axial tractors with soil inverting im-
2000 12 3 2 83 100 Almost none
plements and hand tools for primary
2005 10 1.5 2 86.5 100
tillage, and 92 % do secondary till-
2010 8 0.75 1.75 89.5 100 About 15 percent
age with tractor driven implements.
up to 20 times to protect against small amount of processing ma- About 87 % of farms own manual
disease. Other methods of disease chinery is available. It is very likely planting equipment (MAJ, 2001,
protection must be investigated. The that this will increase because of the Personal interview, 2001).
high percentage of human power decreasing human and animal labor 2.2.1 Overall Percentage of Farm-
in greenhouse crops (64 %) will be pool. On small farms, most of the ing Households Owning Items
replaced by motorized power. processing is done by human labor, For manual primary tillage, about
but this trend will change with more 72 % of farming households own
2. Inventory of Farm Power Sourc- processing machinery being used. hand tools, 22 % own draft animals
es, Tools and Equipment About 98 % of the primary tillage and hand tools, and 6 % own single-
All types of tractors, from single of some agricultural crops is now axle tractors and hand tools. The to-
axial to crawler tractors, exist in the done by machine (MAJ, 2001, Taba- tal of primary tillage hand tools was
country. The majority of tractors tabaeefar, 1998). estimated at 4,601. Farms owning
are 60-80 horsepower, as shown in 2.1 Inventory of Farm Power Sources twin axle tractors and hand tools
Fig. 4 (MAJ, 2001), and are 4-18 In 2001, 1,192 tractors and 30 self- for tractor-drawn primary tillage
years old (Tabatabaeefar, et al., propelled harvester combines were soil inverting (moldboard plough,
2002). Some new tractors have re- produced (Ministry of Industry and disk plough) and soil non-inverting,
cently been distributed. Universal Mining, 2001). In 2000, 7,474 trac- (chisel plough) totals 230,573.
tractors account for 53 % with 41 tors, 363 combines, 230 self-pro- Iranian farmers most frequently
% being Massy Ferguson and a few pelled harvesters, 1,024 tillers, 733 use operator-carried sprayers. Oper-
John Deere models (MAJ, 2001). A moldboard ploughs, 138 disks, 388 ator-carried spray equipment totaled
large number of animal types are seed broadcasters, 141 deep seeders, 77,587 number and 59 % of farms
available to the farmers as shown in 281 sprayers, 31 choppers and 52 owning tractors and hand tools have
Table 5. About 35 % of the popula- milking machines were distributed operator-carried sprayers. About
tion works in agriculture with 86 (MAJ, 2000). Khuzistan province 77 % of farms owning twin axles
% being male and 14 % female as received 8.7 % of the moldboard tractors and hand tools (FHTATH)
shown in Table 5 (Third Yearbook ploughs and Ilam province received have tractor-operated spray equip-
of Agriculture, 2001). 13.5 % of the combines distributed. ment, totaling 15,709 households.
Five to 20 kW diesel engines are Of the tractors distributed, 82 % About 8,750 self-propelled combine
primarily used for irrigation. A were MF 285 models (Tractor Man- harvesters are primarily for hire.
Cereal yield, thousand tons
100
80
60
40
20
0
Lorastan Azarbayjan Fars Zanjan Khorasan Ardabill Charmehal Gillan Golastan Kahkoleh Systan and Hormozgan Semnan Qom
Kermansha Azarbayjan Kurdestan Khuzistan Markazi Kerman Mazenderan Hamedan Isfahan Elam Ghazvin Tehran Yazd Bousheher
Provinces
Fig. 3 Cereal yield by province
A strong union in Shiraz harvests Fig. 4 Tractor power and tractor model distribution (2004)
from the south to the north of Iran JD 3%
over a three-month period, but most 25 Number of tractor, thousand others�
of these combines are old. There are 5%
20
6,627 John Deere combine harvest-
ers, 686 Class combines and 940 15
other types. Motorized post harvest MF�
30% Universal�
equipment accounts for 59 % of 10
62%
FHTAT (52,614).
5
Most transport is hired but 66 %
of farming households own draft an- 0
imals and hand tools (FHOADPH). 15-30 30-60 60-80 80-110 over 110
FHADPH use manual transport. A Power, HP
total of 405,558 (82 %) FHTATH use (a) Tractor power (b) Tractors by model
irrigation pumps. Surface irrigation
is common, covering 7,593,600 hect- About 15 % of human power is made locally, especially threshers.
ares. Sprinkle and drip irrigation has used in areas with steep slopes and Single axle tractors with the needed
recently been introduced, but with hard to reach areas. About 2 % of accessories have recently been man-
little success. Parts and filtration farms use animal power and the rest ufactured in Iran. Farming house-
systems and the cost of layout are use mechanical power (Tabatabaeef- holds owning tractors are about 65
the main obstacles (P.I., 2001). ar, 1998). However, a good percent- % and most moldboard ploughs,
2.2.2 Inventory of Tools and Equip- age of the farms using human and disks, planters, tractor-drawn spray-
ment of Typical Farming Households animal power needed tools that are ers and harvesters are made locally.
2.3 Inventory of Equipment at Typ-
Labor and power sources to year 2000 Numbers
ical Village or Community Level
Number of farming households 5,711,000
In 2000, agricultural machinery
On-farm manual labor Number of active female farming households 766,000
distributed totaled 3,068 units,
Number of active male farming households 4,945,000
whereas i n 1993 t he tot al was
Oxen & cows 218,000
18,859 units (MAJ, 2001). The num-
Buffalo -
ber of tillers declined from 1,054 to
Horses 130,000
21 units because the area of the ar-
Animal traction Donkeys 1,177,000
able land has not changed and is not
Mules 116,000
needed. The number of sprayers dis-
Camels 87,000
Others 200,000
tributed was 5,333 units in 1993. In
Single axle 123,842
2000, it was 281 units (MAJ, 2001).
Up to 40 kW 25,181 The government instituted two
40-100 kW 211,981 five-year development programs,
Tractors Twin axle which are known as the second and
Above 100 kW 539
% FWD 18 third five-year programs (MAJ,
Clawler 9 2001). The third five-year program
Up to 3 kW - ends in 2006. The core of the mecha-
Electric 3-10 kW 113,536 nization development plan aims at
Motors for crop
processing Above 10 kW - a higher degree of mechanization
(Estimate of equipment Up to 3 kW - through the production and advertise-
in use) Diesel/Petrol 3-10 kW - ment of machinery and the pursuit of
Above 10 kW 10,000 internal governmental support. The
Up to 5 kW - degree of mechanization for planting
5-20 kW 11,133 was 26 % in 2000 and the third five-
Electric year program aims to increase that
Motors for irrigation 20-50 kW 12,986
processing Above 50 kW 9,380 to about 50 % (MAJ, 2001). This
(Estimate of pumps in Up to 5 kW - program is progressing slowly.
use) 5-20 kW 242,409
Diesel/Petrol
20-50 kW 59,785 3. Manufacturing, Imports, Ex-
Above 50 kW 69,859 ports, Sales and Servicing
Table 5 Number of households and available power sources There are over 1,500-farm ma-
chinery outlets (MAJ, 2001) with CKD system. Electric motors are and balers with a value of $0.94 mil-
adequate inventory and reasonable mainly imported, although some are lion.
prices. Producers must lower both made in Iran, but diesel motors are • Eshtad Iran: this Company pro-
the quality and price of their prod- mainly made in Iran (insufficient in- duces 7.5-13 horsepower tillers with
ucts in order to make them attrac- formation on motor types). All pric- a value of $0.81 million.
tive for sale. Some farm machinery es are coded in rials at the official Most agricult ural machiner y,
plants have tried exporting goods, rate of $1 = 9,000 rials. This price especially 7.5-110 hp tractors, are
but have met with little success. may change when the official rate produced in Iran. Nearly 100 % of
Farmers receive loans through the increases, as has been proposed. primary tillage and a high percent-
Keshavarzi Bank to buy machin- The total value of power sources age of secondary tillage machinery
ery. There are three factories that sold over one year was $547.2 thou- have been produced either officially
produce tractors, two producing en- sand dollars. Agricultural equip- or unofficially in the country. There
gines, two producing tillers and one ment and tools sales were $4,965.6 is little importing, with the excep-
producing self-propelled and trac- thousand dollars. tion of some machinery parts.
tor-drawn harvesters. Depending 3.2 Manufacturers of Agricultural 3.3 Marketing, Sales, Servicing and
on the factory, most important parts Equipment Support Services to Agricultural
(5-95 %) are imported (completely Several main factories produce Mechanization
knocked down-CKD) and the ma- tractors, engine, tillers, self-pro- The Centre for Development of
chine is assembled in Iran. In 2000, pelled harvesters, and combines. A Agricultural Mechanization of the
about 628 motor pumps were sold list of top producers (Personal inter- Ministry of Agricultural Jihad sells
(insufficient information on power view, 2001) is as follows: some machinery to the farmer. Its
type). There are about 3,797 station- • Tractor Sazi Company: this agents are private and also sell other
ary and 629 mobile maintenance company produces tractors of 46 to products from private companies.
and repair shops (MAJ, 2001). 110 horsepower with total capac- Unfortunately there is no serious
3.1 Count and Value of Agricultural ity of 20000 units. There is another servicing and supporting services
Power Sources, Tools and Equipment group within this company called from the manufacturers (shown in
Tractors of 7.5-80 hp are mostly Motorsazan that produces engines Table 6). However, the agents them-
produced in Iran, some by joint for tractors, ships, and boats. selves provide good maintenance
venture. Higher horsepower tractors • Combine Sari of Iran: this Com- and services to farmers. A system
are ordered through the license and pany produces combines, mowers of direct buying and servicing must
be provided.
Strengths (S) Weaknesses (W)
Factors relating to agricultural mechani- Factors relating to agricultural mechani- 4. The Future for Agricultural
zation that promote its development in the zation which hinder its development in
country. the country. Mechanization in Iran
Plentiful fossil fuels and solar energy Lack of farm-based policy for mechaniza- The Centre for Development of
sources, tion development, Agricultural Mechanization has
Suitable human resources, Lack of proper extension services, tried through the five-year programs
Variable climate conditions, Poor distribution of governmental dici-
Water and soil resources, sion-making bodies responsible for agri- and other plans to support mecha-
Marginal waste area of land, cultural development, nization development. They have
Improved industry and services, Partial success of five-year programs, observed testing of new foreign or
Suitable beds of technology improvement, Lack of large-scale farms,
Overall mechanization study carried out, Lack of control over services and repair, Iranian-made machinery. They have
Second and third five-year programs Lack of private agricultural mechaniza- provided education and extension
tion groups, services. There is still a need for
No uniform distribution of tractor power
serious planning, testing, teaching,
Opportunities (O) Threats (T)
Factors external to agricultural mechani- Factors external to agricultural mechani- and training cycles.
zation that may present new opportunities zation that may present new threats to its A serious drawback to the agri-
for its development in the country. development in the country. cultural machinery production sys-
Fallow areas to produce new markets in Unsuitable technology transfer, tem is cash flow. The farmer cannot
Asia and the Middle East for agricultural Government policy which may hinder de-
products, velopment in rural areas at the expense of get a quick loan to buy what he
Research and development opportunities, migration of human resources and capital needs and may not be able to make
Marginal areas of land that can be im- investment, payments in lean years. The govern-
proved by mechanical power, Increased cost of technological services, ment should consider supporting
Young and willing educated graduates, Reduction of cash f low to agricultural
International cooperation machinery manufacturers the farmer through the purchase of
Table 6 Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) goods and subsidies.
to development of agricultural mechanization
Conclusions REFERENCES Ministry of Industry and Minerals,
2004. Summary of Performance
T he Cent re for Development Agricultural Experts Group. 2001. of the Ministry of Industry and
of Agricultural Mechanization is Third Yearbook of Agriculture in Minerals, Bahman, 1383
working toward a better degree of Iran, pp. 345-370. Mojtahdi, A., 1996. “Department
mechanization by producing the Food and Agriculture Organization, of Economic Development of the
needed machinery and advertising 1995. World Agricult ure: To- Majlis: population and occupa-
mechanized farming systems and wards 2010. John Wily and Sons, tion.” Majlis and Pazhouhesh
instituting government support for Chichester, New York, Brisbane, Magazine, pp123-130.
production. In 2000, the degree of Toronto, Singapore. Tabatabaeefar, A. and Almasi, M.,
mechanization for planting was 26 Ministry of Agricultural Jihad., 2002. Farm Power Study in Iran.
% and the Centre believes it will 1998-2001. Agricultural Statisti- Project No. PO- 112515-2002. 1-25,
be 50 % after the conclusion of the cal Investigations Booklet. publi- Report to FAO-AGSE. 1 report.
second five-year program. These cation no. 77/01. Tabatabaeefar, A., and A. Javadi,
programs are progressing slowly. Ministr y of Agricultural Jihad, 2004. Sustainable Tillage Meth-
A few factors strengthen agricul- 20 0 0. Ag r icult u ral St at ist ics ods in Irrigated Wheat Field for
tural mechanization, such as ample Booklet. Publication no. 79/15. Different Regions of Iran. ASAE/
fossil fuels and solar energy sources, Ministr y of Agricultural Jihad, CSAE annual international meet-
suitable human resources, a variety 20 01. Ag r icult u ral St at ist ics ing of Agricultural Engineering.
of climate, water and soil resources Booklet, publication no. 80/03 ASAE Paper No. 040117. August
and marginal waste of land. How- Ministr y of Agricultural Jihad, 1-4, 2004. Ontario, Canada.
ever, the lack of farm-based policy 1997-01. Iran Agricultural Infor- Tabatabaeefar, A. 2004. Agricul-
for mechanization development, lack mation Bank. Publication no. 76/01. tural Mechanization development
of proper extension services, the dis- Ministr y of Agricultural Jihad, parameters. International Con-
tribution of governmental decision- 2000. Iran Agricultural Informa- ference on Agricultural Mecha-
ma k i ng bod ies responsible for tion Bank, publication no. 79/17. nization Development Methods,
agricultural development, and the Ministr y of Agricultural Jihad, Karaj- Iran. 21-22 December
inefficient use of agricultural ma- 2000. Centre for Development of Tabatabaeefar, A., Nowrouzieh,
chinery have made the two five-year Agricultural Mechanization Over- Sh. and Ghorbaninasar, G., 2005.
programs only partially successful. view of Agricultural Mechaniza- Impact of Alleviation of soil com-
For agricultural mechanization tion, Bahman, 1379. pactness on water use and yield
development, the government must Ministr y of Agricultural Jihad, of cotton. International Journal
support more research and develop- 2001. Centre for Development of of Agriculture and Biology. (ISI
ment opportunities, hire qualified Agricultural Mechanization Ag- Journal) 07-6:885-888. Friends
youth and willing graduates, and ricultural Machinery Producers Science publishers.
increase international cooperation. Booklet, Esfand, 1380. Tabatabaeefar, A. and Omid, M.
Increased financing of agricultural Ministr y of Agricultural Jihad, 2005. Current Status of Iranian
machinery manufacturing is also 2004. Centre for Development of Agricultural Mechanization in. In-
necessary, along with the distribu- Agricultural Mechanization Ag- ternational Journal of agriculture
tion of tractor power based on re- ricultural Machinery Producers and social sciences 2: 196-201.
gional and technical needs. Booklet, Esfand, 1383. Friends Science publishers.
A program of expansion and edu- Ministr y of Agricultural Jihad, Tabatabaeefar, A., Ahmadi, M.,
cation should be developed. Govern- 2000. “Centre for Development of Borghei, A.M., 2002. “Model of
ment policy that hinders develop- Agricultural Mechanization. CD repair and maintenance cost of
ment in rural areas at the expense of of information, a complete bank tractors in Kermanshah”, Journal
the migration of human resources of agricultural mechanization.” of Agricultural Science, Azad
and capital investment must be Ministr y of Agricultural Jihad, University Research and Science
avoided. 2004. “Centre for Development of Unit, vol. 30, pp 12-20.
Agricultural Mechanization. CD Tabatabaeefar, A., 1998. “Compari-
of information, a complete bank son of agricultural mechanization
of agricultural mechanization.” in Iran relative to other countries”
Acknowledgements
Ministry of Industry and Minerals, Proceedings of the 7th Interna-
The author extends his apprecia- 2000. Summary of Performance tional Conference of Energy and
tion to University of Tehran and to of the Ministry of Industry and Mechanization, Adana, Turkey.
the Ministry of Jihad Agriculture. Minerals, Bahman, 1380 ■■
Comparative Evaluation of the Performance of
Intermediate Agricultural Processing Technologies
with Traditional Processing Techniques for Cereal
Crops in South Africa
by
V. I. O. Ndirika A. J. Buys
Senior Research Fellow / Senior Lecture Professor and Director
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Institute for Technological Innovation,
Institute for Agricultural Research, Faculty of Engineering University of Pretoria
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria South Africa
NIGERIA
The test result revealed that shell- the milling methods had a statically
Abstract
ing of maize with tractor wheels significant effect on flour output and
An evaluation of the performance incurred the highest percentage of flour loss. The degree of fineness
of a (1) t ractor powered maize grain damage. A maximum grain of sorghum flour particles obtained
sheller and shelling with tractor output of about 80 kg/hr was ob- using the milling technologies were
wheels; and (2) electrical and diesel tained with the tractor powered greater than that from the traditional
operated sorghum milling machines maize sheller compared to 30.90 kg/ milling technique. The difference in
compared with traditional maize hr by shelling with tractor wheels the milling methods have significant
shelling and sorghum milling tech- and 13.19 kg/hr with the traditional effect on the degree of fineness of
niques was conducted at Vergelegen shelling techniques. Shelling with flour for particle size greater than
rural community in the Northern tractor wheels has the lowest shell- 1000 micrometers and less than 150
Province of South Africa. ing eff iciency of about 73.76 % micrometers at the 0.05 level.
The performance of the maize when compared with the other
shellers and the traditional shell- shelling methods. The difference of
ing techniques were evaluated in shelling with intermediate technolo-
Introduction
terms of shelling efficiency, grain gies and traditional techniques show
output and grain damage, while the statically significant differences The concept of intermediate tech-
sorghum milling machines and the on grain damage, grain output and nology was presented by Shumacher
traditional milling techniques were shelling efficiency at the 0.05 level. (1973) as an alternative course for
evaluated in terms of flour output, Greater f lour output from sor- development of poor people, which
losses and quality of output. The ghum was obtained with the milling enable them to work themselves out
performance of these intermediate technologies than with the tradition- of poverty. He described it simply
processing technologies for shelling al milling technique. Higher loss of as a “middle way” between tradi-
and milling operations were then sorghum flour resulted with the use tional and modern technology. It is
compared with the traditional pro- of traditional milling technique than therefore obvious that the concept
cessing techniques of performing with the other two milling tech- of intermediate technology will en-
the same operations. nologies. Thus, the difference in able rural people to become more
productive in their activities, self- pling by animals, tractor wheels or in Sudan. Unfortunately, economic
sufficient, sustain income genera- foot during shelling operations is re- difficulties limit the increase in sor-
tion and create surpluses, which can ported to cause heavy losses, since ghum industrialization. Industrial
be reinvested in their families, busi- a percentage of the grain is crushed. technologies for milling sorghum
nesses and communities. Also, when shelling is done on an are yet not well developed. Not all
The processes of separating food earth floor, dirt and other impurities sorghum varieties can be used suc-
grain from the pod (shelling) can be can be mixed with the grain (FAO, cessfully in industrial processing
a great loss if performed incorrectly. 1989). (FAO, 1989).
The most widespread methods of Traditionally, sorghum is usually Vergelegen, which was the tar-
shelling maize are such traditional ground to produce a meal. Pounding get community for this study, is a
methods as pricking the grain off with a pestle and mortar is a widely rural community in the Northern
the cob with thumbs, rubbing two used traditional method, along with Province of South Africa and is no-
cobs together (holding one in each grinding slowly between two stones. table for cereal production. Cereal
hand), or beating the cobs in a sack Hammer mills powered by petrol or crops such as maize and sorghum
with a stick or rubbing the cobs diesel engines have been installed are central to the nutrition of rural
across a rock. Simple shelling de- in many trading centers. In some subsistence areas of the Northern
vices have been invented which can areas, such as Botswana and Nige- Province of South Africa. The seeds
be easily made locally. One of these ria, sorghum hulling equipment has of these crops are used by the rural
is a hand held wooden sheller. A been installed in rural areas to sup- communities in South Africa for
number of maize shellers for man- plement the hammer mills. These making meals, porridges, bever-
ual operation, suitable for small- are mainly custom operations where ages and cakes. In spite of the food
scale producers are manufactured farmers bring their clean grain for and nutritional importance of these
commercially and industrial-scale polishing and grinding for a fee. A crops to human diet, it’s processing
producers make use of a wide range small number of commercial sor- (shelling and milling) has been and
of engine-operated machines. Tram- ghum processing mills are active remains a serious problem to the
Parameter Specification Parameters Specifications
Model of tractor used FORD 6600 Power source Diesel
Power source Diesel Input power 24 HP
Method The maize sheller is powered by tractor Engine type 2 cylinder lister engine
Speed of sheller 1,048 rpm Speed of mill 2,538 rpm
Speed of drive 406 rpm Speed of drive 2,000 rpm
Dia. of drive pulley 12 cm Dia. of mill pulley 13 cm
Dia. of Sheller pulley 31 cm Dia. of drive pulley 16.5 cm
Maize variety CG. 4141 Fuel consumption 20 liters / 4 bags of maize
Fuel consumption 90 liters / 200 bags Table 4 Description and specification of milling machine 1 (Mill 1)
Grain moisture content 16 % (wet basis)
Table 1 Description and specification of the maize sheller Parameters Specifications
Power source Electrical
Motor Single phase; 2.2 kW, 12 Amp, 220 V
Parameters Specifications Speed of mill 1,806 rpm
Gender (operator) Female Speed of drive 1,693 rpm
Method of shelling Hand Dia. of mill pulley 15 cm
Weight of operator 56 kg Dia. of drive pulley 16 cm
Height of operator 154 cm Electricity consumption R100 / month for 108 kWh by coupon
Age of operator 54 years Table 5 Description and specification of milling machine 2 (Mill 2)
Table 2 Description and specification
of traditional maize shelling operator Parameters Specifications
Gender Female
Method Grinding with stone
Parameters Specifications Weight of operator 57 kg
Model of tractor FORD 6610 Height of operator 150 cm
Power source Diesel Weight of grinding stone 3.9 kg
Method Shelling with tractor wheels Age of operator 70 years
Table 3 Description and specification of Table 6 Description and specification
the maize shelling with tractor wheels of traditional milling of sorghum
farmers. However, the processing ing the same operations in the target machines (Mills 1 and 2) and tra-
techniques for these crops are pre- community. ditional processing techniques for
dominantly by traditional methods, The specif ic objectives of the maize shelling and sorghum mill-
which are unproductive, laborious, study were as follows: ing. The following parameters were
time wasting, unhealthy and often • To evaluate the performance of measured and evaluated during the
result in great losses of crops. At maize shelling and sorghum milling experiments as recommended by
Vegelegen, shelling of maize is technologies available in the com- ILO (1984) and Ndirika (1994).
achieved by pricking by hand, rub- munity. Shelling efficiency (SE, %) = 100
bing with stone, beating with sticks, • To compare the performance of - (Qu /QT ) x 100 ..............................(1)
running tractor wheels over heaps maize shelling and sorghum milling Grain output (GO, kg/hr) = Qs /T
of maize, and with a tractor pow- technologies respectively with tra- ..............(2)
ered maize sheller. Also, milling of ditional shelling and milling tech- Grain damage (GD, %) = Qb /QT
sorghum is by grinding with stones niques available in the community. x 100 .................................................(3)
on the floor and with electrical and Flour output (FO, kg/hr) = Qfo /T
diesel powered machines (Ndirika, ..............(4)
2000). Flour losses (FL, %) = (QT -Qfo) /
It is a common view that inter- QT x 100 ..........................................(5)
mediate agricultural processing Description of the Intermediate Flour quality (% of particles in
technologies, if introduced in the Technologies and Traditional category): Determined by the de-
rural communities, would improve Techniques for Maize Shelling gree of fineness of flour particles.
the economy and productivity of the and Sorghum Milling where,
rural fold. But over the years few The intermediate technologies Q u = quantity of unshelled grain
intermediate processing agricultural and traditional techniques used for in sample (g)
processing technologies were intro- maize shelling and sorghum milling QT = total grain in sample (g)
duced for processing cereal crops in during the performance evaluation Qs = quantity of shelled grains (g)
rural communities in the Northern are presented in Figures 1-5, while Qb = quantity of broken grains in
province of South Africa. However, the descriptions and specifications sample (g)
the performance of these technolo- of these technologies and traditional Qfo = quantity of flour milled from
gies by farmers/households has not techniques are presented in Tables sample (g)
been very satisfactory. Ndirika and 1-6. T = time taken to complete activ-
Buys (2002) recommended in their ity (hr)
studies that the performance of the Performance Evaluation It is important to note that there
available processing technologies be The varieties of maize and sor- was no sieving during the milling
identified to determine the appropri- ghum used during the performance operations in both milling tech-
ateness of the technologies as com- evaluation were CG.4141 (Zea Mays nologies. All the grain samples were
pared to the performance with the L.) and sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench milled to flour.
traditional processing techniques. respectively. The moisture contents
It is, therefore, necessa r y to of maize and sorghum grains during Instrumentation and Measurement
evaluate the performance of the the experiment were 16 % and 11 A Mettler balance with 0.01 g
intermediate agricultural process- % respectively. Experiments were precision was used for all weight
ing technologies for maize shelling conducted on the existing interme- measurements. A stopwatch was
and sorghum milling and compare diate technologies such as tractor used for all time measurements and
their performance respectively with powered maize sheller, shelling with a meter rule was used for all length
traditional techniques of perform- tractor wheels and sorghum milling measurements. The grain moisture
Fig. 1 Maize shelling powered by tractor Fig. 2 Trad. shelling of maize Fig. 3 Maize shelling with tractor wheels
content was determined by oven dry Table 7 Effect of shelling methods for maize on grain damage,
method at a temperature of 130 de- grain output and shelling efficiency
grees Celsius for 18 hours (ASAE, Shelling with Significant
Parameters Maize sheller Trad. shelling
tractor wheels difference
1972). The degree of fineness (mea- (Av. value)
(Av. value)
(Av. value)
(Prob. level)
sure of quality) of the sorghum flour Grain damage, % 1.55 15.20 0 0.0001*
from different milling methods Grain output, kg/h 80 30.90 13.19 0.0001*
were determined using the TASP2 Efficiency, % 93.10 73.76 95.50 0.0001*
texture analyzer. * Highly significant
Data Analysis (30.90 kg/h) and traditional shelling %) are greater than the values ob-
The data from the experimen- (13.19 kg/h). It is also noted that the tained with the traditional milling
tal evaluation of the intermediate shelling efficiency with the tradi- method (10.75 %). Also, the coarse
technologies and the traditional tional shelling method (95.50 %) particles (>1000 micrometers) ob-
techniques were analyzed using the is higher than shelling with maize tained from sorghum meal with the
SAS Version 6, and Excel statisti- sheller (93.10 %) which may be due traditional milling method (36.26
cal packages. Descriptive statisti- to no grain damage and less losses %) is greater than the values ob-
cal tools such as tables and bar in the traditional method. Shelling tained with mill 1 (0.23 %) and mill
charts as recommended by Trochim efficiency with the tractor wheel is 2 (12.98 %). The different milling
(1999), were used to describe the 73.76 %. The result shows that the methods for sorghum have signifi-
basic features of the data in the effects of different methods of shell- cant effect on the degree of fineness
study. Also, inferential statistical ing maize (maize sheller, shelling of the meal for particle sizes greater
tools such as the Generalized Linear with tractor wheels, and traditional than 1000 micrometer and particle
Model (GLM) which include: t-test, shelling by hand) on grain damage, sizes less than 150 micrometer at
analysis of variance (ANOVA), chi- grain output and shelling efficiency the 0.05 level.
square test were used to compare are all highly significant at 0.05
the observed differences between level. Flour Losses
intermediate technologies and the The losses of sorghum flour with
traditional processing techniques. Milling Operation the use of the traditional method
The average values of output of (28.57 %) are greater than with mill
sorghum flour from mill 1 (210.56 1 (12 %) and mill 2 (17 %) as shown
kg/h) was greater than from mill 2 in Fig. 7. This may be due to the
Results
(50 kg/h), and the traditional mill (4 effect of wind, which often tends
Shelling Operation kg/h) as shown in Fig. 6. However, to blow the flour away while some
Table 7 shows that the percentage the effect of the traditional mill, sticks to the surface of the larger
of grain damaged is higher during mill 1 and mill 2 on the output of grinding stone. The different mill-
maize shelling with tractor wheels sorghum flour was highly signifi- ing methods have significant effect
(15.20 %) than with the maize shell- cant at 0.05 level (Table 8). on flour losses from sorghum flour
er (1.55 %) and (0 %) with tradi- at the 0.05 level (Table 8).
tional shelling of maize. This shows Degree of Fineness of Flour Par-
that shelling method affect grain ticles
damage. From Table 9 it is clear that the
Conclusions
Also, the grain output from the percentage of fine f lour particles
maize sheller (80 kg/h) is greater (<150 micrometers) from sorghum The following conclusions can be
than shelling with tractor wheels in mill 1 (56.47 %) and mill 2 (13.12 drawn from the results.
• The traditional techniques for
processing maize and sorghum re-
sult in poor quality, low of output,
time wasting and drudgery. Shelling
with tractor wheel is inappropriate
as this results in high grain damage.
The intermediate technologies for
shelling and milling are appropriate
in terms of improvement in quantity
and quality of output, reduction of
Fig. 4 Milling machine Fig. 5 Trad. milling of sorghum drudgery and time of operation.
Table 8 Significant difference of effects of sorghum Table 9 Effect of different milling methods on
milling methods on flour output and losses flour particle sizes sorghum
Values outputs Significant Significant
Parameter difference Parameter Mill 1 Mill 2 Trad. mill difference
and losses (Prob. level) (Prob. level)
Flour output, kg/h Particle >
(210.56, 50, 4) 0.0001* 0.23 12.98 36.26 0.0001*
(mill 1, mill 2 and trad. mill) 1000 mm (%)
Flour losses, kg/h Particle <
(12, 17, 28.57) 0.0001* 56.47 13.12 10.75 0.0001*
(mill 1, mill 2 and trad. mill) 150 mm (%)
* Highly significant * Highly significant
• The milling machine 2 (mill 2) REFERNCES of Vergelegen Community Rural

appears to be appropriate for mill- Household in the Northern Prov-
ing activities in the community due ASAE, 1972. Moisture Measure- ince of South Africa. Post-Doctor-
to its small size and low cost. Most ment-Grain and Seeds. American al Research Project Report. Insti-
of the rural households have limited Society of Agricultural Engineers tute for Technological Innovation,
cash to purchase intermediate tech- Standards. ASAE S 352, 1-384. Faculty of Engineering, University
nologies. This makes the adoption FAO, 1989. Production Yearbook. of Pretoria, South Africa, pp. 92.
of such technologies difficult. It is Food and Agriculture Organiza- Ndirika, V. I. O. and Buys, A. J.,
also recommended that low cost al- tion of the United Nations Rome 2002. Assessing the Extent of and
ternative intermediate technologies (FAO). Constraints to Adoption of Inter-
such as manually operated maize ILO, 1984. Assessment of Technolo- mediate Agricultural Processing
shellers and milling devices be in- gies for Rural Women’s Activities Technologies for Cereal Crops in a
troduced in the community. and Considerations for Improve- Traditional Farming Community of
• The difference between shelling ment of Traditional Methods: South Africa. International Journal
with intermediate technologies and Improved Village Technology for of Agricultural Mechanization in
traditional techniques has signifi- Women Activities: A Manual for Asia, Africa and Latin America
cant effects on grain damage, grain West Africa. International Office (Accepted for publication). pp. 25
output and shelling efficiency at the Geneva. International Labor Orga- Shumacher, E. F., 1973. Small Is
0.05 level. nization Publications (ILO), pp. 18 Beautiful: Study of Economics
• The difference bet ween the Ndirika V. I. O., 1994. Development as if People Mattered. ABACUS
milling methods has significant ef- and Performance Evaluation of A Edition. Blond and Biggs Publish-
fect on flour output and flour losses. Millet Thresher. Journal of Agri- ers, Great Britain, 180-255
Also, the difference between the cultural Engineering and Technol- Trochim, W. M. K., 1999. The Re-
milling methods has significant ef- ogy, 2: 80-89. search Methods Knowledge Base,
fect on the degree of fineness of Ndirika V. I. O., 2000. Impact As- Cornell University. Custom Pub-
flour for particle size greater than sessment of Intermediate Agri- lishing, New York, 14853, 108-284.
1000 micrometers and less than 150 cultural Processing Technologies ■■
micrometers at the 0.05 level. for Cereal Crops: A Case Study
Fig. 6 Flour output from mill 1, mill 2, and trad. mill Fig. 7 Flour losses from mill 1, mill 2, and trad. mill
Flour output, kg/h Flour losses, %
250 30
200
20
150
100
10
50
0 0
Mill 1 Mill 2 Trad. Mill Mill 1 Mill 2 Trad. Mill
Sorghum Sorghum
Computer-Aided Design of Extended Octagonal
Ring Transducer for Agricultural Implements
by
H. Raheman R. K. Sahu
Associate Professor Research Scholar
Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Agricultural and Food Engineering Department,
Indian Institute of Technology, Indian Institute of Technology,
Kharagpur-721 302 Kharagpur-721 302
INDIA INDIA
[email protected] [email protected]
horizontal and vertical forces up to of t wo mut ually per pendicular

Abstract
1 kN. Based on space availability force components; i.e. a horizontal
T he extended oct agonal r i ng for mounting, the detail dimensions force (H) and a vertical force (V).
transducer is used for suitable mea- of the transducer were chosen as 2L Because of symmetric soil failure
surement of horizontal and vertical = 150 mm, r = 38 mm, b = 51 mm the lateral force (S) becomes zero.
forces simultaneously acting on and t = 4.5 mm and the sensitivity Force measurement, by suspending
tillage implements in the soil bin was predicted to be 0.114 mV/kg and the soil engaging implement from a
as well as in the field. For measure- 0.094 mV/kg for horizontal and ver- series of single dynamometers, has
ment of any force, the design pa- tical forces respectively. Based on been used extensively but there is
rameters of the transducer such as the above dimensions, an extended little detailed information about the
center to center distance (2L), width octagonal ring transducer was fab- comparison of such systems (Rog-
(b), and thickness (t) are to be cal- ricated and then calibrated for mea- ers and Tanner, 1955; Payne, 1956;
culated at different L/r and b/r ratios surement of horizontal and vertical O’Callaghan and Farelly, 1964).
with various assumed mean ring forces. The sensitivity from calibra- This single dynamometer may be
radii (r) values keeping in mind that tion of the transducer was found ring type or octagonal type and the
thin ring theory is satisfied as well to be 0.120 mV/kg with R 2 = 0.99 measurement of orthogonal forces
as the elastic limit of the material of and 0.092 mV/kg with R 2 = 0.99 has been discussed by a number of
construction is not exceeded. Many for horizontal and vertical forces scientists (Lowen et al. 1951; Lowen
calculations are required to obtain respectively. These high coefficients and Cook, 1956; Cook and Rob-
the best possible transducer, which of determination together with low inowicz, 1963; Godwin, 1975, O’
is time consuming and laborious. difference between predicted and Dogherty, 1975; Godwin, 1982 and
To overcome these difficulties, a actually observed sensitivities vali- Thakur and Godwin, 1988). An al-
computer program was written in dated the developed program for de- ternative technique to the multi-dy-
Visual Basic to determine the suit- signing the extended octagonal ring namometer system is the extended
able dimensions of the extended transducer. octagonal ring transducer and has
octagonal ring transducer. The de- been used by various researchers for
veloped program provides intuitive measurement of orthogonal forces
user interface by linking material and moments acting in agricultural
Introduction
specifications, strain gauge specifi- implements (Godwin, 1975; Thakur
cations and transducer dimensions Force transducers are required and Godwin, 1988; Godwin et al.,
for any horizontal and vertical force. for measurement of forces acting 1993; O’Dogherty, 1996 and Watyo-
After entering material and strain on tillage implements both in the tha and Salokhe, 2001).
gauge specifications, simulation was laboratory soil bin as well as in the Although a number of dynamom-
done at various L/r and b/r ratios for field. Where the soil failure is sym- eters have been used, there has been
different ‘r’ values for measuring metrical, the force system consists no account of a rational design pro-
cedure, which allows researchers to forces are applied to any of theses nodal angles, ø. Therefore, if strain
design an appropriate transducer for transducers, there are stress nodes gauges are mounted in these posi-
their particular application. O’Dogh- (i.e. positions where there is no tions and connected into the Wheat-
erty (1996) developed a procedure contribution to the stress from the stone bridge configurations shown
for designing the extended octagonal other force component), which can in Fig. 1, the gauges at an angle of
ring transducer, but, for measuring be used as a basis for independent 39.5º will measure the force, P, inde-
a particular force, different sizes force component measurement and pendently of F and those at 90º will
of transducers can be used. Many the resulting moment. The accuracy measure the force, F, independently
calculations are needed to obtain of location of the stress nodes and of P. This is the essential principle of
the best possible transducer. Hence, subsequent positioning of the strain a biaxial force dynamometer based
a computer program was written in gauges are critical in producing a on a ring which exhibits no interac-
Visual Basic to design the extended transducer with low cross sensitiv- tion between the two orthogonal
octagonal ring transducer for mea- ity between the force component forces.
surement of forces acting on agri- channels. From the elementary theory, us-
cultural implements because it is an ing Eqns. (1) and (2) for the bending
excellent tool for developing flexible Thin Ring Formulae moments, the strains at the surfaces
and user-friendly software for vari- The bending moments of a thin of a ring of rectangular section (giv-
ous applications. It is considered as ring (Fig. 1) due to diametrical forc- en byε= 6M/bt2) for the two angles
a new approach for development of a es, F, and Tangential forces, P, at an 90º and 39.5º can be given as
program for designing the transduc- angle of to the direction of force, F, ε90º = 1.09Fr/Ebt2, and ...............(3)
ers for agricultural applications. are given by ε39.5º =2.31Pr/Ebt2 . ......................(4)
Mθ= 0.5Fr (sinθ- 2/�), and ........(1) The sensitivity of a fully active
Mθ= 0.5Pr cosθ. .........................(2) strain gauge bridge is given by
In the above it is assumed that ∆V/V = kε. ...................................(5)
Transducer Design Con-
the top and bottom of the ring are The bridge sensitivity can be cal-
siderations
to be restrained from rotation and culated by substitution of strains of
Transducers for measurement of clockwise moments are positive. Eqns. (3) and (4) in Eqn. (5). The
forces and moments for agricul- The bending moment and, therefore, sensitivities are usually expressed in
tural applications may be ring type, stress and strain at the surface of the terms of bridge output voltage per
simple octagonal type or extended ring section are zero for the forces F unit force applied. The deflections
octagonal ring type. The essential and P at angles, θ , of 39.5 and 90º, and of the ring under the action of
principle of operation for all these respectively. The angle at which zero forces F and P can be obtained by
transducers is that when orthogonal stress and strain occur are known as using Castigliano’s theorem and are
M = Fc + Pd
Transducer
mounting block
Tillage
implement
Horizontal force
F
Vertical force
P
Fig. 1 Extended octagonal ring transducer with strain Fig. 2 Forces acting on a soil tillage implement attached to the
gauges for measurement of forces and moments extended octagonal ring transducer and their resulting moments
given by sion for the bending moment at an For all design purposes, taking
δF = 1.79Fr3/Ebt3, and ................(6) angle to the direction of the force a factor of safety as 1.35, Eqn. (16)
δP = 9.42Pr3/Ebt3. .......................(7) F in the extended ring when acted becomes
Extended octagonal ring trans- upon by the moment, Mθ, is 4.05M(2K/�+0.5)
(εmax)M = Ebt 2
(K 2+4K/�+0.5)
ducer
Mθ= 0.5M{(K+2/�)sinθ-2K/�-0.5}
O’Dogherty (1996) made an anal- K 2+4K/�+0.5 .......................(17)
ysis using Castigliano’s theorem for .........................(8) The bending moment will be posi-
an extended thin circular ring under where K = L/r. tive on one half of the ring and neg-
the action of forces F and P and also When two orthogonal forces act ative on the other depending on the
under the action of applied moments, on a tillage implement as shown in sense of the applied moment. The
M, in the plane of the dynamometer Fig. 2, the applied moment is given total tensile or compressive stress,
(Fig. 1) assuming that the central by which occurs at the ring surface, is
sections were very thick in relation M = Fc + Pd. ................................(9) given by combining Eqns. (14), (15)
to ring thickness. The solution for To measure the moment, M, strain and (17).
an applied moment is necessary be- gauges are attached to the trans- ...................(Equation 18)
cause in many practical applications ducer as shown in Fig. 1 and ar- By rearranging the Eqn. (18), the
the point of action of forces F (draft) ranged in the Wheatstone bridge in minimum value of ring thickness ‘t’
and P (vertical force) acting on a soil the manner shown. At θ = 90º, the required will be determined for a
tillage implement is such as to apply bending moment is given by range of values of K.
a moment of significance magni- ...................(Equation 19)
M90º= 0.5M{(1-2/�)K+2/�-0.5}
K 2+4K/�+0.5
tude to the dynamometer as shown
in Fig. 2. It was found that for the .......................(10) Transducer Design Procedure
forces F and P, the bending moment The strain at the ring surfaces in It is necessary to select a mean
expressions were the same as given this angular position is given by ring radius, r, and thickness, t, so
in Eqns. (1) and (2), assuming that that the elastic limit of the mate-
ε90º= 3M{(1-2/�)K+2/�-0.5}
the strain energy of the central sec- Ebt2(K 2+4K/�+0.5) rial of construction is not exceeded
tions was negligible. This agrees ........................(11) when designing a dynamometer. In
with the expressions given by Hoag This expression agrees with that addition, the design must conform
and Yoeger (1974) for an extended given by Loewan and Cook (1956). to an appropriate value of r/t to sat-
ring. The maximum moments arising isfy thin ring theory. If L, b and r
O’Dogherty (1996), using Casti- from the forces F and P, which occur are chosen, the minimum value of
gliano’s theorem derived an expres- at θ = 0º and θ = 180º, can be found t required can be calculated from
from expressions given by Godwin Eqn. (19) and hence the value r/t to
START et al. (1993) and are as follows: satisfy the thin ring theory can be
(Mmax)F=0.5Fr sinø, and..........(12) checked.
Enter transducer’s material date, (Mmax)P = 0.5Pr. .........................(13) The selection of the mean radius
strain gauge date, forces value and Semi-empirical equations de- of the ring (r), distance between
its moment arms, assumed design
dimensions (such as mean ring ra- veloped by O’Dogherty (1996) for ring centers (2L), and width (b) of
dius (r), L/r, b/r, b values depending Maximum strains at θ = 90º or 180º the dynamometer is dependent on
upon the transducer)
due to force F and P are as follows: the size of agricultural equipment/
(εmax)F = 2.62Fr/Ebt2, and..........(14) implement to which it will be at-
Calculate thickness of ring (t), (εmax)P = 2.17Pr/Ebt2. ................(15) tached and space and weight consid-
sensitivity and r/t
The maximum value of strain at erations. In order to conform with
ring surface due to the largest value the assumptions of thin ring theory,
Is r/t>=3 ?
YES NO of the bending moment can be ob- the ratio r/t ≥ 5, but considerations
tained from Eqn. (12) by putting = of the stress distribution across ring
Assumed design Print r, b, 2L, t, r/t 90º or 180º. section show that a lower limit of
dimensions are not a nd se n sit iv it y of r/t can be accepted; i.e. up to r/t ≥
3M(2K/�+0.5)
feasible for the trans- extend octagonal ring (εmax)M = Ebt2(K 2+4K/�+0.5)
ducer. Print N.F (not transducer 3 (Den Hartog, 1961 and Roark,
feasible) .......................(16)
1965). But, when the ratio r/t be-
STOP r{2.62F+2.17P+4.05M(2K/�+0.5)/r(K 2+4K/�+0.5)

σmax = .....................(18)
bt2
Fig. 3 Flow chart for simulation
of extended octagonal ring r{2.62F+2.17P+4.05M(2K/�+0.5)/r(K +4K/�+0.5) ..........................(19)
t2 =
2
transducer design program bσmax
Distance be- Sensitivity (mV/kg)
Combi- Mean ring Width of Thickness tween cen-
L/r b/r radius ring of ring r/t ratio Vertical Horizontal
nation (mm) (mm) (mm)
tres of two
rings (mm) force force
1 2.0 1.35 38 50.9 4.5 150.5 8.4 0.094 0.114
2 2.5 1.35 38 51.3 4.2 190 9.0 0.108 0.130
3 2.0 2.5 38 95 3.3 152 11.6 0.177 0.213
4 3.0 3.0 38 114 2.7 228 14.2 0.265 0.320
Table 1 Different combinations of design parameters of the transducer for 1 kN force
comes less than 3, the values of gramming provides a set of screens, ity were considered. Based on space
stress at the curved surfaces of a object but tons, scroll bars and availability for mounting, the detail
circular beam begin to depart rap- menus. The user can access various dimensions of the transducer were
idly from the values applicable to a object-driven windows to edit or ex- identified as 2L = 150 mm, r = 38
straight beam (O’Dogherty, 1996). pand data. The developed program mm, b= 51 mm and t = 4.5 mm and
The ratio b/r has the greatest ef- provides intuitive user interface by the sensitivity was predicted to be
fect on values of r/t with a 72 % linking material specification, strain 0.114 mV/kg and 0.094 mV/kg for
increase over the range 1 to 3, com- gauge specification and transducer horizontal and vertical forces re-
pared with a 35 % increase when dimensions for any horizontal and spectively.
the ratio L/r is increased over the vertical force. The specifications of Based on the above dimensions,
same range (O’Dogherty, 1996). material and strain gauge were en- an extended octagonal ring trans-
Dynamometers designed by various tered for designing an extended oc- ducer was fabricated (Fig. 4) and
scientists used ratios of L/r and b/r tagonal ring transducer to measure then calibrated for measurement of
in the range 1.5 to 3 (O’Dogherty, up to 1.0 kN each of the horizontal horizontal and vertical forces (Fig.
1975; Godwin, 1975; Godwin, 1982; and vertical forces with moment 5). The actual sensitivity of the
Godwin et al, 1987; Gebresenbet, arms of 500 and 250 mm. Then, transducer was found to be 0.120
1989; Godwin et al, 1993; Kirisci, simulation was done at various L/r mV/kg with R 2 = 0.99 and 0.092
1994 and O’Dogherty, 1996). Ex- and b/r ratios for different ‘r’ values mV/kg with R 2 = 0.99 for horizon-
periments show that, at large ap- with a factor of safety 1.35. The tal and vertical forces respectively.
plied forces, the mean radius of the flow chart of the program is shown These high coefficients of determi-
ring must be increased considerably in Fig. 3. nation together with low difference
to maintain a minimum value of r/t between predicted and actually ob-
= 3. The mean radius can be sig- served sensitivities validated the de-
nificantly reduced by increasing the veloped program for designing the
Results
dynamometer dimensions L and b. extended octagonal ring transducer.
The output of the program gave
Computer Program Development different combinations of design pa-
A flexible, user friendly and com- rameters for measurement of these
Conclusions
prehensive menu based computer forces (Table 1). This program also
program in Visual Basic language helped identify the most suitable The program for designing the
was developed to design extended dimensions of the transducer when transducer for agricultural engi-
oct agonal r i ng t ransducers for space, weight, r/t ratio and sensitiv- neering application was developed
measurement of forces acting on
agricultural implements. Visual pro-
Force
Fig. 4 The extended octagonal ring
transducer fabricated
based on simulation Fig. 5 Transducer and circuit diagram for measurement of forces
in a Visual Programming environ- d: Distance of line of action of of the Society of Experimental
ment for use in educational and tangetial force P from top surface of Stress Analysis, 13(3), 57-62.
research needs. The intuitive user the transducer Lowen, E. G., Marshall, E. R. and
interface to the model was a visual Shaw, M. C. 1951. Electric strain
object oriented window, which al- gauge tool dynamometers. Pro-
lowed the selection of the trans- REFERENCES ceedings of the Society of Experi-
ducer and its material properties mental Stress Analysis, 8(2), 1-16.
and allowed changes to the force to Cook, N. H. and Rabinowicz, F. O’Callaghan, J. R. and Farelly, K.
be measured, the ring diameter, L/r 1963. Physical measurement and M. 1964. Cleavage of soil by tined
and b/r ratios and initiated computa- analysis. New York. Addison- implements. J. Agric. Engg. Res.
tion. This program also helped in Wesley. 9(3), 259.
deciding the best suitable dimen- Den hartog, J. P. 1961. Strength of O’Dogherty, M. J. 1975. A dyna-
sions of the transducer, taking into Materials. New York, Dover Pub- mometer to measure the forces on
consideration the space, weight and lications. a sugarbeet topping knife. Jour-
maximum sensitivity. For measur- Gebresenbet, G. 1989. Multicompo- nal Of Agril. Engg. Res., 20(4),
ing horizontal and vertical forces up nent dynamometer for measure- 339-345.
to 1 kN, the developed program was ment of forces on plough bodies. O’Dogherty, M. J. 1996. The design
run to decide the dimensions of the Journal of Agri. Engg. Res., 42, of octagonal ring dynamometers.
transducer. Based on the predicted 85-96. Journal of Agril Engg. Res. 63,
dimensions, an extended octagonal Godwin, R. J. 1975. An extended 9-18.
ring transducer was fabricated from octagonal ring transducer for use Payne, P. C. J.1956. The relationship
mild steel block. The actual and pre- in tillage studies. Journal of Agri. between the mechanical proper-
dicted sensitivities of the transducer Engg. Res., 20(4), 347-352. ties of soil and the performance
for horizontal and vertical forces Godwin, R. J. 1982. Force measure- of simple cultivation implements.
varied within 5 and 2 % respective- ments on tillage implements, Pro- Journal of Agric. Engg. Res. 1(1),
ly. Thus, the developed program in ceedings of the 9th Conference 23.
Visual Basic can be used as a tool in of the International Soil Tillage Roark, R. J. 1965. Formulae for
determining the dimensions of the Research OrganisationYugoslavia, stress and strain. New York. Mc-
extended octagonal ring transduc- Osijek. Graw Hill.
ers. Godwin, R. J., Magalhaes, P. S. C, Rogers, O. J. J. and Tanner, D. W.
Miller S. M. and Fry, R. K. 1987. 1955. Measurements with strain
Instrumentation to study the force gauges at the N.I.A.E., Part 1.
systems and vertical dynamic Tech n ical memora ndu m 106,
Notation
behaviour of soil engaging instru- National Institute of Agricultural
M: Moment acting on the trans- ments. Journal of Agri. Engg. Engineering, Silsoe.
ducer Res., 36, 301-310. Thakur, T. C. and Godwin, R. J.
Mθ: Bending moment acting at Godwin, R. J., Reynolds, A. J., O’ 1988. Design of extended octago-
angle of θ to the line of action of Dogherty, M. J. and Al-Ghazal, nal ring dynamometer for rotary
diametrical force, F A. A. 1993. A triaxial dynamom- studies. AMA, 19(3), 23-28.
ε: Strain at ring surface eter for force and moment mea- Watyotha, C., and Salokhe, V. M.
δ: Deflection of ring along line of surements on tillage implements. 2001. Development of a data ac-
action of applied force Journal of Agril. Engg. Res., 55, quisistion system for measuring
σ: Tensile or compressive stress 189-205. the characteristics of real time
ø: Nodal angle at which stress due Hoag, D. L. and Yoerger, R. R. forces by cage wheels. Journal of
to diametrical force, F 1974. Designing load rings for Terramechanics. 38, 201-210.
E: Young’s modulus of transducer measurement. Trans. American ■■
material Soc. Agric. Engg. 17:251-253,261.
V: Strain gauge bridge supply Kirisci, V. 1994. A field method for
voltage predicting the draught forces of
∆V: Strain gauge bridge output tillage implements. Ph. D. Thesis.
voltage Silsoe College, Cranefield Univer-
k: Strain gauge factor sity.
c: Distance of line of action of Lowen, E. G. and Cook, N. G. 1956.
diametrical force F from central line Metal cutting measurements and
of the transducer their interpretation. Proceedings
Optimization of Seed Rate of Direct Rice Seeder as
Influenced by Machine and Operational Parameters
by
S. S. Sivakumar R. Manian
Assistant Professor Professor and Head
Department of Farm Machinery, Department of Farm Machinery,
Agrl. Engg. College and Research Institute, Agrl. Engg. College and Research Institute,
TNAU, Coimbatore-641 003 TNAU, Coimbatore-641 003
INDIA INDIA
K. Kathirvel
Professor
Department of Farm Machinery,
Agrl. Engg. College and Research Institute,
TNAU, Coimbatore-641 003
INDIA
mized by providing baffles, and the institutions that are manually oper-
Abstract
effect of filling the seed drums was ated and are highly suitable for frag-
In the existing models of the di- investigated. mented Indian fields.
rect rice seeder, the dry/wet seeds In all these models the dry/wet
are drilled continuously at a higher seeds are drilled continuously at a
seed rate than recommended and higher seed rate than recommended
Introduction
without desired seed to seed spac- and without desired seed to seed
ing. It is observed that as the seed Transplanting of rice seedlings spacing. It is observed that, as the
drum empties the seeding rate is being a highly labour-intensive and seed drum empties, the seeding rate
increased steadily and rapidly at the costly method could be substituted increases steadily and rapidly at
end. Therefore, the uniformity of by direct seeding, which could re- the end. Therefore, the uniformity
seed rate is not maintained through- duce labour hours by more than 20 in seeding rate is not maintained
out the operation. This investigation percent. Direct seeded rice is an throughout the operation. Hence, a
was carried out to study the influ- age-old practice of paddy cultivation modified drum seeder which pro-
ence of the machine and operational in India, particularly in rain fed ar- vides uniform seed distribution with
parameters that included d r um eas, where farmers totally eliminate respect to time will be more useful
shape, diameter of drum, diameter the seedling preparation in nursery in maintaining uniform plant popula-
of seed metering hole, number of and transplanting. Rice is either dry tion per square metre throughout the
seed metering holes and forward seeded on well-prepared dry/moist field. This creates a condition similar
speed of operation on seed rate of soil or wet seeded on puddled soil. to that of the transplanted crop to
the rice drum seeder in laboratory The drum seeder is becoming popu- have a noticeable improvement in
conditions. The hyperboloid drum lar for wet seeding because of its crop growth environment. Also the
shape was optimized with 200 mm lower initial investment, easy opera- problem of thinning the crop sown
drum diameter, nine seed metering tion and low repair and maintenance by presently available models of
holes with 10 mm diameter, and 1.0 cost. Several models of drum seed- drum seeders could be eliminated.
km h-1 forward speed of operation. ers were developed by IRRI and
The seed discharge rate was opti- modified by different organizations/
than in broadcast and transplanted GI sheet was provided at the bottom
Review of Literature
rice (Bharathi, 1996). of the drum to collect the seeds fall-
Pradhan (1969) demonstrated the ing from the drum. The seeds were
successful adoption of direct seed- collected in a container for a known
ing in lines in puddled rice fields number of revolutions of the seed
using a seeder. This practice could drum and weighed.
replace transplanting without any Construction of Test Rig
attendant reduction in yield but A test r ig was developed for Machine Parameters
with reduced cost of operation. Row measuring the seed rate of paddy at The machine parameters that may
sown rice showed rapid establish- various forward speeds of operation affect the performance of a drum
ment and greater vegetative growth with different machine parameters. seeder are drum shape (S), drum
due to absence of transplantation The test rig consisted of a main- diameter (D), diameter of seed me-
shock. Sowing of pre-germinated frame and variable speed drive. The tering hole (d), number of seed me-
paddy seeds as an alternative to main frame was a cuboid shaped tering holes (n) and forward speed
transplanting has gained acceptance frame with members at all its edges of operation (v). The inf luence of
over the years. Kandasamy (1987) fabricated with 60 x 38 mm mild the above mentioned parameters
repor ted a saving of 298.8 mm steel angle sections. The over all on seed rate of a drum seeder was
of water under direct sown crop, dimension of the unit is 1300 x 670 investigated in the laboratory. The
which was 22.1 percent less than the x 820 mm. At one end of the top levels that affect the performance
amount used by transplanted crop. frame a 25 mm diameter shaft was of a drum seeder for the identified
Wang and Sun (1990) noticed that mounted through a set of bush bear- variables selected for the laboratory
duration was shortened by 7-15 days ings for mounting the seed drum. At investigation are discussed below.
in direct seeded rice compared to the other end a variable speed drive a. Drum Shape (S)
transplanted rice. Shekar and Singh operated by a 0.5 kW electric motor The shape of the seed drum is
(1991) stated that direct seeding of was mounted. an important factor that affects
sprouted seeds under puddled condi- The drive to the seed drum-rotat- the f low of the seeds towards the
tion resulted in significant improve- ing shaft was transmitted through metering holes and the uniformity
ment in yield attributes like number counter shafts and pulley system. A of f low. The three shapes of seed
of effective tillers and grain yield. control switch was provided on the drums (S) selected are cylindrical,
Borlagdan et al (1995) developed main frame for operating the elec- hyperboloid (truncated cone) and
a drum seeder at IRRI for sowing tric motor. The speed obtained from cylindrical ellipsoid shape (barrel)
pre-germinated seeds on the surface the electric motor was reduced from as shown in Fig.1. In hyperboloid
of puddled soil. The seeder was 1,420 rpm to the required level of 9 and in cylindrical ellipsoid shapes
tested with five rice varieties with to 11 rpm for the seed drum through the longitudinal slopping sides were
a varying seed rate of 38 kg ha-1 to the variable speed drive mechanism provided with an inclination of 5
80 kg ha-1. The shapes of the drums and pulleys mounted on the coun- degrees to facilitate the free flow of
were cylindrical. The number of til- ter shafts. The test seed drum was seeds towards the metering holes
lers per unit area and leaf area index mounted on the drum shaft of the for better uniformity.
were also more in row sown rice test rig. A hopper made of 1.5 mm
Fig. 1 View of selected seed drum shapes Fig. 2 Strips with varying diameter of seed metering holes
(150, 175, 200 and 250 mm diameter)
b. Drum Diameter (D) existing TNAU drum seeder. to achieve the desired seed rate of
The drum diameter was consid- e. Forward Speed of Operation (v) paddy. A drum with the seed-meter-
ered as a major factor influencing The forward speed of operation ing hole of specified diameter and
the performance of the seeder in should be well with in the normal number of holes was mounted on
terms of capacity of the seed drum, walking speed of the operator in the test rig and seed were placed in
number of fillings required, and the puddled field for increased com- the drum to two-thirds of its volume
ease of operation. The four levels of fort and maximum endurance time and the drum was rotated at a speed
drum diameter (D) were selected as of the operator pulling the drum that simulated a selected forward
150, 175, 200 and 250 mm for this seeder. Hence, the three levels of speed. The seeds falling from the
investigation. forward speed of operation were 1.0, drum were collected for 50 revolu-
c. Diameter of Seed Metering Hole (d) 1.25 and 1.5 km h-1. tions of the drum and weighed on
The diameter of the seed metering an electronic balance to a precision
hole has a profound effect on free Fabrication of Seed Drums of 0.01 g. The results were recorded.
flow of seeds to obtain the required The three shapes of the dr um Each test was replicated three times.
seed rate for different varieties of were cylindrical, hyperboloid and Similar testing procedure was ad-
paddy. The length, breadth and cylindrical ellipsoid and the four di- opted for all the three shapes of the
thickness of the predominant fifteen ameters were 150, 175, 200 and 250 drums and for all combinations of
varieties of paddy in the study area mm. The drums were made of 22 number and diameter of holes and
were measured and the length of the gauge GI sheet material with provi- forward speeds. The seed rates were
paddy seeds of selected varieties sion to mount strips of GI sheets calculated and recorded from the
varied from 6.9 to 9.8 mm. There- having 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 holes with values of weight of seeds collected
fore, three levels of the diameter of varying hole diameters of 7, 9 and on each trial.
the seed-metering hole (d) selected 11 mm. For each size of drum, the
for this study were 7 mm, 9 mm, desired diameter of seed metering Statistical Analysis and Math-
and 11mm. The holes were made hole with the selected number of ematical Modeling
of 22 gauge galvanized iron sheet holes could be obtained by mount- The laboratory results were statis-
circular strips (Fig. 2), which can be ing the required strip on the drum. tically analyzed with the Statistical
fixed on the seed drums. Strips of The drums were provided with 25 Packages for Social Studies (SPSS)
varying diameter were made to fix mm diameter mild steel bushes for assessing the effect of the vari-
them on the selected four levels of on both the ends to facilitate the ables (number of seed metering
drum diameter. mounting on the drive shaft of the holes, X1, diameter of seed metering
d. Number of Seed Metering Holes (n) test rig. hole, X 2 , forward speed of opera-
The number of seed metering tion, X3, and the diameter of drum,
holes coupled with optimum di- Optimization of Machine Param- X4) on the drum shape for each rate,
ameter of the holes determined the eters Y. Mathematical models were pro-
seed rate. The five levels of number The developed test rig was used posed for optimization. From the
of holes of 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 were se- to evaluate the seed drums with the results of the analysis, the best com-
lected after experimentation on the selected levels of variables in order bination of the selected parameters
FRONT VIEW
SIDE VIEW
Fig. 3 Hyperboloid seed drum with baffle arrangement
was chosen to get the recommended Wa = Actual weight of seeds col- mity of seed distribution.
seed rate of 80 kg ha-1. lected from the drum at each min-
ute, g Development of Prototype Drum
Percent Variation in Seed Dis- Wr = Weight of seeds required to Seeder
charge be dropped per minute to achieve An optimized model of the drum
A prototype drum with optimized the recommended seed rate, g seeder for manual operation was
parameters was fabricated from The most uniform plant popula- fabricated for evaluation. The unit
the results of the analysis of the tion would be obtained when the consisted of a seed dr um, main
laboratory studies. The optimized per-cent variation in seed discharge shaft, ground wheel, floats, furrow
drum was further tested in the test was minimum. openers and handle. The seed drum
rig with two levels of filling (one- was hyperboloid shape (truncated
half and two-thirds volume) to ana- Effect of Baffles on Percent Varia- cone) with 200 mm diameter having
lyze the effect of filling on percent tion in Seed Discharge 12 mm flat spikes of 25 mm length
variation in seed discharge. The Baffles of varying configuration kept parallel to the axis of rotation.
seed were collected at one-minute were provided between the holes The slopes of the cone facilitate
interval until the drum was empty. inside the drum to reduce the bridg- the free flow of seeds towards the
The per-cent variation of the weight ing effect and achieve more uniform metering holes. Nine seed meter-
of seed discharged at each minute flow of seeds from the drum (Fig. ing holes of 10 mm diameter were
interval was computed using the fol- 3). The baffles were fixed between provided along the circumference
lowing expression. the holes to disturb the bridging ef- of the drum at both the ends at a
Percent variation in seed discharge fect and to create agitation of seeds row-to-row spacing of 200 mm.
as the seed dr um rotated. After The main shaft of the drum seeder
= (Wa - Wr) x 100
Wr incorporation of baffles, the test rig consisted of a 25 mm mild steel pipe
where, was used to determine the unifor- 1.5 mm thick. For better traction 12
-1
Seed rate, kg ha
250 250 250 250
v1 = 1.00 kph v1 = 1.00 kph v1 = 1.00 kph v1 = 1.00 kph
200 200 200 200
150 � 150 150 150
100 100 100 100
50 50 50 50
0 0 0 0
7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 11
250 250 250 250
200 200 200 200
150 150 150 150
100 100 100 100
50 50 50 50
0 0 0 0
7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 11
250 250 250 250
200 200 200 200 5 holes�
6 holes�
150 150 150 150 7 holes�
8 holes�
100 100 100 100 9 holes
50 50 50 50
0 0 0 0
7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 11
D1 = 150 mm D2 = 175 mm D3 = 200 mm D4 = 250 mm
Matering hole diameter (d), mm
Fig. 4 Effect of hole diameter on seed rate at selected forward speed of operation for cylindrical drum (S1)
VOL.37 NO.2 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION

9 holes 9 holes IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA
9 holes 9 holes 37
8 holes 8 holes 8 holes 8 holes

lugs made of 22 gauge galvanized seed rate for all combinations of
iron sheet were welded on the inner hole diameter and number of holes.
periphery of the wheel. Two floats Optimization of Machine Param- In all the cases, the desired seed
were provided on either side to re- eters rate of 80 kg ha-1 was obtained for
strict the sinkage and to facilitate The test rig was used and the seed the hole diameter in the range of
easy pulling of the unit. drums evaluated to optimize the 10 to 11 mm and only at 7, 8 and 9
Furrow openers of IRRI design variables for the desired seed rate. number of holes. These values are
were provided to make the seeds fall good only for drum diameters of
in an opened furrow and avoid the Cylindrical Seed Drum 150, 175 and 250 mm. For the drum
scattering of seeds. The position of The effect of diameter of seed diameter of 200 mm, the desired
the opener was set to have a marked metering holes on seed rate at se- seed rate range was obtained only
furrow on the soil surface. The lected forward speeds of operation with 8 and 9 number of seed meter-
depth of furrow could be adjusted for different drum diameters in the ing holes. The increase in drum
by adjusting the position of a bolt on cylindrical drum is presented in diameter from 175 to 200 mm (D 2
the travel hole of the furrow opener. Fig. 4. Increase in the diameter of to D3) resulted in lowering the seed
The handle of the drum seeder was the seed metering holes (d) from 7 rate for all combinations of diameter
made of 18 mm mild steel pipe and to 9 mm resulted in a uniform and of seed metering holes and number
attached to the main shaft by 25 mm gradual increase in seed rate for all of seed metering holes. However
mild steel pipe bushes. The height the selected number of seed meter- further increase in drum diameter
of the handle from the ground level ing holes (n). Further increase in to 250 mm resulted in an increase in
can be adjusted using the holes pro- diameter from 9 to 11 mm resulted seed rate except at 1.5 km h-1.
vided depending on the height of the in a steep increase of seed rate. The
operator. increase of forward speed (v) from Hyperboloid Seed Drum
1.0 to 1.5 km h-1 had little effect on The effect of diameter of seed me-
-1
Seed rate, kg ha
250 250 250 250
200 200 200 200
150 � 150 150 150
100 100 100 100
50 50 50 50
0 0 0 0
7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 11
250 250 250 250
200 200 200 200
150 150 150 150
100 100 100 100
50 50 50 50
0 0 0 0
7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 11
250 250 250 250
200 200 200 200 5 holes�
6 holes�
150 150 150 150 7 holes�
8 holes�
100 100 100 100 9 holes
50 50 50 50
0 0 0 0
7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 11
D1 = 150 mm D2 = 175 mm D3 = 200 mm D4 = 250 mm
Fig. 5 Effect of hole diameter on seed rate at selected forward speed of operation for hyperboloid seed drum (S2)
38 9 holes AGRICULTURAL
9 holes MECHANIZATION IN ASIA,
9 holesAFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA
9 holes 2006 VOL.37 NO.2

tering holes on seed rate at selected ferent drum diameters in the cylin- which is in close agreement with the
forward speeds of operation for drical ellipsoid drum are presented results of the studies conducted by
different drum diameters in the hy- in Fig. 6. The behaviour of seed rate other researchers.
perboloid drum is presented in Fig. in the cylindrical ellipsoid drum fol-
5. The trend of seed rate exhibited lowed the same trend as that of cy- Effect of Drum Diameter
is similar to that of cylindrical drum lindrical and hyperboloid drums for The desired seed rate could be
for all combinations of diameter of all combinations of diameter of seed obtained in all the drum shapes at
seed metering holes and number metering holes and number of seed 10 to 11 mm diameter of seed me-
of seed metering holes at different metering holes at different forward tering holes with 8 and 9 number of
forward speeds of operation and speeds of operation and drum diam- holes for all the four levels of drum
drum diameters except for 200 mm eters. Thus, it can be inferred that diameter. All the three drum shapes
diameter seed drum. The variation a higher seed rate is possible with having 8 and 9 number of holes at
in seed rate with increase in diam- the seed metering hole diameter of 200 mm drum diameter resulted in
eter of seed metering holes is less 10 to 11 mm and 8 and 9 numbers non-significant variation of seed
with 200 mm seed drum diameter of seed metering holes for selected rate, where, as at other diameters,
and number of seed metering holes. drums for all forward speeds of op- the variation in the seed rate was
When compared to cylindrical seed eration and drum diameters. As the significant for all drum shapes. The
drum the forward speed had more effect of forward speed of operation non-significant variation in seed
effect on hyperboloid seed drum. on seed rate is non-significant, the rate of 200 mm diameter in all the
optimization was done based on the drum shapes might be attributed to
Cylindrical Ellipsoid Seed Drum practical difficulty of walking in a the combined effect of seed drum
The effect of diameter of seed me- puddled field and pulling the drum cu r vat u re and rotational speed
tering holes on seed rate at selected seeder. The forward speed of opera- which influences the flow path tra-
forward speeds of operation for dif- tion was fixed at a level of 1.0 km h-1 jectory of paddy in addition to the
-1
Seed rate, kg ha
250 250 250 250
200 200 200 200
150 � 150 150 150
100 100 100 100
50 50 50 50
0 0 0 0
7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 11
250 250 250 250
200 200 200 200
150 150 150 150
100 100 100 100
50 50 50 50
0 0 0 0
7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 11
250 250 250 250
200 200 200 200 5 holes�
6 holes�
150 150 150 150 7 holes�
8 holes�
100 100 100 100 9 holes
50 50 50 50
0 0 0 0
7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 11
D1 = 150 mm D2 = 175 mm D3 = 200 mm D4 = 250 mm
Fig. 6 Effect of hole diameter on seed rate at selected forward speed of operation for cylindrical ellipsoid drum (S3)
VOL.37 NO.2 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION

9 holes 9 holes IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA
9 holes 9 holes 39

gravitational force. Also the seed Solutions arrives
flow from the preceding holes might Drum shape X1 X2 X3 X4
(Number of seed (Diameter of seed (Forward speed of (Diameter of
have added to the seed rate. metering holes) metering holes, mm) operation, m s-1) drum, mm)
The increased dr um diameter Cylindrical -0.61 9.14 0.41 -100.66
beyond 200 mm might have had an Hyperboloid 9.11 6.82 0.295 183.59
effect on the increased gravitational Cylindrical ellipsoid -0.766 9.93 0.288 198.00
force and f low path trajectory of Table 1 Solutions of variables for the statistical models
paddy seeds, which might be the
reason for the increased seed rate.
The increase in seed rate beyond most realistic values for the selected diameter of the seed metering hole
200 mm might also be due to the variables based on the R 2 value (X 2) was oscillated and accordingly
fact that more empty space is avail- and the solutions obtained from the computed value was determined
able which leads to free f low of the partial derivative simultaneous to be 9.9 mm. Hence the value of X 2
seeds. This may also be due to the equations. Since the objective was was fixed at 10 mm which is higher
increased agitation leading to less to get the desired seed rate (Y) of 80 than the length of different paddy
bridging effect between the paddy kg ha-1, in the analyzed model for varieties studied (6.9 to 9.8 mm).
seeds near the holes. hyperboloid drum Y was fixed at 80
kg ha-1 and corresponding oscilla- Percent Variation in Seed Dis-
Statistical Analysis and Math- tions were made within the realistic charge
ematical Modelling limits to obtain the values for X1, The prototype drum with the op-
In order to confirm the results X2, X3 and X4. Considering the prac- timized parameters was tested for
obtained as discussed above and tical difficulty in the field operation per-cent variation in seed discharge
to optimize the shape of the drum, the forward speed of operation (X 3) with respect to time. The seed rate
statistical analysis of the data was was fixed at 1.0 kph. obtained in the prototype dr um
performed to assess the significance The seed dr um diameter (X 4) seeder with two levels of filling
of the variables, namely, number of value was fixed at 200 mm, which was investigated and the variation
seed metering holes (X1), diameter was closer to the solved value of of seed distribution with respect
of seed metering holes (X 2), for- 183.59 mm when the effect of drum to time is presented in Fig. 7. The
ward speed of operation (X 3), and curvature and gravitational forces percent variation in seed discharge
the diameter of the seed drum (X4) were taken into account and the tra- was in the maximum range of - 60
on the shape of the drum for seed jectory of movement of paddy seeds to + 94 percent when the drum was
discharge. The partial derivative of due to rotation. filled to two-thirds of its capacity.
the best model for each shape was The number of seed metering Hence, filling was reduced to half of
equated to zero. The simultaneous holes (X1) was selected as 9 as the the drum capacity and the percent
equations obtained on the above solved value was 9.11. By fixing the variation in seed discharge was re-
first order condition were solved and values of X1, X3 and X4 as discussed duced to a range from - 35 percent
the results are presented in Table 1. above, for obtaining the desired to + 90 percent. This may be due to
The hyperboloid drum gave the seed rate level of 80 kg ha -1, the the reduction in bridging effect of
Percent variation Variation in seed discharge, percent

110 600
2/3 filling 2/3
90 Half filling
2/3 filling 500
70 Half filling Half
400
50
30 300
Optimised drum�
10 Existing TNAU drum seeder
200
-10
100
-30
0
-50
-70 -100
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 � � � � 5 � � � � 10 � � � � 15 � � 20 � � 25 � � � � 30 � �
� � � �
Time, min. Time, min.
Fig. 7 Percent variation in seed discharge due to filling Fig. 8 Percent variation in seed discharge with respect to time
seeds. Since the percent variation in Description Specification
seed discharge was reduced when Power source One labour
the drum was filled to half of its ca- Row to row spacing, mm 200
pacity, the filling level was selected Shape of the drum Hyperboloid
as half of the capacity of the drum. Number of rows, Nos. 4, 6, 8
Diameter of the drum, mm 200
Effect of Baffles on Percent Varia- Diameter of the seed metering hole, mm 10
tion in Seed Discharge Type of furrow opener Wing type
The seed rate obtained in the pro- Type of ground wheel Lugged wheel
totype drum seeder with and with- Diameter of ground wheel, mm 600
out baffles and with control (exist- Operating speed, km h-1 1.0
ing TNAU drum seeder) is depicted Level of filling Half volume
in Fig. 8. The time consumed for Table 2 Specification of the prototype drum seeder with optimized variables
emptying the drum in the existing
TNAU drum seeder was 17 minutes ing, flat axial baffles were preferred Kandasamy, O.S.1987. Water, weed
with higher seed rate, whereas in over the inclined. and nitrogen management for
the prototype drum seeder it took direct seeded, irrigated lowland
33 minutes to empty the drum with rice. Ph.D. Thesis. Tamil Nadu
reduced seed rate. The percent Agricultural University, Coim-
Conclusions
variation in seed discharge of the batore.
prototype drum seeder with differ- The specifications of the proto- Pradhan, S.N. 1969. Mechanization
ent types of baffles is illustrated in type drum seeder with optimized of rice cultivation. Oryza 6: 67-71.
Fig. 9. The hyperboloid seed drum variables, based on the studies con- Wang, H.Y. and T.S. Sun. 1990. The
with optimized variables resulted in ducted, are presented in Table 2. characteristics of machine direct
higher percentage variation of seed sown rice following wheat and the
discharge from - 35 to + 90 percent corresponding techniques. Acta
than the recommended value lead- REFERENCES Agricultural Universities Jiangx-
ing to emptying of seed drum with iensis 12: 34-39.
in 33 minutes. But provision of Bharathi, T. 1996. Management ■■
baffles reduced this effect. However options for seeding and weeding
the baffles with round rods resulted in wet-seeded rice. M.Sc.(Ag.)
in more negative percentage of Thesis. Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ.,
variation when compared to f lat Coimbatore.
baffles. Both types of fixtures of flat Borlagdan.P.C., and M. Yamauchi.
type baffles did not have significant 1995. Seeder developed for direct
variation in seed discharge. Hence, sowing of rice under the puddled
for the convenience of manufactur- soil surface. IRRN. 20(1) 29-30.
Seed rate variation, percent

100
Optimized drum�
80 12 mm frat - axial�
12 mm frat - inclined�
60 10 mm rod� �
12 mm rod
40
20 2/3 filling
0 Half filling
-20
-40
-60
� � � � 5 � � � � 10 � � � � 15 � � � � 20 � � � � 25 � � � � 30 � � � � 35 � � � � 40 � � � � 45
Time, min.
Fig. 9 Percent variation in seed discharge of the prototype
drum seeder with different types of baffles
Reliability Analysis of Different Makes
of Power Tillers
by
B. Shridar P. K. Padmanathan
Assoc. Professor Research Scholar
Department of Farm Machinery, Department of Farm Machinery,
Agrl. Engg. College and Research Institute, Agrl. Engg. College and Research Institute,
TNAU, Coimbatore-641 003 TNAU, Coimbatore-641 003
INDIA INDIA
R. Manian
Professor and Head
Department of Farm Machinery,
Agrl. Engg. College and Research Institute,
TNAU, Coimbatore-641 003
INDIA
period of clutch system was more a network of dealerships. But this

Abstract
for Make A (1,926.74 hours) fol- maintenance network, though fiercely
Power tillers are visualized as an lowed by Make C (708.33 hours) and competitive, does not often system-
appropriate source of farm power Make B (575.24 hours). The MTBF atically plan the need for repair and
of medium farms. The maintenance value for Make A, Make B and maintenance based on a well-defined
cost of the power tiller increases at Make C was 1,953.13 hours 524.30 database. The concept of reliability
a linear at rate during its lifetime. hours and 706.36 hours, respec- engineering may have to be applied
Failure of the machines at peak tively. The average working hours of to streamline the maintenance sce-
season cause many difficulties to the axle system was more for Make nario, as reliability is a mathemati-
the farmers. An investigation of the C (1,702.39 hours). The MTBF value cal expression of the likelihood of
repair time in major systems was for Make A was 2,388.51 hours, satisfactory operation. Though the
conducted and the collected data which was 46.56 and 25.86 percent repair cost of the power tiller is high,
were analyzed through the Weibull higher than Make B and Make C re- the subsequent loss due to delay in
distribution analysis and conclu- spectively. The average working pe- carrying out repair is potentially
sions drawn. The respondents sur- riod of the rotary system was more much greater than the cost of repair.
veyed had Make A, Shrachi (water- for Make C (1,379.07 hours). The av- Under such condition any stoppage
cooled), Make B, Mitsubishi (air- erage working period of brake sys- of the power tiller can cause sizable
cooled), and Make C, Mitsubishi tem was more for Make B (3,266.66 loss due to delay in carrying out the
(water-cooled), power tillers. The hours). The MTBF value of Make timeliness of farm operation during
average annual working hours of C was 2,497.88 hours, which was the peak season. Hence, reliability of
all the power tillers ranged from 43.16 and 48.98 percent higher than the power tiller has become impor-
853 hours to 888 hours. The aver- MTBF values of Make A and Make tant, while the breakdown of an in-
age working hours for the engine B, respectively. dividual subsystem of a power tiller
system was 1,332.24 hours for Make is an annoyance. To make allowance
B, which was 0.4 and 4.67 percent for these unpredictable breakdowns,
higher than Make B and Make C the knowledge of the probability of
Introduction
respectively. The MTBF value for failure, helps the farmer to plan more
Make A was higher at 1,409.83 The power tiller industries have realistically for the farm opera-
hours when compared to Make B developed awareness of the main- tions. It is strongly believed that the
and Make C. The average working tenance of power tillers through application of reliability theory is
feasible and necessary for proper function could be represented by F(t) farmers who owned power tillers
utilization of the power tiller for = 1 - e-x. Svensson (1989) estimated were selected randomly in each se-
time based operation. Similarly, the that the maintenance cost of two lected village. The selected farmers
systematic analysis of break down of wheel drive and four-wheel drive were first asked whether they had
different components of power tillers power sources increased at a linear purchased the power tiller before
over their service life, with a view rate during its life period. Rangasa- 1994. If his response was ‘yes’, he
to assess the reliability of different my (1997) concluded that the Weibull was considered as a sample unit and
systems of a power tiller and its over parameters and the cumulative distri- data were collected using the sched-
all reliability for the field work, is bution function could be represented ule. The basic data, such as the na-
keenly felt. A systematic study on the by mathematical equations. ture of repair and time of occurrence
reliability analysis of the power tiller of such repair with reference to cu-
under Indian conditions has not been mulative usage, were considered for
attempted so far, and, also, no work selection of the sample power tiller
has been done on the reliability of for reliability analysis by adopting
the power tiller and its components The information on location, edu- the following criteria.
and utilization pattern of it. cational details, land holding and The power tillers selected were
size, soil type, cropping pattern, de- those used mainly for agricultural
tails of the power tiller, operations operations. The other factor was
performed with the power tiller, the average annual usage in work-
Review of Literature
failure details, facilities for repair, ing hours. These two factors jointly
Hunt (1971) reported that the re- maintenance aspects of power tiller, induced maximum stress on agricul-
liability of the farmer’s machines ergonomics aspects of power tiller, tural power tillers and made them
were so low that he would expect and socio economic aspects and susceptible to failure. Hence, the ba-
and plan for operation stoppages in constraints, if any, were collected sic data obtained on power tiller put
each season. The complex harvesting from the respondents through a well to agricultural use would truly rep-
machine systems were most prone structured questionnaire. resent the functional effectiveness of
to operation stopping breakdowns the components of the power tiller
with the probability being 0.75 or Selection of Sample for reliability analysis. The average
greater each year for the larger Among various taluks of Erode annual usage of the power tiller was
farms. Garykrtz et al (1984) reported district, the number of power til- 800 hrs (Manian.and Swaminathan,
that a sample size of 15 or more was lers (561) was found maximum in 1991; Gupta, 1989). Hence, power
needed for the accurate implementa- Gobichettipalayam taluk. Therefore, tillers, which had served for a period
tion of Weibull graphing; otherwise, Gobichettipalayam taluk was select- ranging from five to 10 years, were
too much human error would be ed for this study. In Gobichettipa- considered for this study. Power
introduced. The tractor had 600 op- layam taluk the three popular power tillers, involved in major accidents
erational hours per year of which was tillers were Shrachi (water cooled), were not considered because their
used about 50 percent in tillage op- Mitsubishi (air cooled) and Mit- performance and failure pattern of
eration. Major breakdown occurred subishi (water cooled). The revenue components do not represent the
after 5 to 7 years of use. Under villages in each block were listed standard performance and the nor-
normal working conditions and with based on the descending order of mal wear and tear characteristics.
reasonable maintenance, the tractor number of power tillers. The villages In India, power tiller industries are
could be used for 15 years. Singh selected were the first 20 villages in manufacturing and supplying power
(1986) reported that the frequency Gobichettipalayam block, the first 9 tillers ranging from 8 to 15 hp. The
of engine breakdown for a 30-50 hp villages in T.N.palayam, and the first 10 to 15 hp range appeared to be the
tractor was 22 percent more with a 7 villages in Nambiyur block. dominant choice from the side of the
50-90 hp at 5,000 cumulative hours of manufacturers and the beneficiaries
use. He reported that engine defects Selection of Power Tiller Respon- and was chosen for this study.
showed the highest percentage of the dents Types of repairs and their occur-
total of all the defects that occurred For conducting the survey and col- rence depend much on the perfor-
during the life of the tractor. Behl et lection of data in the study villages, mance of individual subsystems.
al. (1987) concluded that the Weibull a list of farmers owning power til- The twenty-four subsystems were
distribution was the best to represent lers was obtained from the Statisti- grouped under five major systems as
the probability distribution of failure. cal department, Gobichettipalayam detailed below.
They concluded that the Weibull pa- and the local dealers supplying the i. Engine system - Liner, Piston,
rameters and cumulative distribution different makes of power tiller. Four Piston rings, Valves, Crankshaft,
Camshaft, Connecting rod, Fuel for performing percentage pooled Testing the Goodness of Fit of the
pump and Fuel injector average and Weibull distribution Weibull Distribution
ii. Transmission system - Clutch analyses. The Weibull model developed
cable, Clutch plate, Steering clutch was tested for its suitability. Using
and Gear box Pooled Average Method the fitted Weibull distribution the
iii. Axle - Axle, Axle bearing and The failure data was taken for all expected frequency was computed.
Oil seal the 24 subsystems from the com- The goodness of fit was tested using
iv. Rotary system - Chain and pleted questionnaire for each power the Chi-square statistics. The calcu-
sprocket, Shaft, Gasket, Bearing tiller. In each subsystem, the failure lated Chi-square values were com-
and Rotary gear box data were taken for all the sample pared with the standard statistical
e. Brake system - Brake drum, size of 144 power tillers. For each table. Comparison of the calculated
Brake shoe and Brake lining power tiller, there were a number value of chi-square with the table
If failure occurs even in one of the of failures in each subsystem dur- values of chi-square (at the 95%
subsystems, the power tiller cannot ing the working period. For the level) indicated the goodness of fit
be put into use. Hence, the design individual subsystem, the over all of the Weibull distribution for the
and functional effectiveness of each minimum, maximum and average observed data.
system greatly contributes to the re- working hours were calculated for
liability of the power tiller. It is de- all the observed data. These ob- Mean Time Between Failure and
sirable to identify the effectiveness served values were used for making Variance
of each subsystem to have a clear comparison with the expected val- The mean time between failure
idea about the overall performance. ues of the Weibull model developed (MTBF) of the subsystem in a sys-
for power tiller failure. This method tem and its variance were calculated
Failure Pattern of Subsystem was used by Singh (1986) to analyze using the formulas from Rangasa-
A failure may be defined as any the breakdown in tractors. my, 1997.
condition, which prevents, opera- 1
MTBF = α 1 Γ (1+ ),
tion of a machine or which causes Weibull Distribution for Power β β
a level of performance below a rec- Tiller Reliability where
ommended limit. Depending on the The data collected were statisti- Γ(p) is the Gamma function given
frequency of failure, the average life cally analyzed to identify the reli- by
may vary. To find the average life ability of various sub systems of Γ(p) = ∫e∝-xxp-1dx.
of subsystems, the pooled average different makes of power tillers. The value of Γ(p) for various val-
method was adopted. Weibull dis- The frequency failure distribution, ues of p were obtained using statis-
tribution is a very widely used tool for the above data was obtained for tical tables.
in engineering practice. Its principal an interval of 200 hours from zero Variance σ2 = α2/ß{Γ(1+2/β)-{Γ
use is in the field of life phenomena. to a maximum value of 5,200 hours. (1+1/β)}2}
The distribution very well describes This information formed the basis Coefficient variance = {σ/MTBF}
the life characteristics of a part be- for reliability analysis. The number x 100
cause it is a three-parameter distri- of power tillers that failed during a The values of MTBF, standard
bution. Hence, the Weibull model, particular time interval was noted at deviation and coefficient of variance
which is more accurate in predicting the end of the interval. were thus calculated. The MTBF
the failure pattern of agricultural provided the average lifetime of
machinery, has been used to assess Calculation of Observed Value of each component and the standard
the reliability of the power tiller. Failure deviation gave a measure of vari-
The cumulative frequency of fail- ability of lifetime around the av-
Method of Analysis ure of power tillers at different time erage value. For each component
The collected data were classified intervals was calculated from the among the three makes of power til-
and tables were formed to arrive at failure data of the system for differ- lers, the make that had the least co-
meaningful findings. The Shrachi ent makes of power tiller. Then the efficient of variation was preferred.
power tiller respondents were cat- cumulative frequency of failure for a The above data may be useful to
egorized as Make A, Mitsubishi (air particular time interval was divided give a guarantee for a particular
cooled) power tiller respondents by the sample size of the particular subsystem by the manufacturer. It
were categorized as Make B and make of power tiller. This gave the may also help the farmer to keep
Mitsubishi (water cooled) power til- observed value of failure distribution vigilance on the spare parts to be
ler respondents were categorized as for the particular time interval. procured for the particular subsys-
Make C. Relevant data were used tem in order to avoid down time
of the power tiller. The subsystem, ferent time intervals. The goodness of clutch system was more for Make
which might require design modi- of fit of the Weibull model of the A (1,926.74 hours). This was 70.14
fication due to poor reliability can equation developed for the engine percent higher when compared to
also be identified from the data. system failure was tested with the the clutch system fitted in Make B
Chi-square test. The observed and and 63.24 percent higher than Make
predicted cumulative probability C. This may be due to variation in
were significant at 95 percent con- the clutch cable system of the power
fidence level, which indicates the tillers.
Reliability Analysis of Different validity of the Weibull model devel- ii. Weibull Distribution Analysis for
Systems of Power Tiller oped for the engine system failures. Clutch System Failure
The failure data of five systems iii. MTBF of the Engine System The goodness of fit of Weibull
comprising 24 subsystem compo- The MTBF of the subsystems model of the equation developed
nents for all the samples of power components of the engine system for the clutch system failure was
tillers were analyzed through the for the different Makes of power til- tested with the Chi-square test. The
pooled average method of analysis ler were calculated by substituting observed and predicted cumula-
and by the Weibull distribution estimated values of the parameters tive probability were significant at
analysis. The results are presented β and α in the equation. Make 95 percent confidence level, which
for the five systems of power tiller, A had a higher MTBF value of indicates the validity of the Weibull
which were engine, clutch, axle, ro- 1,409.83 hours while Make B had a model developed for the clutch sys-
tary and brake. lower MTBF value of 733.98 hours. tem failure.
The low MTBF value of Make B iii. MTBF of the Clutch System
Engine System may be due to an insufficient cool- T he MT BF of the subsystem
The failure data of the engine ing system and variation in engine components of the clutch system for
system comprised the following system design. The MTBF of Make the different Makes of power tiller
subsystem components; liner, pis- B was less than the values of Make were calculated by substituting esti-
ton, piston rings, valves, crankshaft, A and C by 48 and 46 percent re- mated values of the parameters β
camshaf t, con necting rod, f uel spectively. and α in the equation. It was found
pump, and fuel injector. that Make A had a higher MTBF
i. Pooled Average Method for En- Clutch System va lue of 1,953.13 hou r s wh i le
gine System Failure The subsystem components of Make B had a lower MTBF value
The results of the pooled aver- the clutch system were clutch cable, of 524.30 hours and Make C had
age method for the engine system clutch plate, steering clutch, and 706.66 hours. This may be due to
failure are presented in Table 1. gearbox. type of clutch present in the power
The maximum working period of an i. Pooled Average Method for Clutch tillers. Make A had double disc con-
engine was 3,600 hours (Make C) System of Failure stant type clutch whereas Make B
which was 2.77 percent higher than The results of the pooled aver- and Make C had multiplate dry disc
Make A and 16.66 percent higher age method for the clutch system type clutch.
than Make B. Based on the pooled failure are given in Table 2. Make
average value, the average working C had the highest working period Axle System
period of the engine was higher for of 3,000 hours, which was 2.5 per- The components of the axle system
Make B (1,332.24 Hours). cent higher than Make A and 20 were axle, axle bearing and oil seal.
ii. Weibull Distribution Analysis for percent higher than Make B. The i. Pooled Average Method for Axle
Engine System Failure minimum value of working pe- System Failure
There was no significant differ- riod was in the range of 100 hours The results of the pooled average
ence between the observed and pre- (Make C) to 1,300 hours (Make method for the axle system failure
dicted values of Weibull distribution A). Based on the pooled average are given in Table 3. The maximum
for the engine system failure at dif- value, the average working period working period of the axle was
Power tiller Working hours Power tiller Working hours

make Minimum hours Maximum hours Average hours make Minimum hours Maximum hours Average hours
Make A 350.00 3,500.00 1,326.83 Make A 1,300.00 2,925.00 1,926.74
Make B 420.00 3,000.00 1,332.24 Make B 120.00 2,400.00 575.24
Make C 212.00 3,600.00 1,270.03 Make C 100.00 3,000.00 708.33
Table 1 Results of the pooled average method Table 2 Results of the pooled average method
for the engine system failure for the clutch system failure
4,200 hours (Make C), which was Table 4 shows that Make A had model of the equation developed
45.23 percent higher than Make a higher MTBF value of 2,388.51 for the rotary system failure was
A and 9.52 percent higher than hours while Make B had a lower tested with the Chi-square test. The
Make B. The lower value of work- value MTBF value of 1,276.23 observed and predicted cumulative
ing period was in the range of 200 hours. The reason for this variation probabilities were significant at the
hours (Make B) to 500 hours (Make may be due to the variation in the 95 percent confidence level, which
A). Based on the pooled average design features of the axle system indicates the validity of the Weibull
value the average working period of the power tillers. model developed for the rotary sys-
of axle system was more for Make tem failure.
C (1,702.39 hours). This was 16.73 Rotary System iii. MTBF of the Rotary System
percent higher when compared to The components of the rotary sys- The MTBF of the subsystem com-
the Make A and 22.47 percent high- tem were chain and sprocket , rotary ponents of the rotary system for the
er as compared to the Make B. shaft, gasket, bearing and rotary different Makes of power tiller were
ii. Weibull Distribution Analysis for gear box. calculated by substituting estimated
Axle System Failure i. Pooled Average Method for Ro- values of the parameters β and α
There was no significant difference tary System Failure in the equation. It was found that
between the observed and predicted The results of the pooled average Make C had higher MTBF value of
cumulative distribution function method for the rotary system failure 1,432.96 hours while Make A had
based on the Weibull model for the are given in Table 5. The maximum lower value MTBF value of 735.01
axle failure for the three Makes. The working period of the rotary system hours, which may be due to the poor
goodness of fit of the Weibull model was 4,000 hours (Make B), which design of the rotary system.
of the equation developed for the was 68.12 percent higher than Make
axle system failure was tested with A, and 5 percent higher than Make Brake System
the Chi-square test. The observed C. The lower value of working pe- The components of the brake sys-
and predicted cumulative probabili- riod was in the range of 200 hours tem were brake drum, brake shoe
ties were significant at 95 percent (Make A) to 350 hours (Make B). and brake lining.
confidence level, which indicated the Based on the pooled average value, i. Pooled Average Analysis for Brake
validity of the Weibull model devel- it was found that the average work- System Failure
oped for the axle system failures. ing period of the rotary system was The results of the pooled average
iii. MTBF of the Axle System more for Make C (1,379.07 hours). method for the brake system failures
The MTBF of the subsystems This was 44.20 percent higher when are presented in Table 6. The maxi-
components of the axle system for compared to the rotary fitted in mum working period of the brake
the different Makes of power til- Make A, and 6.96 per cent higher as was 5,600 hours (Make B), which
ler were calculated by substituting compared to the Make B, which had was 64.28 percent higher than Make
estimated values of the parameters a lower average working period of A and 3.57 percent higher than Make
β and α in the equation presented 769.41 hours. C. The minimum value of working
in section 3.4.3.6. The results of the ii. Weibull Distribution Analysis for period was in the range of 300 hours
analysis were tabulated along with Rotary System Failure (Make C) to 1,200 hours (Make B).
coefficient of variance. The goodness of fit of Weibull Based on the pooled average value, it
Power tiller Working hours Power tiller Standard Coefficient of

MTBF (hours)
make Minimum hours Maximum hours Average hours make deviation variance
Make A 500.00 2,300.00 1,417.44 Make A 2,388.51 647.24 27.09
Make B 200.00 3,800.00 1,319.80 Make B 1,276.23 738.34 57.85
Make C 300.00 4,200.00 1,702.39 Make C 1,770.90 791.12 44.67
Table 3 Results of the pooled average mehod Table 4 MTBF hours, standard deviation and
for the axle system failure coefficient of variation for the axle system
Power tiller Working hours Power tiller Working hours

make Minimum hours Maximum hours Average hours make Minimum hours Maximum hours Average hours
Make A 200.00 1,275.00 769.41 Make A 500.00 2,000.00 1,074.66
Make B 350.00 4,000.00 1,283.00 Make B 1,200.00 5,600.00 3,266.66
Make C 300.00 3,800.00 1,379.07 Make C 300.00 5,400.00 2,526.21
Table 5 Results of the pooled average method Table 6 Results of the pooled average method
for the rotary system failure for the brake system failure
was found that the average working of the clutch system was more for harvester reliability. Agricultural
period of the brake system was more Make A (1,926.74 hours), followed Engineering Today, 11 (6): 23-26.
for Make B (3,266.66 hours), which by Make C (708.33 hou rs) and Chaudhatry, R. P. and S. I. Ahmad,
was 203.97 percent higher than the Make B (575.24 hours). This may 1988. Field reliability of farm
brake system fitted in Make A that be due to variation in the clutch machinery. Agricultural Mecha-
had minimum average working pe- cable system of the power tiller. The nization in Asia, Africa and Latin
riod of 1,074.66 hours. MTBF values for Make A, Make B America, 19 (1): 73-78.
ii. Weibull Distribution Analysis for and Make C were 1,953.13 hours, Gary Krutz, Lester Thompson, and
Brake System Failure 524.30 hours and 706.36 hours, Paul Claar, 1984. Design of Ag-
There was no significant differ- respectively. This wide variation ricultural Machinery. John Wiley
ence between the observed and pre- may be due to type of clutch pres- and Sons, New York, PP.139.
dicted values of Weibull distribution ent in the power tiller. Make A has Gupta, J. P. and R. B. Ram, 1989.
for the brake system failure at dif- a double disc constant type clutch, Performance of power tillers for
ferent time intervals. The goodness whereas Make B and Make C have rice cultivation in North Bihar re-
of fit of the Weibull model of the multiplate dry disc clutch. gion. Proceedings of the National
equation developed for the brake en- • The average working period of Seminar on Role of Machineries
gine system failure was tested with the axle system was more for Make in Maximizing Agricultural Pro-
the Chi-square test. The observed C (1,702.39 hours). This was 16.73 duction organized by ISAE held
and predicted cumulative probabili- percent higher than Make A and at Patna, India.
ties were significant at 95 percent 22.47 percent higher than Make B. Hunt, D.1971. Equipment reliability.
confidence level which indicates the The MTBF value for Make A was Indiana and Illinois Data. Trans-
validity of the Weibull model devel- 2,388.51 hours, which was 46.56 actions of ASAE, 14 (4): 742-746.
oped for the brake system failures. and 25.86 percent higher than Make Manian, R. and K. R. Swaminathan,
iii. MTBF of the Brake System B and Make C. The reason for this 1981. Choice of suitable far m
The MTBF of the subsystems variation may be due to the varia- power for arid and semi-arid re-
components of the brake system for tion in the design features of the gions. Paper presented at XVIII
the different Makes of power tiller axle system of the power tiller. Annual Convention of ISAE held
were calculated by substituting es- • The average working period of at Central Soil Salinity Research
timated values of the parameters β rotary system was more for Make C Institute, Kernal, India.
and α in the equation. Make C had (1,379.07 hours). This was 6.96 per- Rangasamy, K.1997. Investigation
a higher MTBF value of 2,497.88 cent higher than Make B and 44.21 on the frequency of breakdown
hours while the Make B value was percent higher than Make A. The and reliability of selected makes of
lower at 1,276.25 hours. This may MTBF value of Make C was 1,432.96 tractors and their systems. Ph.D.
be due to the handling methods of hours while Make A was lower at Thesis (Agrl.Engg). T.N.A.U. Co-
the operator in operating the power 735.01 hours, which may be due to imbatore.
tillers and the material of the brake the poor design of the rotary system. Singh, B.1986. Frequency of break-
system. • The average working period down and reliability of different
of the brake system was more for tractors and their system. Ph.D.
Make B (3,266.66 hours). This was Thesis (Agrl.Engg) G.B.Pant Uni-
67.10 percent higher than Make A versity of Agri. and Technology,
Conclusion
and 22.67 percent higher than Make Pantnagar.
Based on the analysis of the results C. The MTBF value of Make C was Srivastava, A. C. 1984. Rational use
the following conclusions are drawn. 2,497.88 hours, which was 43.16 and of a general purpose farm tractor
• The average working hours for 48.98 percent higher than Make A in India. Agricultural Mechani-
engine system was 1,332.24 hours and Make B, respectively. This may zation in Asia, Africa and Latin
for Make B, which is 4.67 percent be due to the handling procedure of America, 5 (2): 27-30.
higher than Make C. The MTBF the operator in operating the power Svenson, J.E.T.1989. Maintenance
value for Make A was higher at tillers and materials of the brake costs for farm machinery, Pro-
1409.83 hours than the MTBF value system. ceedings of the Eleventh interna-
of Make B at 733.98 hours and of tional Congress on Agrl.Engg.Vol
Make C at 1,354.48 hours. The low (1): 2669-2671. Published by A.,
value of Make B may be due to an REFERENCES Bolkema Ratterdam, Netherlands.
insufficient cooling system due to ■■
variation in engine system design. Behl, V. P, R. K. Malik, and D. P.
• The average working period Kataria, 1987. Predicting combine
Design and Development of a Two-Raw
Saffron Bulb Planter
by
Mohammad-H. Saiedi Rad
Iranian Agricultural Engineering
Research Institute,
Khorasan Agricultural Research Centre,
Mashhad, P.O.Box. 91735-488
IRAN
[email protected]
two row cups fell into a furrow. Lack of planting and harvesting
Abstract
mechanization is the major problem
Iran, with 127.9 tons of saffron, in Iran. Shortage of labor and high
holds the first position in world pro- wages limit development of saffron
Introduction
duction. The major portion of this cultivation since planting and har-
production belongs to Khorasan Cultivation of saffron was fash- vesting take place in a short period
province with 4.8 kg/ha yield. Saf- ionable in the center of Iran before of time. Planting time of saffron
fron bulbs are planted in the con- Islam. At present saffron is planted bulbs is from the middle of August
ventional way using labor intensive in Iran, Spain, India, Greece and It- to the middle of September. Two
methods in Iran as well as other aly (Rashed, 1989). Saffron in Iran methods of planting are convention-
countries in the world. This method occupies 24,000 hectares with 4.8 al in Iran:
causes yield reduction and causes (kg/ha) yield. In 2000, 127.9 tons
diff icult y in har vesting opera- were produced. Iran consumes 20 1. Planting Several Bulbs in a Hole
tion. To overcome such problems, percent of it’s production and and With this method three to fifteen
a planter was designed and con- exports the remainder (Iran agricul- bulbs are planted in a hole. Holes
structed. The main objective was tural ministry, 2000). are dug with a shovel, which keeps
to design and construct a two-row Saffron is a herb plant. The sci- the surface of the field level.
planter for saffron bulbs, that wold entific name of saffron is Corcus
plant the bulbs in 22 cm row-space Sativus L. and saffron belongs to 2. Row Planting
and 15cm planting depth without Iriadace family. Since saffron is Furrows are made by a furrower
damaging the bulbs. Four labora- an auto triploid plant, it is sterile opener that is pulled with a tractor.
tory experiments were conducted to (Behnia, 1991). Saffron has asexual Depth and row space of furrows are
investigate the four important physi- reproduction. Bulbs of saffron are 15-20 and 15-30 cm, respectively.
cal properties of size, density, bulk white in color, spherical in shape, With this method, workers put bulbs
density and friction angle between and hard and chubby in texture with into the furrows with 5-7 cm spac-
bulbs and steel. For this purpose, a f lat bottom and swollen heads. ing in the row (Bagheri et al, 1990).
many designs were evaluated, cup Bulbs are covered by crown fibers. Bulbs that are lighter than 2 g
shape metering was selected, and Fibers emerge from the bottom of cannot produce flowers in the first
a suitable cup was constructed. In the bulbs, are narrow on the top of year and bulbs lighter than 6 g have
this machine, the conveyor belt was bulbs and protect the terminal buds. the same limitation. Bulbs heavier
equipped with four alternative row If fibers are separated from the bulb, than 14 g can produce 3.5 kg/ha saf-
cups. Each cup carried one bulb, a horizontal circle on the surface of fron in the first year. Since heavy
which was taken from the hopper. bulb will be seen (Fig. 1) (Abrisha- bulbs reproduce bigger bulbs, they
At the end of the way, bulbs of the mi, 1983). increase yield in the first, second
and third year. The minimum weight Table 1 Results of shape and experiments
of a bulb for flower production in L1 (mm) L2 (mm) L3 (mm) G (mm) D (mm) S
the first year is 6.5 g. The weight 22.09 18.68 15.07 18.11 18.01 0.82
of the bulb effects the quantity of
flower production (Mashayekhi et where L1 , L 2 and L 3 are three
al, 1996). Behnia (1991) reported perpendicular diameters of a bulb
that increasing the number of bulbs (L1 is main diameter). The specific
per hectare, increases yield. He gravity of bulbs was calculated by
compared three planting methods following equation:
(light, medium and heavy). Alavi
...............................................(4)
et al (1996) concluded that the best
planting density for saffron is 20 x where M is the bulb mass and
10 cm (row space and bulb space in was measured with an electronic
row). He compared this method with balance. The volume, V, (cm 3) was
two others (30 x 15 and 40 x 20 cm). measured by weighting the volume
of displaced water into which the
bulbs were immersed. Bulk density
was calculated by equation (4). In
this experiment a certain volume of Fig. 3 Plan of bulb saffron planter
1. Measurement of the Physical bulbs (750 cm3) was weighted by an
Properties of Saffron Bulbs electronic balance. alternative row cups. Each cup car-
Seven samples of bulbs were gath- ried one bulb, which was taken from
ered from seven regions of Kho- 2. Choice of a Suitable Metering the hopper. The row cups were ar-
rasan province. After removing the Device ranged in such a way that the bulbs
small bulbs (inappropriate for plant- Because of simularity between of two rows were placed in the same
ing), from each sample, thirty bulbs potato and saffron bulbs, several furrow.
were selected rondomly. The mass, metering systems of potato planters A small t ractor was used for
volume and specific gravity were were evaluated. This study showed saff ron cultivation because the
determined according to the method that a belt conveyor metering system fields of saffron were very small
of Mohsenin (1970) as shown below. (bucket planter) with cups was the (1,000-5,000 m 2). Hence, it was de-
To determine the size of the bulbs, most suitable metering for the bulbs. cided to design a two-row planter
three different dimensions of the Because of the fragility of the bulbs, that would be mounted on a small
bulbs were measured using a suit- spike picker metering could not be tractor.
able caliper. used. Moreover, the irregular shape
of the bulbs did not permit use of a
.............................(1)
picker wheel metering system.
Construction of the
A bucket planter unit was mount-
.............................(2) Planter
ed on a tool carrier. The tool carrier
included a belt conveyor that moved 1. Physical Properties
..............................................(3)
the bulbs up vertically. The con- The geometric and arithmetical
veyor belt was equipped with four diameters, and the spherical shape
were calculated for each bulb and
the means were computed for each
7 region. The total mean of the seven
A B
samples are shown in Table 1. The
1 1
2 2 specif ic gravity and mean bulk
density were 0.98 and 0.36 g/cm 3,
3
8 4 respectively.
5
6 2. Design and Construction of Cups
1: Large terminal bud, 2: Small terminal T he cups were desig ned a nd
bud, 3: Lateral bud, 4: lateral circles, 5:
Location of previous root, 6: Previous bulb constructed based on the findings
of last, 7: Protection cover of buds, 8: Crown
cover (fobers) from shape and size experiments
Fig. 1 Bulb of saffron. Fig. 2 Plan of cup (Fig. 2) so that only one bulb could
A: Without fibers, B: With fibers be accommodated in a cup. The
cup carried one bulb from the hop-
per correctly. If bulbs were small,
a cups would carry two bulbs. No
bulb damage was detected by the
metering system. Table 2 shows
eight possible states of operation of
the planter. For these calculations,
the mean weight of bulbs was 8 g.
REFERENCES
Abrishami, M. (1983). Saffron is red
gold of salt desert. Publication of
Fig. 4 Picture of saffron blub planter Tehran University.
Alavi, S. H. and M. Mohajer i.
cups were installed on a belt by two (1996). Effects of row spaces and
screws. The cups have a narrow bulb spaces on yield of saffron.
groove at the bottom that catches Publication of Khorasan Agricul-
the bulb surface fibers and separates tural Research Center.
the bulbs from each other. If a bulb Bagheri, K. and A. Hemati. (1990).
falls on the cup up side down, the Abst ract of st udyi ng and re -
head of bulb moves in the groove searching on saffron. Publication
and the bulb sits up correctly. The of I.S.R.O.
cups were cast aluminum and had a Behnia, M. (1991). Cultivation of
mean weight of 61 g. saffron. Publication of Tehran
University.
3. Design and Construction of the Mashayek hi, K. and N. Lat if i.
Remaining Parts of the Planter (1996). Effects of bulbweight on
The hopper was constructed from saffron yield. Journal Of Iran
steel with a capacity of 217 litters Agri. Sinces, Vol 28, (1): 97-105.
and could hold up to 78 kg of bulbs. Mohsenin, N. (1970). Physical prop-
The driving power was obtained by erties of plant and materials. Gor-
contact of the steel wheel with the don and Breach publishers.
ground. The wheel was comprised Rashed, M.(1989). Report of saffron
of two plates and six steel rods posi- position in Spain. Publication of
tioned between the plates. The rods I.S.R.O. Statistics and information
change the diameter of wheel. of agricultural ministry office.
(2000). Statistics book of agricul-
ture. Iran agri. ministry.
■■
Evaluation of the Planter
Experiments showed that each
Diameter of Number of gear Radial speed of Speed of Field capacity of

Speed of tractor Space of bulbs
(km/hr) wheel (mm) cog on shaft pulley driver conveyor belt (mm) planter (ha/hr)
(rad/s) (m/s)
3 250 14 7.136 0.499 85 0.06
3 300 21 3.966 0.277 140 0.06
3 250 21 4.754 0.333 120 0.06
3 300 14 5.95 0.416 100 0.06
4 250 14 9.52 0.666 85 0.08
4 300 21 5.29 0.37 140 0.08
4 250 21 6.348 0.44 120 0.08
4 300 14 7.94 0.55 100 0.08
Table 2 Coparasion of 8 possible states
Determination of the Optimum Moisture Content
for Shelling Maize Using Local Shellers
by
I. K. Tastra Erliana Ginting
Agricultural Mechanization and Agricultural Mechanization and
Food Technologist of RILET and Food Technologist of RILET and
Food Technologist of ATA-272/NRC Project. Food Technologist of ATA-272/NRC Project.
P.O. Box 66 Malang 65101, E. Java P.O. Box 66 Malang 65101, E. Java
INDONESIA INDONESIA
Richard Merx
Agricultural Mechanization and
Food Technologist of RILET and
Food Technologist of ATA-272/NRC Project.
P.O. Box 66 Malang 65101, E. Java
INDONESIA
TMO, was 32.5 %, 35.0 % and 35.0 tional Logistic Agency (BULOG),
Abstruct
% w.b, respectively. The minimum at the national level, in the supply of
Optimum moisture content of total costs of shelling and drying good quality maize. Although, at the
maize for shelling was studied using were Rp 3,573/t, Rp 3,176/t and Rp KUD level repeated drying is done
local shellers operated in Kediri, E. 3,315/t while the optimum grain me- to bring the moisture content down
Java, Indonesia. From August 1989 chanical damage was 18.4 %, 17.8 to 14 %, deterioration during storage
until May 1990, three types of local % and 21.1 %. It was concluded that still arises, due to high initial me-
maize shellers were tested at three each type of local maize sheller has chanical damage, which is affected
levels of grain moisture content different optimum grain moisture by the method of shelling (sheller
and cylinder speed. The effective content. Among the three types of type and speed), in combination
shelling capacity increased with an maize shellers tested, the best local with a high moisture content. In this
increase of the cylinder speed but maize sheller was the KWT type. way the storage problems are shifted
decreased with an increase of the from farm level to the KUD level.
moisture content of maize. There- According to Thahir, et al (1988),
fore, shelling costs increased with drying maize as grain is more effi-
Introduction
an increase in moisture content. cient than on the cob (ear). However,
Mechanically damaged maize in- For t y percent of the national shelling maize ears at high moisture
creased with increasing cylinder maize production in Indonesia is content (17-25 % w.b.) is reported to
speed and with moisture content grown in East Java province, con- reduce mechanical damage and fuel
of maize. The total drying cost de- centrated mainly in the Kediri Area. consumption (Anonymous, 1987).
creased with an increase in moisture Those farmers who do not use the Chowdhur y and Buchele (1978)
content. Based on this relationship a maize for their own consumption reported 60 % increase in damage
mathematical model was developed. shell directly after harvest at a high (26.3 % to 42.0 %) after increasing
Solving the model with a tabular initial moisture content (over 25 % the rotor speed of the cylinder type
method in Lotus-123 program in- w.b.). Without drying and storing, sheller from 450 to 650 rpm. There-
dicated that the optimum moisture the grain is then sold to a trader fore, shelling maize at high grain
content of maize for shelling, us- or to the Village Unit Cooperative moisture content seems to be contra-
ing sheller types SLM, KWT and (KUD). The latter is to assist the Na- dictory to the effort of diminishing
Table 1 Cylinder speed (RPM) and grain moisture content (GMC) well as the total cost to produce one
level for testing local maize shellers ton shelled maize ready to be stored
Sheller RPM (rpm) GMC (% w.b.) or processed.
type* 1 2 3 1 2 3
SLM 600 750 900 35 24 15
KWT 600 750 900 35 29 15
TMO 600 750 900 35 29 15 Objectives
*To simplify the treatment names, representative shellers are named according to the 1. To obtain the optimum moisture
name of the owner of the sheller (SLM: Mr. Slamet, KWT: Mr. Kawamoto and TMO:
Tomo). Technically all shellers produced by local workshops are cylinder type shellers. content in maize for shelling to im-
The basic mechanism and the price of the shellers are presented in Fig. 2 and Appendix 1. prove the shelling quality and reduce
the deterioration during storage.
the mechanical damage. However, KUD (better storability). Optimum 2. To determine the best local
no information is available yet on moisture content for shelling maize maize sheller suitable for both trad-
the optimum moisture content in may diminish quality deterioration ers and KUD.
maize for drying and shelling as one of maize during storage and so in- 3. To identify the constraints that
system to obtain optimal storability. crease its economic value. Supply improve the performance of local
Practical information on the per- of good quality maize for food and maize shellers.
formance of various types of maize feed industry and price control may
shellers operated in Kediri (Java’s be within reach. Optimizing the
major centre of maize production) is moisture content for shelling maize
Material and Methods
not yet available. KUD may reduce may increase efficiency of energy
the off-farm price for maize if the utilization per kg grain and so re- This experiment was carried out
quality is beyond BULOG standard duce machine operation costs as in the working area of KUD Nugro-
(3 % damaged kernels). Therefore
improvement on the shelling qual-
ity is in the interest of both farm-
ers (better selling-price) and the
Selection the Main Types Local

Maize Shellers in Study Area
Developing Mathematical Model

Based on Minimum Cost Analysis
Concept (Eqn.: 1-7)
Performance Test Followed

by 6 Mouths Storage
Parameter Estimation
Used in the Model
Optimization Process
Write Output:
1. Optimum GMC
2. Total Costs
3. Grain Quality
Fig. 1 Flow chart to determine optimal
grain moisture content (GMC) level for Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of the cylinder and shelling
testing local maize shellers concave of the three local maize shellers
ho, Kediri, E. Java, Indonesia be- Appendix 1 List of symbols, abbreviations and acronyms used
tween August 1989 and May 1990. Symbol Description
The flow chart to determine the op- EC Effective shelling capacity (t/h)
timal moisture content for shelling SC Shelled maize (kg)
maize is presented in Fig. 1. TPS Time needed for shelling (s)
Three types of mobile shellers GD Percentage mechanically damaged grain (%)
called SLM, KWT and TMO were WGD Weight of mechanically damaged grain (g)
used in this study. Schematic dia- GIDG Percentage damaged grain due to the insect infestation and mould growth (%)
grams of the cylinder and shelling WS Weight of sample (g)
concave of the three local maize GMC Grain moisture content (% w.b.)
shellers are presented in Fig. 2. All FC Fixed costs of maize shelling (Rp/year)
shellers were run and hand-fed by VC Variable costs of maize shelling (Rp/year)
two operators. WT Working hours available (h/year)
Based on a preliminary test, all TDCOST Total drying costs (maize cobs + shelled maize) (Rp/t)
runs were done at three levels of TCOST Total cost to produce 1 ton shelled maize ready to be stored (Rp/t)
cylinder speed (RPM) and moisture SCOST Shelling cost (Rp/t)
content of maize (GMC) as present- A,B,C,D,E,F Constants
ed in Table 1. The GMC, RPM and NRC Nutrition related component of Project ATA-272
fuel consumption measurements KUD The village Unit Cooperative
were done using both the Stein L. BULOG National Logistic Agency
moisture meter and oven method,
a digital tachometer and a plastic Gomez, 1983) on coefficient B and
EC = (SC/TPS)*3.6 ........................(1)
glass measure. D was made to determine if the ef-
GD = (WGD/WS)*100 % ..............(2)
After each run, the shelled grain fect of RPM and GMC on EC and
was dried to a moisture content of To determine the optimum mois- GD were the same for all types of
10-13 % (w.b.) on a drying f loor. ture content for the shelling process, shellers before using Eqn. 7. As the
Subsequently, the maize was stored the concept of minimum cost analy- results of tests were significantly
according to the normal procedures sis was used in this study (Thuesen, different, the determination of the
applied by the KUD Nugroho. Ob- et al, 1981). To do this the following optimum GMC was required for
servations were made on effective mathematical models were derived: each sheller.
shelling capacity (EC) and me- The optimum GMC for the shell-
EC = A*(RPM/GMC)^B ...............(3)
chanical damage of grain (GD) with ing process could be determined
SCOST = (FC+VC)/(WT*EC) ......(4)
calculations made as shown below. based on the minimum TCOST by
GD = C*EXP(D*(RPM*GMC)) ..(5)
Appendix 1 gives the list of sym- using a tabular method. This pro-
TDCOST = E*EXP(F*GMC) ......(6)
bols, abbreviations and acronyms. cess was done using Lotus-123 pro-
TCOST = SCOST+TDCOST .......(7)
gram. The quality of shelled maize,
�
+
A homogeneity test (Gomez� and found at optimum GMC, in terms of
+
Effecive capacity, EC (t/h) Grain damage, GD (%)
5.5 50
EC (SLM) = 0.0814*(RPM/GMC)ˆ0.9971, r = 0.8526**� GD (SLM) = 4.6198*EXP((RPM*GMC)*7.0799E-5, r = 0.8526**�
� * �
5 EC (KWT) = 0.1717*(RPM/GMC)ˆ0.8381, r = 0.9581**� 45 GD (KWT) = 5.0289*EXP((RPM*GMC)*6.0150E-5, r = 0.7188**�
EC (TMO) = 0.8920*(RPM/GMC)ˆ0.2400, r = 0.9336** + GD (TMO) = 6.6308*EXP((RPM*GMC)*5.5210E-5, r = 0.8136**
4.5 * + 40
4 35 +
+ * + *
3.5 � + 30 + *
* * *
3 * 25 #
# #
+
2.5 � 20 #
# #� # + + # + �
#
2 * +* + + 15 *
+
+
* # # # + + * *
1.5 + 10 +
�
+ # + *
1 5 *
0.5 �
10 20 30 40 50 60 7000 11900 16800 21750 26500 31400
RPM/GMC ratio (rpm/%) RPM*GMC ratio (rpm*%)
Fig. 3 Effect of cylinder speed and grain moisture content on Fig. 4 Effect of cylinder speed and grain moisture content on
effective capacity for three types of maize sheller grain damage for three types of maize sheller
(+ SLM, * KWT and ＃ TMO) (+ SLM, * KWT and ＃ TMO)
aΩ≈ç√∫˜˜µ≤≥÷÷æ«æ…¬˚∆˙©ƒ aΩ≈ç√∫˜˜µ≤≥÷÷æ«æ…¬˚∆˙©ƒ
∂ßåœ∑´®†¥¨ˆøπs ∂ßåœ∑´®†¥¨ˆøπs
GD was calculated from Eqn. 5. cal significance on EC (Fig. 3). This fective shelling capacity increased
phenomenon followed an exponen- also. This is similar to the results of
tial model where the coefficient Chowdhury and Buchele (1978) and
determination (COD) was between Nalbant (1990).
0.87 and 0.93. As the cyli nder The homogeneity test of the re-
Effective Capacity (EC) speed increased and/or the moisture gression coefficients indicated that
The ratio RPM/GMC had statisti- content of the maize decreased, ef- the effect of RPM/GMC on EC was
significantly different for all shell-
Parameters value (%) ers. Among the local shellers tested,
20 type KWT2/3 had the highest average
filling
GD = 13.147 - 0.418 * STP, r = -0.167 (ns) EC (2.96 t/h) followed by type SLM
A GIDG = 2.919 + 2.164 * STP, r = 0.672 (ns) (2.82 t/h) and type
Half TMO (1.99 t/h).
filling
15
Grain Mechanical Damage (GD)
The effect that the cylinder speed
10 and moisture of maize had on me-
chanical damage is shown in Fig. 4.
Generally, the GD increased with an
5 GD
increase of both the cylinder speed
GIDG and the grain moisture content in
SLM, KWT and TMO shellers. This
phenomenon followed the exponen-
0
tial model with a COD between 0.52
20 and 0.85.
2/3 filling test of the re-
The homogeneity
GD = 12.845 - 0.898 * STP, r = -0.357 (ns)
B GIDG = 3.618 + 1.601 * STP, r = 0.597 (ns) gression coefficients indicated that
Half filling
the effect of RPM*GMC on GB was
15
significantly different at a prob-
ability of 5 % for all three shellers.
The highest average GD was found
10
in the SLM sheller (11.7 %) while
the average GD for the KWT and
TMO shellers was 9.7 % and 11.2
5 GD % respectively. However, all shell-
GIDG ers produced GD higher than 3 %
due to the fixed arrangement of the
0 shelling concave system used in the
20 shellers (Fig. 2).
2/3 filling
GD = 13.385 - 0.625 * STP, r = -0.235 (ns) Optimum Grain Moisture Con-
C GIDG = 2.695 + 2.271 * STP, r = 0.671 (ns) Half filling
tent (GMC)
15
Since the effects of R PM and
GMC on EC and GD were different
for all three shellers (Figs. 3 and 4),
10 the optimum GMC was determined
for each type of local sheller. The
optimization process was done at a
5 GD minimum cylinder speed (600 rpm),
GIDG which is within the range of cylin-
der speeds suggested by the local
0 workshop (600-700 rpm).
2 3 4 5 6 There are three steps in the op-
Storage period, STP (Mouth) timization process. First, there is
Fig. 5 Grain quality during six mouths storage of maize shelling with local maize the calculation of the shelling cost
shellers (A: SLM maize sheller, B: KWT maize sheller and C: TMO maize sheller) (Eqn. 4) as determined by the effec-
tive capacity (Eqn.3), the fixed and 29 ºC and relative humidity of 73 % Java has a positive social-economic
variable costs for each sheller and was 10.5 %, 9.2 % and 10.6 %. This impact on the users, traders and the
the total working hours available result indicated that although the KUD. The impact is different for
per year (Appendix 2). Secondly, initial GD was rather high, its effect each group due to the differences in
the total drying cost (Eqn. 6), which on GIDG could be kept within the needs and objectives.
is the sum of the costs needed to limits by immediate drying of the The main positive impact of using
dry maize cobs and shelled maize, shelled maize down to a moisture mobile maize shellers for the farmer
must be calculated. The param- content of 10-13 % w.b. is the reduction in workload during
eter used in the TDCOST model the shelling process as well as the
is based on information gathered Social-Economic Implications reduction in costs of shelling. The
from KUD Nugroho staff and ob- The use of mobile shellers, which owners of the shellers can make ad-
servations made during the drying are now operated in the working ditional income by renting out their
process. The final step is the calcu- area of KUD Nugroho, Kediri, E. machines, while the local work-
lation of the total costs, which is the
sum of the shelling costs and total Appendix 2 Estimation of fixed and variable costs of the local maize
drying costs (Eqn. 7). shellers operated in KUD Nugroho Kediri, E. Java, Indonesia
By using the tabulation method Items
Sheller type
in Lotus-123, the minimum TCOST SLM KWT TMO
for SLM, KWT and TMO sheller Initial cost (IC) (Rp/unit)* 1,650,000 1,700,000 2,000,000
was Rp 3,573/t, Rp 3,176/t, and Rp Depreciation (D) (Rp/ year) 330,000 340,000 400,000
3,315/t, respectively (Appendix 3, Interest (Rp/year) 178,200 183,600 216,000
4 and 5). At these minimum total Fixed cost (FC) (Rp/year) 506,200 523,600 616,000
costs the optimum GMC was 32.5 Labor (Rp/year) 720,200 720,000 720,000
%, 35.0 % and 35.0 % w.b., respec- Fuel (Rp/year) 86,950 91,728 67,473
tively. Repair (Rp/year) 49,500 51,000 60,000
Variable cost (VC) (Rp/year) 856,450 862,728 847,473
Grain Quality During Storage Assumption:
High initial mechanical damage 1. Working day: 120 days/year 7. Working hours (WT): 600 hours/year
during the shelling process had no 2. Interest rate: 18 %/year 8. Salvage value (S): 0 % * IC
significant effect on insect infesta- 3. Machine life (N): 5 year 9. D = (IC - S) / N
tion and mold growth after storage 4. Fuel consumption (KWT): 0.096 l/h/hp 10. Repair: 3 % * IC
of 6 months (Fig. 5). The average Fuel consumption (TMO): 0.054 l/h/hp 11. Wage rate: Rp 3,000/day/man
GD for SLM, KWT and TMO shell- Fuel consumption (SLM): 0.091 l/h/hp 12. Operater: 2 persons
5. Fuel price: Rp 245/l 13. Custom rate: Rp 4,000/t
ers was 11.7 %, 9.7 % and 11.2 %.
6. Diesel engine (KWT): 6.5 hp 14. Custom rate: Rp 4,000/t
The average GIDG during this pe-
Diesel engine (TMO): 8.5 hp
riod at an average temperature of
Diesel engine (SLM): 6.5 hp * In 1990, 1 US$ = Rp 3,000
Appendix 3 Calculation of optinum GMC for shelling process using sheller type SLM
FC VC WT A(1) B(1) E(2) F(2) RPM GMC SCOST(3) DCOST(4) TCOST(5)
(Rp/year) (Rp/year) (hours) (rpm) (% w.b.) (Rp/t) (Rp/t) (Rp/t)
508,200 856,450 600 0.0814 0.9971 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 15.0 706.04 3,057.51 3,763.55
508,200 856,450 600 0.0814 0.9971 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 20.0 940.61 2,726.28 3,666.88
508,200 856,450 600 0.0814 0.9971 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 25.0 1,175.00 2,430.93 3,605.93
508,200 856,450 600 0.0814 0.9971 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 30.0 1,409.25 2,167.58 3,576.83
508,200 856,450 600 0.0814 0.9971 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 30.5 1,432.67 2,142.87 3,575.54
508,200 856,450 600 0.0814 0.9971 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 31.0 1,456.09 2,118.44 3,574.53
508,200 856,450 600 0.0814 0.9971 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 31.5 1,479.51 2,094.29 3,573.80
508,200 856,450 600 0.0814 0.9971 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 32.0 1,502.92 2,070.41 3,573.33
508,200 856,450 600 0.0814 0.9971 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 32.5 1,526.34 2,046.81 3,573.15*
508,200 856,450 600 0.0814 0.9971 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 33.0 1,549.75 2,023.47 3,573.22
508,200 856,450 600 0.0814 0.9971 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 33.5 1,573.16 2,000.40 3,573.56
508,200 856,450 600 0.0814 0.9971 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 34.0 1,596.57 1,977.60 3,574.17
508,200 856,450 600 0.0814 0.9971 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 34.5 1,619.98 1,955.05 3,575.03
508,200 856,450 600 0.0814 0.9971 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 35.0 1,643.39 1,932.76 3,576.15
(1)
Constant of Eq. 3, (2)Constant of Eq. 6, (3)Eq. 4, (4)Eq. 6, (5)Eq. 7
shops make money by producing TCOST) for the shelling process at a tional maize production the negative
the shellers. For the traders and the cylinder rotation speed of 600 rpm, impact of using local maize shellers
KUD, maize losses can be reduced the GD (Eqn. 5) was 18.4 %, 17.8 % should be taken into account.
due to the speeding up of the shell- and 21.1 % for the SLM, KWT and The negative impact on the us-
ing process. TMO shellers, respectively. Based ers is that the quality of the shelled
However, there are also some on the Directorate Food Crops maize is often uncontrollable due to
negative aspects. Since the mobile Agriculture (1988) in Purwadaria the inferior quality of the shellers.
local maize shellers are not ac- (1989), an increase of 1 % dam- The owners, who buy the shellers
companied by a manual on how to age will reduce the price of shelled from local workshops dealers, also
operate the sheller at various GMC maize by Rp 0.6/kg. Therefore, the face problems in managing their
and RPM, the maize losses due maize losses in terms of cash value shellers economically.
the shelling process are difficult to will be Rp 9,240/t, Rp 8,880/t and
quantify at the KUD level. In fact, Rp 10,860/t for the SLM, KWT and
the maize losses during the shell- TMO shellers, respectively. Since
Conclusions
ing process using the local shell- the demand for maize exceeds the
ers appeared much higher than the supply, most of the maize is directly 1. The optimum moisture content
BULOG standard (3 % damaged processed into animal feed. Howev- at a cylinder speed of 600 rpm was
kernels). At optimum GMC (lowest er, for the long term objective of na- 32.5 %, 35.0 % and 35.5 % (w.b.) for
Appendix 4 Calculation of optinum GMC for shelling process using sheller type KWT
523,600 862,728 600 0.1717 0.8381 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 15.0 611.31 3,057.51 3,668.82
523,600 862,728 600 0.1717 0.8381 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 20.0 777.98 2,726.28 3,504.26
523,600 862,728 600 0.1717 0.8381 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 25.0 937.97 2,430.93 3,368.90
523,600 862,728 600 0.1717 0.8381 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 30.0 1,092.83 2,167.58 3,260.41
523,600 862,728 600 0.1717 0.8381 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 30.5 1,108.07 2,142.87 3,250.94
523,600 862,728 600 0.1717 0.8381 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 31.0 1,123.28 2,118.44 3,241.72
523,600 862,728 600 0.1717 0.8381 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 31.5 1,138.44 2,094.29 3,232.73
523,600 862,728 600 0.1717 0.8381 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 32.0 1,153.57 2,070.41 3,223.98
523,600 862,728 600 0.1717 0.8381 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 32.5 1,168.65 2,046.81 3,215.46
523,600 862,728 600 0.1717 0.8381 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 33.0 1,183.70 2,023.47 3,207.17
523,600 862,728 600 0.1717 0.8381 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 33.5 1,198.71 2,000.40 3,199.11
523,600 862,728 600 0.1717 0.8381 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 34.0 1,213.69 1,977.60 3,191.29
523,600 862,728 600 0.1717 0.8381 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 34.5 1,228.63 1,955.05 3,183.68
523,600 862,728 600 0.1717 0.8381 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 35.0 1,243.54 1,932.76 3,176.30*
(1)
Appendix 5 Calculation of optinum GMC for shelling process using sheller type TMO
616,000 847,473 600 0.892 0.24 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 15.0 1,128.17 3,057.51 4,185.68
616,000 847,473 600 0.892 0.24 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 20.0 1,208.81 2,726.28 3,955.09
616,000 847,473 600 0.892 0.24 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 25.0 1,275.32 2,430.93 3,706.25
616,000 847,473 600 0.892 0.24 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 30.0 1,332.36 2,167.58 3,499.94
616,000 847,473 600 0.892 0.24 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 30.5 1,337.66 2,142.87 3,480.53
616,000 847,473 600 0.892 0.24 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 31.0 1,342.89 2,118.44 3,461.33
616,000 847,473 600 0.892 0.24 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 31.5 1,348.05 2,094.29 3,442.34
616,000 847,473 600 0.892 0.24 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 32.0 1,353.16 2,070.41 3,423.57
616,000 847,473 600 0.892 0.24 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 32.5 1,358.20 2,046.81 3,405.01
616,000 847,473 600 0.892 0.24 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 33.0 1,363.19 2,023.47 3,386.66
616,000 847,473 600 0.892 0.24 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 33.5 1,368.12 2,000.40 3,368.52
616,000 847,473 600 0.892 0.24 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 34.0 1,372.99 1,977.60 3,350.59
616,000 847,473 600 0.892 0.24 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 34.5 1,377.81 1,955.05 3,332.86
616,000 847,473 600 0.892 0.24 4,312.795 -0.02293 600 35.0 1,382.57 1,932.76 3,315.33*
(1)
the SLM, KWT and TMO shellers, randum No. 7. International La-
respectively. bour Office, Geneva.
2. In terms of total costs to pro- Chodhury, M. H. and Buchele W. F.
duce 1 ton of shelled maize, the best (1978). The nature of corn kernel
local maize sheller is type KWT damage inflicted in the shelling
(Rp 3,176/t). crescent of grain combines. Trans-
3. Grain mechanical damage at action of ASAE, 21(4):610-614.
optimum grain moisture content is Gomez, K. A. and A. A. Gomez
18.4 %, 17.8 % and 21.1 % for the (1983). Statistical Procedures for
SLM, KWT and TMO shellers, re- Agricultural Research. Second
spectively. Edition. John Wiley and Sons,
4. Although the mechanical dam- Inc. New York p. 357-379.
age is higher than the BULOG stan- Nalbant, M. (1990). Mechanical
dard (3 %), there is no significant damage on corn kernel in shelling
effect on biological damage during corn ear. AMA, 21(2):37-40.
six months storage. Average GIDG Purwadaria, H. K.(1989). Konsepsi
is 10.5 %, 9.2 % and 10.6 % for pengembangan peralatan panen
the SLM, KWT and TMO sheller, palawija untuk tingkat pedeaaan.
respectively. Nevertheless, these Makalah disampaikan pada Semi-
losses are considered too high; con- nar dan Kongkres Perhimpunan
sequently, storage methods of the Teknik Pertanian Indonesia tang-
KUD should be improved. gal 19 - 21 Januari 1989. Universi-
tas Brawijaya, Malang, Indonesia.
P. 18.
Thuesen, H. G., W. J. Fabrycky and
Recommendations
G. J. Thusen (1981. Engineering
1. The optimization model used Economy. 5th Edition, Prentice-
in this study needs further develop- Hall of India. New Delhi-110001.
ment and verification. The model Thahir, R., Soedar yono, J., Se-
used is without constraints. Identi- tiawati and Sumardi (1998). Paper
fication of the constraints in using presented at Workshop on the Na-
local maize shellers as a component tional Coordinated Research Pro-
of the maize postharvest system gram on Corn and grain legume,
is very important for the develop- Bogor 21-23 June 1988, Indonesia.
ment of an appropriate local maize P. 9.
sheller that is technically possible, ■■
economically feasible and socially
acceptable.
2. While modifying the optimi-
zation model used, immediate re-
search to improve the basic mecha-
nism (concave system) of maize
shellers is needed for all shellers to
reduce grain mechanical damage.
3. Follow up on testing to deter-
mine the correlation between me-
chanical damage, moisture content
and biological damage (storage
losses) is needed.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (1987). Small-scale
Maize Milling. Technical memo-
The Influence of Various Factors on Tractor Selection
by
Ali Aybek Ismet Boz
Department of Agricultural Machinery, Department of Agricultural Machinery,
Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University, Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University,
Kahramanmaras, Kahramanmaras,
TURKEY TURKEY
all agricultural investments within findings of a study showed that a

Abstract
a farm operation (Sabanci and Ay- farm of five hectares has eight times
The main purpose of this study bek, 1990). Except land purchasing the machinery cost per hectare as
was to determine the influence of costs, the total production costs of compared to a farm of 50 hectares
various factors on tractor selec- Turkey’s farm operations is approxi- (Anonymous, 2002 a). In addition
tion among Kahramanmaras farm mately $400 per hectare, 50 % of to the inefficiency in machinery
operators. The study included 214 which consists of machinery costs. selection, there are many farmers
randomly selected farm operators. The remaining costs include labor struggling to prevent leaving farm-
The influence of various technical (11 %), fertilizers (10 %), seeds (10 ing because of outdated agricultural
features of farm tractors on farmers’ %), chemicals (6 %), and other costs technologies and farm machinery.
purchasing decision was investigat- (13 %) (Anonymous, 1999). All of these factors increase produc-
ed. The second objective of the study Farmers need to be carefull when tion costs, decrease the quality and
was to identify the economic and purchasing and using their ma- quantity of agricultural production
social factors that influence farmers’ chinery because machinery costs and limit the opportunity for Tur-
preference. Results showed that fuel constitute 50 % of the total produc- key’s agricultural products to com-
consumption and power delivered tion costs in farm operations. For pete in international markets.
by the tractor were the most impor- this purpose, farm size and relevant The tractor is the most important
tant technical features while price farming practices need to be taken machinery item among all other
and brand of selected tractor were into account. If farmers consider farm machinery (Liljedahl et al,
the most important economic and these factors in purchasing and us- 1989). Proper selection of a trac-
social factors. Pearson correlation ing farm machinery, they will prob- tor is a basic factor influencing the
coefficient between the variables of ably increase the efficient use of economic sustainability of farm
farm size and tractor power ratings their available resources. Economic operations (Isik, 1996). The proper
was r = 0.60, suggesting that farm sustainability of farm operations selection is determined by factors
size was properly taken into account depends partially on the ability of such as farm size, production sys-
when choosing a farm tractor. managers in proper selection and tem, duration of production process,
management of farm machinery land structure, soil structure and
(Grisso et al, 1988; Srivastava et al, climatic conditions (Demirci, 1986;
1993). Isik, 1988).
Introduction
The majority of farms in Tur- Kahramanmaras, with 472,031
Agricultural mechanization is a key are small. Historicaly, farm hectares of cultivated land, is one of
complementary factor for increas- operators have purchased their the leading agricultural provinces
ing the efficiency and economic use farm machinery without consider- of Turkey. Agriculture is the income
of other farm technologies as well ing scientific criteria, which have source of more than half of the pop-
as for improving work conditions of caused many farmers to purchase ulation in the region. Soil and cli-
farm operations. Besides these char- high capacity machinery with high matic conditions of the region make
acteristics, agricultural mechaniza- prices. This situation has increased it possible for Kah raman maras
tion takes the largest share among production costs per unit land. The farm operators to grow wheat, bar-
ley, cotton, sugar beets, sunflower, by farmers when purchasing a trac- farmers when purchasing a tractor.
red pepper, and many other crops tor; A five point Likert type scale with
(Anonymous, 2002 b). 3. to identify the influence of eco- 1 = very important, 2 = important,
According to 1998 data, there nomic and social factors which are 3 = indifferent, 4 = not important,
were 8,104 tractors, 8,655 tools, and considered by farmers when pur- and 5 = absolutely not important
83 combines around Kahramanma- chasing a tractor; was developed. A panel of experts
ras (Anonymous, 2002 c). If the av- 4. to determine any correlation established validity for the data col-
erage tractor power is taken as 40.6 that might exist between the vari- lection instrument. The instrument
kW (Sabanci and Akinci, 1994), the ables of farm size and the delivered was pre-tested and slight changes
mechanization level in the region is power of tractor; and were made for establishing reli-
about 0.70 kW/ha, and the average 5. to develop research based rec- ability. Date were collected in Sep-
member of tools per tractor is about ommendations that will assist farm- tember to December 2002. SPSS
five. In Turkey, on the other hand, ers in the selection of the optimum (Statistical Package for the Social
the mechanization level is 1.33 tractors for their farm. Sciences) was used for data analy-
kW/ha while the average member of The findings of this study should ses.
tools per tractor is five. These num- provide valuable input for farmers, Descriptive statistics were used
bers indicate that the mechanization tractor manufacturers, agricultural to achieve the first three objectives
level in Kahramanmaras is lower extension organizations, and agri- of the study. Because the informa-
than that of the average of Turkey. cultural researchers in the region. tion related to objectives 2 and 3
Although the number of tools in were collected on a five point Likert
the region is equal to the average of type scale, the means, were inter-
Turkey, the need for new agricul- preted using a scale where 1.49 or
Research Methodology
tural technology in the region con- less = very important; 1.50-2.49
tinues to increase. This is because T h i s s t u d y u s e d t h e s u r ve y = important; 2.50-3.49 = indiffer-
of changing crop patterns, second method for data collection. The ent; 3.50-4.49 = not important; and
crop production, and increasing participants were 214 randomly 4.50-5.00 = absolutely not important
demand for the crops cultivated in selected farm operators from the was developed. Pearson correlation
the region, especially for cotton and plain villages of Kahramanmaras coefficient was used to achieve the
corn. In order to modernize agricul- central district, Turkoglu, and Paz- fourth objective of the study. The
ture, the increasing demand for new arcik towns. A questionnaire was variables of farm size and tractor
agricultural technologies will also developed that considered earlier power were measured as interval
increase the need for purchasing work and specific characteristics variables. Pearson correlation coef-
new tractors in the region. of agricultural mechanization in ficient can best describe the correla-
The overall purpose of this study the region. The study included two tion between two variables if they
was to determine the factors taken sections. The first section consisted are measured in intervals (Voelker
into consideration by Kahramanma- of nine questions to identify techni- and Orton, 1993). In order to inter-
ras farm operators when purchasing cal features farmers consider when pret the level of correlation between
a tractor. The specific objectives purchasing a tractor. The second two variables, the Davis (1971)
were: section consisted of another nine correlation interpretative scale was
1. to identify the sellers from questions to identify economic and used. This scale is presented in
whom farmers purchase their trac- social factors that may inf luence Table 1.
tors, and the status of tractor as be-
ing new or used; Level of importance
2. to identify the inf luence of Technical features
Mean Std. deviation
technical factors that are considered Fuel consumption 1.22 0.58
Power delivered by the tractor 1.29 0.62
Correlation Availability of spare parts 1.32 0.63
Description
coefficient (r) Availability of maintenance services 1.38 0.57
0.70- + Very strong correlation Features of power take off 1.43 0.65
0.50-0.69 Strong correlation Features of tires 1.52 0.66
0.30-0.49 Moderate correlation Features of transmission 1.53 0.72
0.10-0.29 Low correlation Power steering 1.89 0.97
0.01-0.09 Negligible correlation Double traction 2.42 1.33
Table 1 Interpretation of correlation Table 2 Technical features which farmers take
coefficients (Davis, 1971) into account when purchasing a tractor
ing a commonly used tractor in the important technical features while
Research Results
region, using similar tractor earlier, power steering and double traction
Results showed that 46 % of desire of household members, physi- were the least important technical
respondents purchased their trac- cal appearance of tractor, tractor features. Price and brand of tractors
tors from dealers, 29 % from com- adds on mass media, and influence were considered the most important
missioners, and 25 % from other of neighbor farmers. economic and social factors while
farmers. Fifty-seven percent of the Mean farm size and tractor power tractor adver tisements on mass
purchased tractors were used while were calculated as 16.66 ha, and media and inf luence of neighbor
43 % were new. 50.1 kW, respectively (Table 4). farmers when purchasing a specific
Of the nine technical features, five The average tractor power in the re- tractor were the least important.
were in the very important, and four search area (50.1 kW) was found to The average tractor power in the re-
were in the important interpretative be 9.51 kW higher than that of Tur- search area was higher than that of
category as shown in Table 2. There key, which was calculated as 40.6 Turkey. There was a strong positive
were no items in indifferent, not im- kW by Sabanci and Akinci (1994). correlation between farm size and
portant, and absolutely not impor- Pearson correlation coefficient be- tractor power.
tant interpretative categories. Fuel tween tractor power and farm size Used tractors in the region have a
consumption was the most impor- was calculated as r = 0.60 (n = 214). better market value than new trac-
tant technical feature for selection According to Davis’s interpretative tors. This is because large farmers
of a tractor. This was followed by scale there was a strong correlation want to sell their tractors, after us-
the power of the tractor, availability between these two variables indicating them several years, and replace
of spare parts, availability of main- ing that, as farms get larger, farm- them with a new one. Small farm-
tenance services, and the power ers tend to purchase more powerful ers, consisting of the majority of
take off. The items that respondents tractors. farmers in the region, cannot afford
ranked as important were tires, purchasing a new tractor and, there-
transmission, and availability of fore, prefer a used tractor of a lower
power steering and double traction. price. In addition, the 2001 eco-
Summary, Conclusions,
There were no items in indifferent, nomic crisis in Turkey caused many
and Recommendations
not important, and absolutely not farmers to sell the new tractor and
important interpretative categories. This study investigated the in- replace it with a less expensive one.
Table 3 shows that, out of the fluence of various factors that are These factors made it possible for
nine economic and social factors, taken into consideration by Kahra- used tractors to have a better market
four were in the very important, manmaras farm operators on tractor in the region.
four were in the important, and one selection. From a random sample of Farm operators prefer tractors
was in the indifferent interpretative 214 farm operators, 46 % of respon- with low f uel consumption and
category. There was no item in the dents purchased their tractors from high power. These two factors are
not important and absolutely not im- dealers, 29 % from commissioners, technical features influencing pro-
portant interpretative categories. Of and 25 % from other farmers. Fifty- duction costs of farm operations. A
the nine economic and social factors seven percent of the purchased tractor with low fuel consumption
the most important one was price tractors were used while 43 % were decreases production costs and a
of tractor. This was followed by new. Fuel consumption and power tractor with higher power increases
brand of tractor, having a cab, be- of tractors were considered the most work efficiency. Together, these two
Economic and social factors Mean Std. deviation Value

Price of tractor 1.18 0.51 Farm size (ha)
Brand of tractor 1.90 0.99 The Smallest 3
Having cab 2.32 1.17 The largest 110
Being a commonly used tractor in the region 2.34 1.08 Mean 16.66
Using similar tractor earlier 2.77 1.11 Number of tractor 241
Desire of household members 3.00 1.25 Power delivered by tractor (kW)
Physical appearance of tractor 3.05 1.12 The lowest 33
Tractor adds on mass media 3.18 1.39 The highest 77
Influence of neighbor farmers 3.59 1.20 Mean 50.1
Table 3 Economic and social factors influencing farmers' selection of tractor Table 4 Farm size, number of tractors,
and power of tractor in research area
factors have positive effects on eco- Future research directions that Guc Secimine Yonelik Isletme
nomic use of farm machinery and arose from the findings of this study Degerler inin Belirlen mesi ve
other resources. could be “determining economic Uygun Secim Modellerinin Olus-
Among technical features, power loses of farmers by selecting the turulmasi Uzerinde Bir Arastirma
steering and double traction were wrong tractor, or vice versa”. An- (Doktora Tezi), CU Fen Bilimleri
ranked less important compared to other future research focus might Enstitusu Tarimsal Mekanizasyon
other factors. The rank of power be to determine the inf luence of Anabilim Dali, 210 S., Adana.
steering can be attributed to the technical personnel of the Ministry Isik, A. 1996. Isletme Ozelliklerine
cropping pattern in the region that of Agriculture and Rural Affairs on Uygun Traktor Secimine Yone-
requires seeding on rows, and farm- farmers’ selection of proper tractors. lik Uzman Sistem Gelistirilmesi
ers found it difficult to have control Uzerine Bir Arastirma. 6. Ulus-
on their vehicle with power steer- lararasi Tarimsal Mekanizasyon
ing when seeding on the rows. The REFERENCES ve Enerji Kongresi Bildiri Kitabi,
rank of double traction, on the other S. 302-314, Ankara.
hand, can be attributed both to the Anonymous. 1999. Machinery Man- Liljedahl, J. B., P. K. Turnquist, D.
high prices and farmers’ unaware- agement. How to Select Machin- W Smith., and M. Hoki. 1989.
ness of this kind of tractors. ery to Fit The Needs of Today’s Tractors and Their Power Units.
Prices for farm machinery are an Farm Managers. John Deere Pub- Fourth Edition. Van Nostrand Re-
important factor for farm operators. lishing, Almon-TIAC Building, inhold, New York.
As an economic rule, demand for Suite 140, 1300 19 th Street, East Sabanci, A. and A. Aybek. 1990.
goods and services should be sup- Moline, IL 61244. Ceyhan Ilcesinin Tarimsal Me-
ported by purchasing power. If farm Anonymous. 2002 a. Tarim ve Koy kanizasyon Ozellikleri ve Bu
operators have limited purchasing Isleri Bakanligi, Tarimsal Uretim Ozellikler Arasi Iliskiler. 4. Ulus-
power for farm machinery, they can ve Gelistirme Genel Mudurlugu, lararasi Tarimsal Mekanizasyon
barely afford cheaper tractors while 28.01. 20 02 t a r i h ve TA M D/ ve Enerji Kongresi, Bildiri Kitabi,
wealthy farmers can afford more TM-153-0155 sayili, “Arastirma, S.36-46, Adana.
expensive farm tractors. Therefore, Gelistir me Stratejilerinin Be- Sabanci, A. and I. Akinci, 1994.
price is a deciding factor on tractor lirlenmesi” Konulu Yazi, Ankara. Dunyada ve Turkiye’de Tarimsal
selection. Anonymous. 2002 b. Kahraman- Mekanizasyon Duzeyi ve Son
As far m size increased, far m maras’ in Tarimsal Yapisi. (http:/ Gelismeler. Tarimsal Mekaniza-
operators tended to purchase more /www.tarim.gov.tr/yonetim/iller/ syon 15. Ulusal Kongresi Bildiri
powerful tractors. This finding of K_Maras/tarimsal.htm) Kitabi, S. 404-415, Antalya.
the study indicates that farmers con- Anonymous. 2002 c. Tarim Alet Srivastava, A. K., C.E. Goering and
sider their farm sizes when selecting ve Ma k i nele r i 1998. ( ht t p:// R.P. Rohrback. 1993. Engineering
the power of tractor. w w w. d i e . g o v. t r / T U R K I S H / Principles of Agricultural Ma-
From the findings of this study, it I S TAT I S / E s g 2 / 4 6 M A R A S / chines. ASAE Textbook Number
can be concluded that farm opera- tarim9.htm) 6, ASAE 2950 Niles Road, St.
tors in the region seem likely to be Davis, J. A. 1971. Elementary Sur- Joseph, Michigan 49085-9665,
reasonable on tractor selection; at vey Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, USA.
least to the extent of their social and NJ:Prentice-Hall. Voelker, D. H. and P. Z. Orton.
economic possibilities. However, Demirci, K. 1986. Buyuk Guclu 1993. Cliffs Quick Review Sta-
they are in need of proper informa- Traktor ve Buyuk Is Kapasiteli tistics. Cliffs Notes Incorporated
tion and instructions which can Makinalarin Kullanilma Olanak- Lincoln, Nebraska, 68501. USA.
be provided them by the technical lari. Tarimsal Mekanizasyon 10. ■■
personnel of the Ministry of Agri- Ulusal Kongresi Bildiri Kitabi,
culture and Rural Affairs. In addi- S.23-33, 5-7 Mayis, 1986. Adana.
tion, dealers of farm machinery in Grisso, R. D., D. L. Morgan, G. J.
the region should employ technical Shropshire, and S. K. Rockwell.
personnel who posses adequate 1988. What Information Helps
knowledge and experience about A Farmer Purchase A Tractor?.
tractors. If farmers are assisted in American Society of Agricultural
the choice of the correct tractors Engineers. 4(3): 197-200.
for their farm operations, they will Isik, A. 1988. Sulu Tarimda Kul-
probably decrease production costs l a n i l a n M e k a n i z a s yo n A r a -
and facilitate farm work. clarinin Optimum Makina ve
Effect of Impeller Materials on Centrifugal
Pump Characteristics
by
Bahattin Akdemir Birol Kayisoglu
Professor Professor
Trakya University, Tekirdag Agricultural Faculty, Trakya University, Tekirdag Agricultural Faculty,
Department of Agricultural Machinery Department of Agricultural Machinery
59030 Tekirdag 59030 Tekirdag
TURKEY TURKEY
Senel Kocoglu
Agricultural Engineer (MSc)
Trakya University, Tekirdag Agricultural Faculty,
Department of Agricultural Machinery
59030 Tekirdag
TURKEY
gal pump performance. These are Different materials such as cast iron
Abstract
specific speed, cavitation, net posi- manufactured impeller, cast brass
The purpose of this research was tive suction value, flow rate, static and cast iron coated with polymer
to reduce energy consumption by pressure head, dynamic pressure composite were used to obtain dif-
increasing the efficiency of centrifu- head and power. Another factor is ferent surface roughness. Labora-
gal pumps with different impeller surface roughness of the pump body tory experiments were conducted
materials. The materials were cast and impeller. Relationship between according to the standard of the
iron, cast brass and cast iron coated these factors have been investigated centrifugal pump performance ex-
with chemical polymer composite. by some researchers (Özerengin, periments. Surface roughness and
Re duci ng su r fa ce roug h ne ss 1972); (Ergin, 1979); (Baysal, 1975); pump characteristics such as flow
caused an increase in pump effi- (Edis et al, 1978); (Gökelim, 1976); rate, speed (rpm) of the pump, total
ciency and a decrease in power re- (Karassik et al, 1985); (Tezer, 1978). pressure head, required power, wa-
quirement. The power requirement The surface roughness of the pump ter power and efficiency were mea-
of the pump coated with polymer impeller causes friction losses. En- sured or calculated. Production cost
composite was 9.11 % less than that ergy losses, cavitation probability of the impellers were also calculated
of the cast iron pump. and decreasing of the pump’s effi- and compared.
Power requirement of the cast ciency can occur as a result of the
brass impeller was higher (1 %) than friction resistance (Ida, 1965). De-
the cast iron pump for the open type crease in the pump efficiency means
Materials
pumps. Total head, pump efficiency a higher power requirement for the
and the flow rate of the cast brass pump’s task. Centrifugal Pumps
impeller were higher than those of The purpose of this research was The pump bodies were produced
the cast iron impeller. to improve centrifugal pump ef- from cast iron. The shafts of the
ficiency by using impeller materials pumps were horizontal and bodies
of different roughness. Two differ- were snail types. The centrifugal
ent types of centrifugal pumps were pumps and impeller material types
Introduction
used in this research; closed type used in the research are given be-
Many factors affect centrif u- impeller, and open type impeller. low.
Table 1 Technical specification of the impellers pump mounted on a fixed chassis
Closed type impeller Open type impeller with a rubber coupling 1 m above
Number of impeller 1 1 the water level in the pool. All the
Number of vane 5 6 pipes of the system are made of
Outside diameter of impeller (mm) 246 190 iron. The pump outlet was connect-
Inside diameter of impeller (mm) 66 87 ed through a short reduction pipe
Impeller thickness (mm) 68 5 to pumping line, which had two
Vane wide (mm) 11 17.5 elbows. A f low rate control vane
Shaft diameter (mm) 23 23 and a pressure line manometer were
mounted 8.32 m and 0.56 m, respec-
Table 2 Surface roughness of the impellers (µm) tively, away from the pump outlet.
Closed type Open type
Cast iron impeller 50 30
Cast brass impeller 40 4
Methods
Cast iron impeller coated with polymer composite 5 -
The impeller surface roughness
1. Centrifugal pumps with the thickness. Polymer Composite, used was measured in the quality control
closed impeller: cast iron impeller, to decrease surface roughness on laboratory of the producer firm us-
cast brass impeller, cast iron impel- metals, is an epoxy, which, in ef- ing a profile-meter. The measure-
ler with coated polymer composite fective form is forced with ceramic ment processes were repeated if
materials to increase resistance to wear and differences more than 2 %, among
2. Centrifugal pumps with open to decrease coefficient of friction. replications were noticed.
type impeller; cast iron impeller, Polymer composite is applied by The experiments were performed
brass impeller. vacuum process, which reduces according to the Turkish Centrifu-
Technical specifications of the the possibility of microscopic air gal Pump Experiment Standards
pumps and impellers are given in bubbles (Anonymous, 1994). (Anonymous, 1990). Water at a tem-
Table 1. Schematic view of the perature of +4 ºC was used in the
impeller and the pump body can be Pump Testing Apparatus experiments. Vaporization pressure
seen in Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4. A schematic view of the pump (kPa), density (kg/m 3) and viscos-
Su r faces of the i mpeller and testing experimental apparatus is ity (m 2/s) of the water were deter-
body were coated with Polymer shown in Fig. 5, which consists of mined, using table data, which are
Composite Material layers in 1mm a water pool, electric motor and a 0.0083 kPa, 1,000 kg/m 3 and 17.8
Fig. 1 Body of centrifugal pump with the closed impeller Fig. 2 Closed impeller
(m 2 /s), respectively (Anonymous, Table 3 Summarized results for the enclosed type centrifugal pumps
1990). The centrifugal pumps and Brake Total Flow Overall
the electrical motor speeds were Impeller type power head rate efficiency
(kW) (mss) (m3/h) (%)
measured by the electronic tachom- Cast iron impeller coated with polymer composite 8.628 42.38 33.65 0.450
eter in three replications. Cast brass impeller 9.319 42.75 34.47 0.430
Since the volume of the pool must Cast iron impeller 9.415 42.51 34.62 0.426
be large enough according to the
centrifugal pump standards, the Table 4 Summarized results for the open type pump characteristics
minimum filling time of the pool Brake Total Flow Overall
was 20 s for a 1 m 3 volume of the Impeller type power head rate efficiency
pool. Filling time was measured in (kW) (mss) (m3/h) (%)
three replications for each value of Cast brass impeller 5.93 23.07 41.83 44.4
the total head obtained by adjusting Cast iron impeller 5.87 22.61 34.33 36.0
the flow control vane.
The measured and calculated cause the pressure manometer was Hs = Static pressure head (m)
values, such as pump shaft speed, located at a certain distance away H em = Suction vacuum pressure
filling time for 1,000 liter, f low from the pump outlet in the experi- (m).
rate, brake power, suction pressure, mental apparatus according to DIN Hb = Dynamic head (m)
pump pressure, total dynamic pres- 1944. If measuring points are not H kb = Losses up to the pressure
sure head, water power and total nearby the pump outlet and inlet or manometer (m).
pump efficiency were summarized these are located on the suction and Brake power of the electric motor
in the tables. pressure pipe line, losses of the pipe was calculated by equation 2. The
Total pressure head was calculated and other pieces located between values of the ampere-meter, voltme-
from the total adopted values of suc- the measuring points and the pump ter and cosine Ø were read in three
tion and pressure line sections con- must be added to the total pressure replications.
sidering a reference line while the head (Silay, 1965). Total head was N = 31/2 U A Cos. øη...................(2)
pump was working at adjusted con- calculated from equation 1. where
ditions. Losses between the pressure Hm = Hs + Hem + Hb + H kb ..........(1) N: Brake power (W)
manometer and pump outlet were where 31/2: Coefficient of three phase
added to the total pressure head be- Hm = Total head (m) electric motor
Fig. 2 Body of the centrifugal pump with open impeller Fig. 4 Open impeller
Table 5 Production cost results for a centrifugal pump ($US) istics can be seen in the following
Closed type impellers Open type impeller tables and figures for centrifugal
Cast iron pumps with the closed and open
Cast source Cast iron Brass impeller coated Cast iron Brass type impeller.
impeller impeller with polymer impeller impeller
composite The summary of the results is in
Casting 4.78 16.36 4.78 2.38 6.76 Table 3.
Labor 3.44 3.44 3.44 2.52 2.54 The pump with impeller coated
Coating - - 19.63 - - polymer composite was the most ef-
Total 8.22 19.80 27.85 4.90 9.30 ficient (45 %) and its power require-
ment was the least at 8.62 kW.
There are no important differ-
U: Mean voltage (Volt) Costs of the pig and cast brass ences between the closed impellers
A: Mean current (Ampere) impeller included casting and labor for total headand flow rate. But the
Cos. ø: Power factor costs. There was an additional cost efficiency and power requirement
η: Efficiency of the electric motor of the polymer composite coating of of the cast iron coated with polymer
Determination of the electrical the cast iron impeller. composite were better than others.
motor efficiency was realized by us- The flow rate was reduced a little
ing electrical engine efficiency and because of the reduction in the cross
load factor diagram. section area due to coating process.
Results and Discussions
Water power was calculated from Power requirement of the pump
equation 3. Roughness of the Impeller Surfaces coated with the polymer compos-
Q..H •γ The surface roughness for each ite was 9.11 % less than that of the
Nc = 75m • 0.735 ...............(3)
impeller is given in Table 2. pump with cast iron impeller, which
Nc: Water power (kW) The coating process reduced the showed the poorest performance in
Q: Flow rate (m3/s) surface roughness of the centrifugal the experiments. The power require-
Hm: Total head (m) pump with the closed type impeller. ment differences between the pump
γ: Density of the water (1,000 The best result of roughness was 5 with coated polymer composite and
kg/m3 at +4 ºC) µm obtained for the cast iron impel- the cast iron pump was 0.787 kW
Pump efficiency was calculated ler coated with polymer composite. (1.07 HP). If the results are con-
by equation 4 (Karassik et al, 1985). However, coating of the closed type verted to energy and evaluated, the
N impeller was very difficult. The pump-coated polymer composite
ηp = Nc ........................................(4)
g range of the surface roughness of saves 0.878 kWh per hour.
ηp: Pump efficiency the cast iron impeller and the brass Having evaluated the open type
Nc: Water power (kW) impeller for the two types of impel- pump results and related graphics,
Ng: Brake power (kW) ler varied widely, as it shown in the summary in Table 4 may be
Manufacturing costs of the impel- Table 2. given.
lers were calculated for open and The pump with brass impeller
closed type impellers for a pump Pump Characteristics was the most efficient pump (44.4
production of 5,000 units. Results of the pump character- %) and its power requirement was
5.93 kW.
Total head, flow rate of the brass
cast impeller were better than the
cast iron impeller.
Total pressure head (m)
Efficiency (%)
Power (kW)
Flow rate (m3/h)

Fig. 5 Pump testing apparatus Fig. 6 Pump characteristics of the cast iron impeller
The differences of the total head, mined. Brass cast impeller cost was 4. The coating process increased
flow rate and overall efficiency be- 4.40 US$ higher than that of the cast the pump-manufacturing cost.
tween these two pumps were 0.46 iron impeller. 5. The power requirement of the
m, 7.50 m3/h and 8.4 %, respective- brass type impeller, whose surface
ly. Power requirement of the pump was processed to decrease rough-
with the brass cast impeller was 1 ness, was higher (1 %) than that of
Conclusions
% higher than that of the pump with the cast iron pump with the open
cast iron impeller and the flow rate The following conclusions may be type impeller. Total head, pump
was higher. drawn from this work: efficiency and flow rate were also
1. Reduction of impeller surface higher than the cast iron pump.
Manufacturing Cost roughness positively affected the 6. The cast brass impeller was
Production costs of the centrifu- pump efficiency and power require- more efficient than the cast iron
gal pumps with closed and open ment. impeller because of the surface
impeller are given in Table 5. 2. Powe r requ i reme nt of t he roughness of the cast brass was re-
Cost of the closed type impel- polymer composite coated impeller duced by machining. Total pressure
ler coated polymer composite was was less (9.11 %) than the cast iron head and flow rate of the cast brass
higher than that of the others. A pump. Flow rate of the centrifugal impeller were also higher than cast
large proportion of the production pump coated with polymer compos- iron.
cost was due to the chemical materi- ite was lower than that of the closed
als. Cost of this impeller was 338 % type pump because the pump di-
higher than the cost of centrifugal mensions were changed by the coat- REFERENCES
pumps with closed type cast iron ing.
impeller. The cost of closed type 3. Closed type impeller coated Anonymous (1990). Centrifugal
impeller coated polymer composite with chemical polymer composite Pumps, Turkish Standards Insti-
was also 40 % higher than that of was the most effective pump in the tute-TSE 268 Turkish Standards
the cast brass impeller. laboratory tests. The coating pro- Institute, Ankara
Differences between the costs of cess was difficult for the closed type Anonymous (1994). Polymer Com-
the open types impellers were deter- impellers. posite, Catalogue (ARC Compos-
Efficiency (%)
Efficiency (%)
Power (kW)
Power (kW)
Flow rate (m3/h) Flow rate (m3/h)

Fig. 7 Pump characteristics of the cast brass impeller Fig. 8 Pump characteristics of close type, cast iron
impeller coated with polymer composite materials

Efficiency (%)
Efficiency (%)
Power (kW)
Power (kW)
Flow rate (m3/h) Flow rate (m3/h)

Fig. 9 Pump characteristics for open type pump Fig. 10 Pump characteristics for open type,
with cast iron impeller cast brass impeller pump
ites) Gokelim,. A, T (1976). Pumps, Birs- Company, New York.
Baysal, K. (1975). Full Centrifugal en Book Company, Istanbul. Özerengin, F (1972). Centrifugal
Pumps (Calculations, Technical Ida, T. (1965) The Effects Of Impel- and Axial Flow Pumps. Kurtulu_
Drawing, Construction specifica- ler Vane Roughness And Thick- Book Company, Istanbul.
tions), Istanbul Technical Univer- ness O n T he Cha r acter ist ics Silay,. A (1965) Experiment of the
sity, Istanbul Of The Mixed-Flow Propeller centrifugal pumps, (VDI-Cen-
Edis, K., Tekin, Y., Petermann, P, Pump, Bulletin Of JSME No: 32, trifugal Pumps Essentials, DIN
(1978). Fluid Machines, Istanbul p:634-643. 1944), Turkish Sugar Production
Technical University Engineering Karassik, I., J., William,. C, War- Factory, No: 124, (1965) Ankara
and Architectural Faculty, Istan- ren, W., H, K., Fraser, H., (1985), Tezer, E (1978) Pump systems in
bul Pumps Hand Book, Worthingon Irrigation (Project, Selection and
Ergin, A. (1979) Water Machines, P u mp I nc. Jose ph P. Mu si na management methods), Cukurova
Istanbul Technical University Public Service Electric And Gas University Agricultural Faculty,
Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Company New Jersey Institute Of Adana.
Istanbul Technology Mc Graw-Hill Book ■■
Performance Evaluation of a Safflower Harvester
by
Devanand Maski T. Guruswamy
Principal Investigator Professor
J.S.S. Research Foundation, College of Agricultural Engineering,
S.J. College of Engineering, Raichur 584 101,
Mysore 530 006, University of Mysore University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwar
INDIA INDIA
saff lower (Carthamus tinctorius) and wheat, they pose problems for
Abstract
growing state in India, next to Ma- oil seeds like safflower. The bushy
A self-propelled mini harvester harastra, with an area of about nature of the crop canopy, and other
was developed for harvesting saf- 258,000 ha and production of about problems involved in manual har-
flower crop in India. The prototype 151,000 t (Anon, 2000). The districts vesting, demands a need for the de-
safflower harvester consisted of a of Northern Karnataka constitute the velopment of a machine for safflower
harvesting unit and power source major safflower growing area in the harvesting. Keeping this in view, a
mounted on a power tiller chas- state. The area under safflower cul- self-propelled safflower-harvesting
sis. The harvesting unit included a tivation has been increased consid- machine suitable for small Indian
power transmission unit, cutter bar erably due to high economic value farmers was developed and its per-
assembly and conveyor assembly. A of the crop in the market and use of formance evaluated in the field.
power transmission system for the safflower oil for edible purposes by
harvesting unit was designed such a majority of the people of the north-
that a cutting speed of 1.0 m/s could ern dry region of Karnataka.
be obtained at the cutter bar. The Generally, farmers of this region
machine was tested for harvesting harvest the saff lower crop manu- In this section a brief description
safflower (S-144 variety) at an aver- ally by using plain sickles. The crop about the construction and func-
age forward speed of 1.0 km/h. The is harvested in the early morning tional parts of the harvester is pre-
machine could harvest about 0.1 ha/h hours, when there is dew on the sented. A systematic procedure for
with a total field loss of 3.75 percent, crop to prevent shattering loss as field evaluation of the machine and
which included post harvest, cut- well as injury from plant spines to methods of estimating unit cost and
ting and conveying losses. The unit the labour. This method is not only energy involved in the harvesting is
cost of operation was US $ 11.60/ha, time consuming but also labour in- also described.
which is US $ 3.40/ha (29.31 per- tensive. Such labour intensive post
cent) less than that of manual har- harvest operations not only reduce General Description of the Machine
vesting. The savings in harvesting the profit but also increase human The main components of the de-
time by the machine was 140 h/ha drudgery. The delayed and time- veloped saff lower harvester were
as compared to the manual method. consuming harvesting operation harvesting unit, power tiller chassis
The energy consumed in harvesting will expose the crop to the natural and power source. The harvesting
safflower crop by the harvester was hazards like wind and rain. unit was the main component of the
292.40 MJ/ha as compared to 40.26 Some researchers have developed machine. The main assemblies of
MJ/ha manual harvesting. small machines for harvesting ce- the unit were crop holding platform,
reals, pulses and oil seeds (Dev- crop dividers, star wheels, press
nani and Pandey, 1981; Garg and bars, cutter bar and conveyer belt.
Sharma, 1985 and Dutt and Prasad, During the process of harvesting,
Introduction
1993). Though these machines work the crop dividers guide the crop
Karnataka is the second largest satisfactorily for cereals like paddy rows to the cutter bar assembly with
the help of feeding star wheels. The help of horizontal and vertical shafts Test Procedure for Field Evaluation
crop was cut by the shearing action mounted on two pedestal bearings The machine was evaluated for
of the cutter bar assembly in which in front of the axle. Suitable chain harvesting safflower (S-144 variety)
a number of serrated blades were and sprocket drive and bevel gear grown as sole crop under rain fed
moving against its shoes. The effec- units were mounted on the shafts. conditions at the Regional Research
tive width of cutter bar was 1,000 An idling pulley was provided at the Station Farm, Raichur, Karnataka,
mm. A crop holding platform was power transmission belt to engage or India. The performance of machine
provided that was sufficiently large disengage power from source to the har vesting was compared with
to hold the tall and bushy plants with harvesting unit through the clutch manual harvesting. A plot size of
the help of press bars while cutting provided at the operating handle. 10.00 m x 25.00 m with five replica-
and conveying. The crop divider The overall length and gross weight tions was selected for the evaluation
provided at the right corner (viewed of the machine was 2,400 mm and of machine and manual harvesting.
from front side) was modified for 340 kg, respectively. The drawing Four farm workers were engaged
proper division of the harvested crop details of the safflower-harvesting for manual harvesting. The dif-
rows from that of un-harvested ones machine are shown in Fig. 1. ferent parameters of the test crop
in field. The cut crop rows were con-
veyed to the left side of the machine
by a conveyer belt system provided Fig. 1 Proto-type safflower harvester
on the crop holding platform. The
crop conveyer system was a canvas
belt with push plates (provided at an
angle of 30 degrees from the direc-
tion of motion) enclosed between
two pulleys provided at both sides
of the crop holding platform. Push
plates on the conveyer belt acted as
small individual plant conveying
compartments to each branch of the
plant and also provided power to the
rotating star wheels. A depth control
wheel at the rear side of the chas-
sis helped in adjusting the length of
crop cut from the ground level.
A power tiller chassis was select-
ed for mounting the power source.
The selection of this chassis was
based on the fact that it provided a
higher ground clearance for mount-
ing the power source; it was light
in weight, easily maneuverable and
provided a transmission system to
obtain different forward and reverse
speeds. A 5.0 hp air-cooled diesel
engine mounted at the rear side of
the chassis provided power to the
ground wheels as well as the cutting
and conveying assemblies of the
harvesting unit. The power trans-
mission system consisted of a set of
bevel gears, pulleys, chain sprocket
and a pitman arm. The system was
designed to obtain a cutter bar
speed of 1.0 m/s, by eccentric ar-
rangement, at a forward speed of 1.0
km/h. This was achieved with the
were recorded and are presented losses, the maximum loss of 1.37
in the Table 1. The machine and percent was observed during cutting
operational variables for harvest- The prototype mini safflower har- of the crop (Table 3). This may be
ing were selected according to Datt vester was tested and evaluated for due to the fact that the dried seed
and Prasad (1993). The parameters harvesting safflower (S-144 variety) capsules of the crop get sheared off
used for the field evaluation are pre- and the performance of the machine from the branches while cutting by
sented in Table 2. During testing, was compared with that of manual knife section of the cutter bar. The
the different observations such as harvesting. corresponding losses for manual
area covered (effective field capac- harvesting were 5.00 kg/ha, 2.00
ity), forward speed, pre-harvest Effective Field Capacity and Fuel kg/ha and 0.00 kg/ha, respectively
losses, cutting and conveying losses Consumption (Table 4). The losses obser ved
(windrowing losses), fuel consump- The effective field capacity of the for the machine seem to be higher
tion, height of stubble after harvest machine and manual harvesting is (nearly 241.43 percent) as compared
and the area harvested by women presented in Table 3 and Table 4, to that of manual harvesting. How-
workers were recorded and average respectively. This indicates that the ever, these losses were within the
harvest per worker was computed. area covered by the machine and limit for such machines (Dutt and
manual harvesting was 1,000.00 Prasad, 1993).
Cost and Energy Appraisals of m2/h (0.1 ha/h) and 66.67 m 2/h (6.67
Harvesting Methods x 10 -3 ha/h), respectively. The time Cost and Energy Appraisals
The cost and energy consumed required to harvest the crop by the The details of the cost and energy
for harvesting safflower by the ma- machine was 10.00 h/ha and that calculations for the machine and
chine and manual methods were of manual was 150.00 h/ha. This manual harvesting are shown below.
analyzed. The unit cost of opera- implies that the harvesting time re- a. Cost appraisal
tion of the machine was calculated quired by the machine was 15 times i. Machine Harvesting
by standard procedure (ISI 9164, less than the manual harvesting. Fixed cost = US $ 0.41/h
1979). For the calculat ion, the The fuel consumption by the ma- Operating cost = US $ 0.75/h
manufacturing cost of the harvester chine for harvesting was not more Effective field capacity = 10 h/ha
(US $ 1,400.00 which is equivalent than 0.8 L/h, which is within the Total cost of operation of the har-
to Indian Rupees 70,000.00) and limit for safe field operation (Dutt vester = 1.16 US $/h
the assumptions of useful life (10 and Prasad, 1993). Total cost of operation of the
years), annual usage (750 h), inter- harvester = 1.16 US $/h x 10 h/ha =
est on investment (18.00 percent Field Losses in Harvesting Methods 11.60 US $/ha
of the initial investment) and cost The different field losses observed ii. Manual Harvesting
of diesel (US $ 0.40/L) were taken for the machine were post harvest Workers wages per 8 h = US $
into account. The cost of operation losses (5.00 kg/ha), cutting losses 0.80
included fixed (US $ 0.41/h) and (15.15 kg/ha) and conveyance losses Effective field capacity = 150
operational costs (US $ 0.75/h). The (3.75 kg/ha). Among the different h/ha
fixed cost included the sum of cost
of power tiller chassis with a 5.0 Table 1 Crop parameters
hp diesel engine and a harvesting Parameter Values
unit (US $ 1,400.00). The operating Test crop Safflower
cost was calculated by assuming Variety S-144
operating cost of US $ 1.20 per day Rain fed/Irrigated Rain fed
at 8 hours of work. The unit cost Normal period of maturity, days 135
of operation for manual harvest- Plant height, mm 836.00 (770.00-870.00)
ing was calculated by assuming the Plant population. No./m 13.50 (10.00-17.00)
prevailing wages of US $ 0.80 per Row to row spacing, mm 450.00
day for 8 hours of work. The en- Branches per plant, No. 15.20 (10.00-18.00)
ergy consumed by the machine was Capsules per branch, No. 4.40 (3.00-6.00)
calculated based on the actual fuel Plant stem dia. at the cutting height, mm 9.75 (9.00-11.50)
consumption and that of the manual Moisture content of the stem, percent (db) 28.31
harvesting on the assumption of the Moisture content of the grain, percent (db) 8.08
average power of a man. 1,000 grain weight, gm 50.13
Average grain yield, kg/ha 1,096.00
Note: The values given in the parenthesis are minimum and maximum values
Cost of manual har vesti ng = ing safflower crop by the harvester REFERENCES
(0.80/8) US $/h = 0.10 US $/h was calculated to be 292.40 MJ/ha
Cost of manual harvesting = 0.10 as compared to manual harvesting Anonymus, 2000. Agricultural situ-
US $/h x 150 h/ha = 15.00 US $/ha of 40.26 MJ/ha. The higher energy ation in India. December, XLXII
b. Energy Appraisal consumption by the machine may be (4): 32
i. Machine Harvesting due to loss of power at the different Devanand Maski and G. Venkatesh,
Fuel consumption = 0.8 L/ha power transmission units. 1994. Development and evalua-
Effective field capacity = 10.00 tion of power reaper. Unpublished
h/ha B.Tech. (Ag. Engg.) thesis, Uni-
Fuel consumption = (0.8 L/h) x versity of Agril. Sciences, Dhar-
Conclusions
(0.86 kg/L) x (10 h/ha) = 6.88 kg/ha wad.
Calorific value of Diesel = 42,500 The developed har vester was Devanani, R. S. and M. M. Pandey,
kJ/kg tested and evaluated for harvesting 1981. Evaluation of field perfor-
Energy value of Diesel = 6.88 kg/ safflower and was compared with mance of reaper binder for har-
ha (42,500 kJ/kg) = 292.40 MJ/ha manual harvesting as practiced by vesting of wheat crop. Journal of
ii. Manual Harvesting the farmers of Northern Karnataka, Agricultural Engineering, XVIII
Average power of a man = 74.56 x India. The test results indicated that (1): 97-100.
10 -3 kW the machine could harvest 0.1 ha/h Dutt, P. and J. Prasad, 1993. De-
Energy required for manual har- (10 h/ha) as compared to 6.67 x 10 -3 velopment and evaluation of self
vesting = 74.56 x 10 -3 kW x 150 h/ha ha/h (150 h/ha) by manual harvest- propelled vertical conveyor reaper
=11.184 kW h/ha ing. The total field losses observed for safflower crop. XXVIII An-
Energy required for manual har- for machine were 3.75 percent as nual Convention of ISAE held at
vesting = 40.26 MJ/ha compared to 1.07 percent by manual Central Institute of Agricultural
The cost and energy consumed by harvesting. The unit cost of safflow- Engineering, Bhopal, India.
the machine and manual harvesting er harvesting by the machine was Garg, I. K. and V. K. Sharma, 1985.
of safflower crop is shown in Table US $ 11.60/ha and that of manual Improved equipment for field op-
5. The unit cost of operation for the harvesting was US $ 15.00/ha. The eration of wheat and paddy crops.
harvester was US $ 11.60/ha (US $ machine could save US $ 3.40/ha Indian Farming, 34 (11): 23-26.
1.16/h) and that of manual harvest- in unit cost of operation and 140 h ISI 9164, 1979. Indian Standard-
ing was US $ 15.00/ha (US $ 0.10/h). of time as compared to manual har- guide for estimating cost of farm
This indicated that the machine vesting. The energy consumed by machinery operation. Indian Stan-
harvesting could save US $ 3.40/ha the harvester was 7.26 times more dard Institution, New Delhi.
as compared to manual method. than the manual harvesting for saf- ■■
The energy consumed in harvest- flower crop.
Table 2 Machine and operational parameters Table 4 Test results of manual harvesting
Sl.
Parameter Values Performance parameters Test results
No.
Average forward speed, km/h 1.00 1.a Effective field capacity, m 2/h 66.67
Effective cutter bar width, mm 1,000.00 1.b Effective field capacity, ha/h 6.67 x 10-3
Length of cutter bar, mm 1,100.00 2. Losses, kg/ha
Effective working width, mm 960.00 i. Post harvest losses 5.00 (0.35)
ii. Cutting losses 2.00 (0.72)
Table 3 Field performance results of harvester iii. Total losses 7.00 (1.07)
Sl. 3. Stubble height, mm 69.00
Performance parameters Test results
No.
1.a Effective field capacity, m /h
2
1,000.00
1.b Effective field capacity, ha/h 0.10 Table 5 Cost and energy economics of
2. Fuel consumption, L/h 0.80 machine and manual harvesting
3. Losses, kg/ha Sl. Method of harvesting
Performance parameters
i. Post harvest losses 5.00 (0.85) No. Machine Manual
ii. Cutting losses 15.15 (1.37) 1.a Unit cost of operation, US $/h 1.16 0.10
iii. Conveying losses 3.75 (1.53) 1.b Unit cost of operation, US $/ha 11.60 15.00
iv. Total losses 23.90 (3.75) 2. Harvesting time, h/ha 10.00 150.00
4. Stubble height, mm 89.00 3. Harvesting energy, MJ/ha 292.40 40.26
Note: The values given in the parenthesis indicate the losses in percent
Semi-Automatic VRT-Based Fertilization
System Utilizing GPS
by
Moustafa A. Fadel Ahmed El-Mowafy
Assistant Professor of Agricultural Engineering Soil Specialist,
Arid-land Agriculture Dept., Arid-land Agriculture,
The United Arab Emirates University, Arid-land Agriculture Dept.,
UAE, Al-Ain 17555 The United Arab Emirates University,
UAE UAE
[email protected]
Abdul Elghaffar Jomaa

Public Works Dept.,
Faculty of Engineering,
Ain Shams University,
UAE
results were mapped and studied The concept itself is based on the
Abstract
to determine the needed amount belief that the field cannot be treated
Precision farming is one of the of Calcium Super Phosphate to be as one unit because of the variation
most growing arenas in the agricul- added per hectare and a prescrip- among its finite areas. Fully auto-
tural engineering field. Employing tion map was developed. In order to matic granular fertilizer broadcast-
real-time GPS positioning methods, evaluate system performance and ing systems are widely available in
made it easy to build accurately its feasibility, soil chemical analyses most of the developed countries.
g uided machines. On the other of the same GPS defined locations In this research, a semi-automatic
hand, environmental concerns made were made after applying the fertil- GPS-guided system is designed,
it necessary to apply Variable Rate izers using the designed system. built and tested. A novel procedure
Treatment (VRT) concept in fertil- It was noticed that assessment of is presented to evaluate over all
ization. VRT-based systems is clearly stated performance of the investigated sys-
Precise fertilizer application is anywhere in the literature. Different tem and could be extended to other
used widely where fully automatic methods of performance assessment VRT-based systems.
systems are extensively presented are presented in this research. The Bullock et al (2002) stated that
commercially. In this research, developed system was tested and many mechanized crop producers
a new semi-automatic system is evaluated in Al-Oha experimental and agribusinesses are fascinated
designed and developed locally. farm, UAE University. with precision agriculture technol-
The proposed system employs a ogy, but adoption has lagged behind
real time GPS positioning system the expectations. Among the rea-
to guide a tractor mounted rotary sons for slow adoption of precision
Introduction
spreader to apply phosphate to the agriculture technology is that initial
field. In order to estimate soil re- Variable rate treatment is one of users focused excessively on in-
quirements, the field was divided the most promising technologies in field benefits from variable-rate
into a 50-meter mesh grid and soil the agricultural systems arena for fertilizer application using regional
samples were collected from eight the surrounding environment, in ad- average fertilizer recommendations.
GPS defined locations. Soil analysis dition to its economical feasibility. Precision agriculture is spatial in-
formation technology applied to ag- ability in soil fertility and provided reliable estimation of the latter is
riculture. The technologies include the basis for variable rate fertilizer therefore crucial. They suggested a
global position systems (GPS), geo- recommendations. They compared nonparametric variogram and co-
graphic information systems (GHS), yield under uniform and variable variogram estimation with Fourier-
yield monitoring sensors, and com- rate treatment. When they studied Bessel matrices.
puter controlled within field variable the effect of variable rate application
rate application (VRA) equipment. on yield variability, they concluded VRT-Based Systems
ASAE standard (1999) was used that the variable rate treatment had Lida et al (2001) constructed a
to evaluate uniformity distribution the lowest coefficients of variation prototype of variable rate granular
of granular broadcast spreaders in in 5 of 6 blocks. Fulton et al (2001) applicator for paddy field to apply
one direction. The evaluation pro- investigated the accuracy of a vari- Nitrogen fertilizer. They mentioned
cess had two considerable bases. It able rate fertilizer applicator. They that over fertilization is a potential
evaluated the uniformity distribu- collected the spread fertilizer using source of pollution in the form of
tion compared to machine path and 13 x 13 matrix of collection pans to Ammonia, Nitrate and Nitrite, which
compared readings to its average. gather material spread by a spinner may pose a hazard to human health.
It is crucial to evaluate the whole spreader truck. The results showed Therefore, a contemporary issue
GPS-guided Variable rate fertil- that spread variability existed with is how to give an effective dose at
izer applicator to judge the feasibil- spinner spreaders. Coefficients of the accurate position and right time
ity of using it. In this research, two variations above 20 % were cal- for optimum growth of crops while
evaluation indexes were presented culated for the average transverse preserving the environment with-
to assess performance of the VRA spread patterns. out causing economic losses. They
system as a function of distribution Bullock et al (2002) stated that added that, during the top-dressing
uniformity. The resulted indices global positioning systems (GPS) operation, the field with variable
would not be possible without refer- and sensors are turning the data- rate application consumed 12.8 %
eeing to geostatistics studies poor agricultural production sec- less of NK fertilizer than that of the
tor into a data-rich environment. uniform rate application.
Literature Review Farmers have always known that Bakhsh et al (2000) stated (US-
Many research papers discussed crop yields vary spatially. But, until EPA, 1995) that the United States
the issue of evaluating rotary granu- the early 1990’s, the technology of Environmental Protection Agency
lar fertilizer applicators guided with commercial farm equipment did identified the agricultural sector as
the ASAE standard (1999), where not permit much in the way of spa- one of the major contributors to soil
standard deviation is used to calcu- tial management. Also, gathering and water pollution. They concluded
late distribution uniformity across data on spatial variability of yields that a better understanding of yield
the swath. However, this procedure or farmland characteristics for the variability across the field could
cannot be extended to cover evalua- purpose of fine-tuning manage- improve management practices by
tion of the spatial data in 3D pattern. ment was too expensive. Genton including spatial information about
Yang et al (2001) mentioned that and Gorsich (2002) mentioned that the availability of soil water and
variable rate fertilizer application kriging is a widely used method of nutrient status of the various field
has the potential to improve fertiliz- spatial interpolation, particularly in units.
er use efficiency, increase economic earth and environmental sciences. The standard deviation refers to
return and reduce environmental It is based on the variogram or the the mean as a reference value; there-
impact. They used the grid soil covariogram; two functions that fore, it may be used to quantify the
sampling method for assessing vari- describe the spatial dependence. A variability of soil fertility as stated
by Jin and Jiang (2002). On the
other hand, using it to assess VRT-
Prescription Table
Control Hydraulic
GPS Reciever Laptop Valve System
Driver Spreader
Fig. 1 System diagram Fig. 2 The hydraulic system
based system performance would devices, test procedures, effective ory behind variograms. He defined
not be realistic. System assessment swath width, and determination of it as one-half of the variance of the
requires the referred value to be the the proper testing application rates. differences in sample grades be-
targeted nutrient level. When using the outlined procedure, tween points separated by distance.
Fulton et al (2001) stated that the results provide a quantification Chiles and Delfiner (1999) men-
one of the means to measure and of application accuracy and possible tioned that the variogram, unlike
characterize application accuracy spread pattern deviations. However, the covariance, does not require the
is computing the coefficient of vari- this standard does not cover the knowledge of the mean. In practice,
ance (CV). The coefficient of vari- testing of broadcast spreaders with the mean is not known and has to
ance provides a quantification of VRT. be estimated from the data, which
spread variation and accuracy. Low introduces a bias. They formulated
CVs indicate a more uniform spread Variography the sample variogram as follows
distribution with 5 % to 10 % be- Pringle et al (2002) assessed the (Herzfeld, 2002):
ing a desired range for spinner disc opportunity for site-specific crop
spreaders. They added that, many management in a field using yield
, ............(1)
factors affect fertilizer distribution monitor data. They stated that, the
and application accuracy, such as spatial variation observed in yield
systematic errors associated with maps has convinced many research- where
machine calibration and metering ers and farmers that uniform man- γ is variogram value, and
efficiency. However, Sogaard and agement of controllable crop inputs, Nh is the count of pairs of points
Kiekegaadrd (1994) reported that the default practice of moder n separated by the lag h.
CV’s could be more in the range of technology, may not be appropriate
15 % to 20 % under field-testing. for all circumstances. Yield maps They added that variogram may
These higher CV’s are probably due visually confirm what most farm- be calculated for different samples
to rougher surfaces experienced un- ers have always suspected about directions to create a more realistic
der field conditions. unifor m management practices: portrait of the studied location. Vo-
Parish (1991) reported CVs in the some parts of their fields are over- gel et al (2001) used semivariogram
upper 20’s to the lower 30’s in some supplied with inputs, while others to determine omni directional, lat-
test cases with these high variations are probably under supplied. eral, and longitudinal correlation
resulting from terrain irregularities. They added that the CV is non- distances for saturated infiltration
They added that, ASAE standard spatial and therefore potentially on native warm season grass and
Procedure for Measuring Distribu- misleading when dealing with dif- the winter wheat watersheds. They
tion Uniformity and Calibrating ferent sized areas. They quoted Per- quoted (Deutch and Journel, 1998)
G r a nu la r Broa dca st Sprea de r s rier and Wilding (1986) in saying that; the semivariogram measures
(ASAE S431.2, 1997) provides a that the semivariogram is a common the average degree of dissimilarity
uniform procedure for testing, as- assessment of yield variation. It is between an unsampled value and a
sessing the performance, and report- popular because it shows how varia- nearby data value.
ing the results of broadcast spread- tion changes through space.
ers. It specifies test setup, collection Royale (1980) discussed the the-
Fig. 3 System control in front of the driver Fig. 4 The semi-automatic VRT spreader
The calibration of the overall sys- rections of the code measurements
tem was performed to develop the computed at the base (reference
Developing the GPS-Guided VRT relationship between control valve station) to eliminate similar cor-
System setting and the broadcasting rate. A related measurement errors at the
A semi-automatic real time GPS- color code of the valve settings was rover. This included satellite clock
guided, VRT-based system was de- developed as a result of both system biases and orbital errors as well as
veloped locally. A 75 HP Fiat tractor calibration and prescription table for atmospheric (ionosphere and tropo-
was used to vehicle and energize the three presumably homogenous sphere) errors. The corrections are
system components where tradition- zones. The developed color code is combined and formulated as range
al hydraulic resources of the tractor a simple control guide to fit to the corrections, which are estimated as
were used as a power source to pow- driver’s educational profile. Accord- the difference between the measured
er a rotary spreader. System opera- ing to soil sample analysis, the field and the true satellite-to-receiver
tion depended on using GPS sensors was divided into three, presumably, ranges, where the latter are com-
to precisely locate the vehicle’s co- homogenous areas. Correspond- puted from the known coordinates
ordinate in the field and using a spe- ing fertilizer application rates were of the base station and the observed
cially developed prescription table calculated according to technical satellites. The base corrections are
to add the prescribed amount of fer- recommendations and soil analysis transmitted to the rover through
tilizer in the associated location. To results. The Green, Red, Blue (G, R, data links. A common standard
map P2O5 level in an experimental and B) code was shown in the con- for sending these corrections is the
field with 50-meter mesh grid, eight trol valve area in front of the driver. RTCM format, which also includes
soil samples were collected from As shown in Fig. 1, coordinate information about reference station
GPS-identified sites in the field. The information flowed from the GPS parameters and satellite health. A
prescription table was developed as receiver to the laptop, which dis- national system of reference stations
a result of knowing nutrient level in played it in front of the driver. Ac- transmitting code-measurement
the field’s different plots and next cording to the prescription table corrections via beacon transmitters
crop requirements. Rhodes was the and the color code of valve settings, is widely used in most countries,
regular forage crop on the farm. A the software advised the driver of mainly along shores, such that the
laptop received coordinates infor- what valve setting was needed in user would only need a beacon re-
mation from a GPS unit where it this specific location as a color mes- ceiver attached to his GPS receiver,
was displayed and recorded. The sage. When the driver changed a without worrying about establishing
driver followed the instructions valve setting to the recommended his own base station.
on the laptop to change hydraulic one, hydraulic motor speed changed On the other hand, the RTK posi-
valve settings to change hydrau- along w it h sprea de r R PM a nd tioning technique uses either phase
lic motor RPM accordingly. The broadcasting rate. measurements or their corrections
spreader was calibrated according sent from the base to determine rov-
to ASAE Standard 341.3 (1999) and Using DGPS and RTK Techniques er positions accurate to the cm level
the overall system was calibrated. The DGPS approach used cor- (Langley, 1998 and El-Mowafy,
Fig. 5 GPS identified locations for soil sampling Fig. 6 Trajectory of the VRT tractor in the field
2000). Due to data latency, which is the correct location. This feature to the upper level of the hydraulic
the time taken to gather and send the was performed based on computa- hitching mechanism. A 2-universal
data from the reference to the rover, tion of the azimuth between the two joint shaft was used to connect the
the corrections are sent instead of positions from their coordinates. two shafts together.
the raw measurements of the base. Thus, on-line guidance by GPS
This is because of the fact that the guarantees proper fertilization of
corrections change slowly with time all needed spots according to their
while the raw measurements change actual needs. In addition, if the
rapidly. In addition, due to latency, a fertilization process had to be con- Testing of the Developed System
method of predicting the phase cor- tinued for a second day, the stored The experimental field is a part
rections at the exact instant of mea- GPS positions when drawn on the of Al-Oha farm, a research facil-
surement of collection at the rover field map would show the driver ity of the UAE University. Testing
should be employed, which should the exact area still to be fertilized. of the system was carried out in an
take into consideration the expected Similar arguments are also valid for open area of approximately 8.25
type of rover dynamics. From the the herbicide and pesticide process. acres (33,000 m2). The test area was
known position of the base station, rehabilitated sandy land prepared
its phase measurements can be con- Hydraulic System for cultivation and surrounded by a
structed, and after solving for the A simple hydraulic system was belt of high trees for its four sides.
carrier phase ambiguities On-The- designed and installed on the tractor The positions of the eight samples,
Fly (OTF), a model similar to that using the available hydraulic re- as well as the test area boundaries,
of code measurements, can be used sources in the tractor. As shown in were determined using a handheld
to determine the coordinates of the Fig. 2, the system consisted of flow GPS receiver (Garmin 48) (Fig. 5).
rover receiver. and pressure meters, f low control Vehicle path way was recorded as
Guiding the tractor along a pre- valve and low speed hydraulic mo- plotted in Fig. 6.
defined path for tasks such as paral- tor. Due to temperature concerns in Due to its vital importance in arid
lel swathing and to prevent it from this part of the world where ambient lands, super phosphate was the fo-
either leaving areas uncovered or temperature exceeds 50 ºC, oil tem- cus of this research where Calcium
over-fertilizing some areas was also perature before and after flow con- Super Phosphate is the phosphate
possible since positions were deter- trol valve was monitored using two source. To evaluate P2O5 level in the
mined in real time. The software thermometers. A Praker Haniffen field before fertilization, eight soil
compared the current and target M030 gerotor drives the calibrated samples were collected from eight
locations, and the difference in dis- rotary broadcasting spreader. identified locations in an 8.25 acre
tance (off-course distance) could The angle between motor shaft field as shown in Fig. 5. The field
be displayed to the driver, as well and the spreader drive shaft ex- was treated according to Rhodes
as the direction to follow to reach ceeded 20º when spreader was lifted grass fertilizers recommendations.
Points of approximately equal P2O5
levels were given the same mark (G,
B, or R), where each group was rec-
ognized as a homogenous zone to
simplify the control process. The re-
sulted P2O5 levels were used to pro-
duce an interpolation of the whole
field mapping of P2O5 as shown in
Fig. 7.
P 2 O 5 analysis before and after
treatment was plotted in Fig. 7. It is
clear that, P2O5 changed in the field
to some extend. In some parts there
was an over dosage and in the other
not enough fertilizer was applied.
Nutrient variability in the field is
a major concern when system per-
formance to get evaluated. Other
performance parameters should be
Fig. 7 P2O5 levels in the field before and after treatment considered such as accuracy that in-
dicates how successful it was to add shown. Semi-variogram is very im- working under different conditions.
the right amount of fertilizer in the portant because it shows haw varia-
corresponding location. tion changes through space. It can
For this specific research, CV be concluded that, in this specific REFERENCES
values for P2 O 5 levels in the field field, variation in P2O5 was higher in
before and after treatment were the East-West direction than it was ASAE- American Society of Agri-
86.66 and 51.29 respectively. That in the North-South direction. Using cultural Engineers.1996. Proce-
means, regardless the targeted level the system did not change the situa- dure for measuring distribution
satisfaction, the system improved tion a lot in this criterion. uniformity and calibrating granu-
uniformity of P2O5 levels in the field A variable rate applicator, with lar broadcast spreader. ASAE
by 60 %. GPS guidance, was designed and Standards. St. Joseph, p 3.
CV was calculated for both cases built locally. The semi-automatic ASAE S341.2. 1997. ASAE Stan-
before and after treatment as men- system depended on the driver to dards, 44th ED. Procedure for
tioned in (ASAE 1999). use the software recommendations measuring distribution uniformity
to take a specific action and change and calibrating granular broadcast
Mean = X = , ...................(2) control valve setting to change ap- spreader. ASAE St. Joseph, MI.
plication rate to suit a specific site. ASAE,1999. Procedure for Measur-
Driver training allowed him to im- ing Distribution Uniformity and
Standard Devision = SD = prove his time of response to deal Calibrating Granular Broadcast
with the prescription table. This Spreaders. ASAE S341.3. Ameri-
, and ....................(3) human factor could cause a great can Society of Agricultural Engi-
deterioration of system performance neering Standards.
if the driver is not well trained or Bakhsh, A., D. .B Jaynes, T. S.
CV = SD x 100 , .............................(4) is tired. This design saves money Colvin and R. S. Kanwar, 2000.
X
for the farmers who are not able to Spatio-Temporal analysis of yield
where invest more money in such a VRT- variability for a corn-soybean
X is arithmetic mean, based system. On the other hand, field in Iowa. Trans. of ASAE.
Xi is nutrient (P 2 O 5) level in a third world technological infrastruc- Vol. 43: 31-38.
GPS-identified location, ppm, and ture does not help farm machinery Bullock, D. S., J. L. DeBoer and S.
N is number of GPS-identified designers or manufacturers to use M. Swinton, 2002. Adding value
locations. ultimate technology. The perfor- to spatially managed inputs by
mance of the developed system im- understanding site-specific yield
Figures 8 and 9 display a differ- proved the uniformity of P2O5 pres- response. Agricultural Econom-
ent way of evaluating the VRT-based ence in the field. Testing procedures ics, 27 (2002), pp. 233-245. Else-
system. Semi-Variograms represents of the overall performance should vier Science B.V.
the variability of P2O5 levels in the be established in order to quantify Chiles, J. P. and P. Delfiner, 1999.
field in two directions. East-West system quality and make it easier to Geostatistics Modeling Spatial
and North-South� variability are compare between different systems � Uncer t ai nt y. Wiley Ser ies i n
+ +
Semi variance Semi variance

2.0 2000
� East-West�� North-South� � East-West�� North-South�
� �
� Poly. (East-West)� Poly. (North-South) � Poly. (East-West)� Poly. (North-South)
1.5 1500
1.0 1000
0.5 500
0 0
7 � � � 36 � � � 65 � � � 94 � � � 123 � � � 7 � � � 36 � � � 65 � � � 94 � � � 123 � � �
Lag distance, meter Lag distance, meter
Fig. 8 Semi-variogram of P2O5 levels before treatment Fig. 9 Semi-variogram of P2O5 levels after treatment
Probability and Statistics. John Meeting, Sacramento, California,
Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 695 July 30-August 1. Paper Number
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an Urban Environment, the Aus- Natural Resources, 13-15, March,
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(45), No. (1), June 2000 Perrier, E. R. and L. P. Wilding,
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and S. F. Higgins, 2001. Perfor- tional methods for field unifor-
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2001 ASAE Annual International
The Effect of Dilution Volume, Water Temperature
and Pressing Time on Oil Yield from Thevetia
Kernel during Extraction
by
A. F. Alonge A. M. Olaniyan
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Department of Agricultural Engineering,
University of Ilorin, University of Ilorin,
Ilorin Ilorin
NIGERIA NIGERIA
between oil yield and water tem- grown in Nigeria as an ornamental

Abstract
perature did not follow a definite plant.
Experiments were performed to pattern. Oil yield increased progres- The oil extracted from the thevetia
determine the effects of dilution vol- sively when the pressing time was kernel can be used for both domes-
ume, water temperature and pressing increased from 5 to 30 minutes at tic and industrial purposes. Though,
time on oil yield from the kernels all levels of dilution volume and wa- it is not presently being consumed
of thevetia nuts using a laboratory ter temperature. by man, it is an alternative source of
press for applying pressure during fat and is relatively less expensive.
the extraction process. Kernels of It is used in poultry diet, for dust
thevetia nuts were finely ground and control, in pelleting and also serves
Introduction
mixed with 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 ml as a source of essential fatty acids.
of water at the temperatures of 20, Thevetia (peruvianae) is com- In its crystalline nature, the oil is
40, 60, 80 and 100 ºC and then ex- monly known as Allamanda after very effective in the treatment of
pressed using the laboratory screw the French traveller - Adre Thevet. cardiac infections. Previous analy-
press, which exerted a pressure of It belongs to the family of apocy- sis by Jairo (1981) and Khan and
42.3 KPa over the meal for 5, 10, 15, nacea. The fruit may be described Hanna (1983) revealed that the ker-
20, 25 and 30 min. The oil obtained as drupe, follicle or berries and is nel contains about 64 % oil. For the
from the expression was collected usually in pairs. The fruit contains oil to be extracted, the nuts must be
in a measuring cylinder through a oily cotyledon which, in turn, con- cracked and the kernels recovered
funnel and weighed with accuracy tains oil and fat. The seed is oblong from the broken shells. They must
of 0.01g. The data were analyzed by in shape (tapered at both ends with undergo a series of mechanical and
analysis of variance and Duncan’ the centre thicken). The seed mass thermal processes and pretreatment
s Multiple Range Test using the ranged between 1.37 g and 6.00 such as size reduction, toasting and
COSTAT 3.0 package. Results of g and the major diameter is about pressure application.
the analysis revealed that all factors 22 mm long. According to Dutta Fashina and Ajibola (1989) stud-
and their interactions were signifi- (1974), the whole fruit consists of ied the mechanical expression of oil
cant on oil yield (at P ≤ 0.05). Oil a membranous epicarp, a succulent from conophor nut by investigating
yield increased to a maximum value mesocar p and a stony endocar p the effects of moisture content, heat-
when the dilution volume was in- (shell) that encloses the embryo ing temperature, heating time, ap-
creased from 5 to 15 ml after which (kernel). Thevetia originated from plied pressure and duration of press-
it decreased with further increases Central America and is abundant ing on the yield of oil. They dis-
in dilution volume. The relationship in the tropics and sub-tropics. It is covered that, generally the oil yield
at any pressure was dependent on One of the indigenous under- milled and heated simples of the-
the moisture content of the sample exploited vegetable oils that has vetia kernel was carried out using
after heating, heating temperature high potential as industrial raw the laboratory press shown in Figs.
and heating time. High oil yields material is thevetia oil. The local 1 and 2. The press consisted of a
were obtained from samples with method of extraction is not efficient turning bar, the threaded pressing
moisture content between 8 and 10 and the output could not even meet ram, plunger, pressing chamber and
% after heating. The maximum oil the rural agro-industrial demand. the frame. The frame was made
yield of 39.6 %, corresponding to an Therefore, the objective of the study of a 35 mm angle iron. The height
extraction efficiency of 66 % was reported in this paper was to inves- was 500 mm, the width 300 mm
obtained when milled conophor nut tigate the effects of dilution volume, and the length 300 mm. The frame
conditioned to 11 % moisture was water temperature and pressing functioned as a rigid support for
heated to 65 ºC for 28 min and ex- time on the yield of oil extracted the pressing chamber and the ram,
pressed at a pressure of 25 MPa. Oil from milled thevetia nut kernel. thereby maintaining tightness to aid
expressed under these conditions Such information should enable the the transmission of pressure uni-
was of good quality with a free fatty development of more efficient pro- formly over the period of time for
acid value of 1.18 %. cess and equipment for medium and which it was in use.
Hamzat and Clarke (1993) per- large-scale thevetia oil extraction. T he pressi ng cha mber was a
formed oil expression tests in order square, hollow pipe in which the
to study the response of groundnut meal was placed for pressing. The
in ter ms of oil yield to process base of the chamber was perforated
variables such as moisture content, to about 4 mm diameter to allow for
present time, pressure, particle size This study was carried out in the the draining of the expressed oil. It
and bed depth. Based on experi- Processing and Storage Laboratory was made of mild steel with dimen-
mental and theoretical investiga- of the Department of Agricultural sions of 100 mm by 100 mm by 150
tions, an equation was developed to Engineering, University of Ilorin. mm. The turning bar was made of
relate the oil yield to the processing The average room temperature was a piece of shaft 20 mm diameter
parameters studied. In developing about 30 ºC throughout the period and 180 mm long. It is used in rotat-
the equation, the concept of quasi- of experimentation. ing the pressing ram. The pressing
equilibrium oil yield was adopted ram was threaded in such a way as
and the equation was found to fit the The Laboratory Press to produce a linear motion while
experimental data reasonably well. Extraction of thevetia oil from rotation. The nut was welded to the
frame to enhance rigidity.
Fig. 1 Isometric view of Fig. 2 Arrangements of the The plunger was welded to the
the laboratory press experimental apparatus pressing ram, which was 82.5 mm
by 82.3 mm and 4 mm thick. The
plunger helped in transmitting pres-
sure from the pressing ram evenly
over the complete area of the press-
ing chamber and, for this reason,
it was made to fit tightly into the
pressing chamber with minimum
clearance. The machine was de-
signed in such a way that the plung-
er transmitted a pressure of 42.3
KPa to the pressing chamber during
the extraction process.
Experimental Design and Proce-

dure
A 52 x 6 factorial experiment
in a split-plot design was used to
evaluate the effects of five levels of
A: Handle, B: Ram, C: Plunger,
dilution volume, five levels of water
A: Handle, B: Ram, C: Plunger, D: Compression chamber, E: Funnel, temperature and six levels of press-
D: Compression chamber, E: Frame F: Measuring cylinder, G: Frame ing time on the yield of oil extracted
from milled thevetia kernel. The and Duncan’s Multiple Range Test volume versus pressing time was
experimental design followed the (DMRT) using the COSTAT 3.0 the least. The implication is that
method illustrated by Ott (1977), package. This method was also il- dilution volume, water temperature,
Miller and Freund (1987) and Miller lustrated by Ott (1977), Miller and pressing time and their combina-
et al (1990) for the design of multi- Freund (1987) and Miller et al. tions had effects on oil yield during
factor experiments. (1990) for the analysis of multifactor oil extraction from milled thevetia
Thevetia nuts were obtained from experiments. kernel.
ornamental gardens in the Univer-
sity of Ilorin Staff Quarters. The Effects of Dilution Volume on Oil
nuts were parboiled to prevent the Yield
development of rancidity and toxic The effect of dilution volume
substances. The parboiled nuts were The data obtained from the ex- on oil yield during the extraction
sun-dried, cracked and winnowed periments and the analysis of vari- process is shown by the sensitiv-
manually and then screened to re- ance are presented in Tables 1 and ity analysis presented in Table 3.
cover clean kernels with a moisture 2 respectively. From the analysis of The table revealed that oil yield
content of about 6 %, dry basis (db). variance table, it can be seen that all increased with increase in dilution
The kernels were milled in a hand factors and their interactions were volume from 5 to 15 ml and then
plate mill and sieved into fine parti- significant on oil yield at P ≤ 0.05. decreased progressively with fur-
cles using a 2.00 mm standard sieve The table also showed that pressing ther increase in the dilution volume
(ASAE, 1983). The milled product time was the most significant factor from 15 to 25 ml. This showed that
was divided into batches which while dilution volume was the least. the optimum dilution volume for
were mixed with 5, 10, 15, 20 and Of all the interactions, water tem- maximum oil yield from thevetia oil
25 ml of water at the temperatures perature versus pressing time was extraction is 15 ml. This trend was
of 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 ºC to form the most significant while dilution true at all levels of temperature and
meal at different levels of dilution
and different levels of temperature. Table 1 Effects of dilution volume water temperature and pressing
Samples of 100 g mass of meal time on oil yield from thevetia kernel during extraction
were each transferred (at intervals) Dilution Water Pressing time (min)
volume temper-
into the pressing chamber of the lab- (ml) ature (ºC) 5 10 15 20 25 30
oratory press after covering the base 20 8.30 10.40 12.30 14.90 16.35 16.70
of the chamber with wire netting of 40 10.50 12.75 14.85 15.25 16.45 17.10
1 mm 2 and cheesecloth. Then, the 5 60 7.25 11.30 13.30 14.70 16.75 17.50
turning bar of the press was rotated 80 5.40 9.40 11.65 13.30 16.00 19.65
in the clockwise direction thereby 100 5.35 5.90 6.45 6.80 7.10 7.30
pressing each meal sample for de- 20 7.50 9.70 14.00 15.25 16.00 16.60
sired pressing time. The pressing 40 19.85 21.10 22.90 22.90 23.65 23.90
times considered in the experiment 10 60 8.90 14.45 17.50 19.55 21.30 22.10
were 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30 minutes. 80 8.10 11.70 14.80 17.20 17.20 18.95
Oil was expressed through the per- 100 20.10 21.20 21.90 22.50 23.10 23.80
forated base of the pressing cham- 20 22.35 22.50 24.65 22.35 26.65 26.85
ber into a funnel, which collects the 40 21.40 23.40 23.75 24.50 24.50 25.75
oil in a measuring cylinder. The ar- 15 60 22.90 24.20 25.00 25.50 26.50 26.50
rangement of the apparatus is shown 80 6.50 11.10 13.70 14.80 15.50 16.20
in Fig. 2. The oil extracted from 100 22.20 24.70 26.10 27.10 27.70 28.10
each sample was weighed directly 20 23.60 25.25 26.00 26.70 26.80 26.80
by an OHAUS Electronic Balance 40 21.45 25.95 26.75 27.40 27.45 27.50
(GT 480 Model) with accuracy of 20 60 18.25 18.80 19.80 20.50 21.20 21.40
0.01 g. Each experiment was repli- 80 16.20 18.30 20.40 21.20 23.30 24.70
cated twice making a total of 300 100 7.20 10.90 14.10 16.50 18.70 19.30
test runs in the experiment. 20 10.30 12.80 14.90 15.35 16.80 17.10
40 18.25 18.80 19.80 20.75 21.20 21.30
Records and Analysis 25 60 17.50 18.30 20.40 21.20 23.30 24.70
The data obtained from the exper- 80 7.50 9.70 14.00 15.40 16.00 16.60
iments were statistically analyzed 100 7.25 11.30 13.30 14.70 16.75 17.50
by Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Note: Each value is the mean of two test samples
pressing time as shown in Table 1. Table 2 Analysis of variance of the effects of dilution volume, water temperature
According to Lindley (1991), oil- and pressing time on oil yield from thevetia kernel during extraction
bearing materials have interpar- Source of Degree of Sum of Mean
F-value Pr > F
variation freedom squares square
ticulate forces, which are due to
Main effects:
electrostatic bonding and the van
D 4 4,136.28 1,034.07 1,722.42* 0.00
der Waals forces, which tend to pre-
T 4 1,598.69 399.67 665.72* 0.00
vent segregation of aggregates and
P 5 1,725.73 345.15 574.90* 0.00
inhibit oil flow. Dilution and mix-
Two-factor interaction
ing enhance the displacement and
DxT 16 2,939.80 183.74 306.04* 0.00
segregation of aggregates such that
DxP 20 52.16 2.61 4.34 0.00
there is structural rearrangement
TxP 20 150.90 7.54 12.57 0.00
of the oil-bearing material all of Three-factor interaction
which aid oil extraction. This may DxPxT 80 283.65 3.55 5.91* 0.00
have been responsible for the initial Error 150 90.05 0.60
increase in oil yield as observed Total 299 10,977.26
in this study. However, according
*Significant at P ≤ 0.05; D, dilution volume; T, temperature; P, pressing time
to Fashina and Ajibola (1990), at
moisture levels above the optimum decreased when the temperature oil through increase in temperature,
range, it is believed that swelling of was further increased from 40 to 80 all of which aid oil extraction. How-
the mucilage occurs and this in turn ºC and later increased again with ever, as shown in Table 1, at higher
produces a cushioning effect on the an increase in the temperature from pressing times (15-30 min) and at
oil seed. The swelled up mucilage 80 to 100 ºC. The understanding is higher dilution volume (25 ml), oil
may impede oil flow during expres- that hot water transmits heat to the yield increased to a maximum when
sion while the cushioning effect on milled product and aids oil extrac- the water temperature was increased
the oil seed reduces the rupturing tion but the level to which this is from 20 to 60 ºC, after which there
of the particles and internal tissue done is not yet determined. was a decrease in oil yield with fur-
during pressure application. This Generally, increase in oil yield ther increases in temperature.
may have been responsible for the with increase in water temperature
decrease in oil yield as the dilution as experienced in some cases in this Effect of Pressing Time on Oil
volume was increased from 15 to 25 study could be attributed to the fact Yield
ml in this study. explained by Olaoye (1994) that, Tabl e 5 shows t he s e n sit iv-
cooking adjusts the moisture con- ity analysis of the effect of pressing
Effect of Water Temperature on tent to give the oilseed the proper time on oil yield from thevetia oil
Oil Yield plasticity for efficient oil extrac- extraction process. The table reveals
Table 4 shows the sensitivity tion and also stops the action of that oil yield increased progres-
analysis of the effect of water tem- enzymes. The effect of water tem- sively when the pressing time was
perature on oil yield from milled perature on thevetia oil extraction, increased from 5 to 30 minutes.
thevetia kernel. The table does not as discovered in this study, may also Table 1 also shows that this trend
show any regular trend of relation- have been due to the fact that cook- is true at all levels of dilution vol-
ship between water temperature ing causes very small oil droplets to ume and water temperature. This
and oil yield. The oil yield in- coalesce into drops large enough to implies that a prolonged pressure
creased with an increase in water flow from the oil bearing material application on milled thevetia ker-
temperature from 20 to 40 ºC, then and also increases the fluidity of the nel positively influenced thevetia oil
Table 3 Effect of dilution Table 4 Effect of water Table 5 Effect of pressing

volume on oil yield* temperature on oil yield* time on oil yield*
Dilution volume Oil yield Water temperature Oil yield Pressing time Oil yield
(ml) (g) (ºC) (g) (min) (g)
5 12.18e 20 18.28e 5 14.06f
10 17.91c 40 21.47a 10 16.12e
15 18.00d
15 22.50a 60 19.48b
20 19.16c
20 21.51b 80 14.82e
25 20.28b
25 16.42d 100 16.47d 30 21.00a
Table 3, 4, 5*Means with the same letters are not significantly differsent at P ≤ 0.05 using Duncan's multiple range test
extraction. This was to be expected REFERENCES Olaoye, J. O. 1994. Oil Recovery
because, generally, in the process Process from Shea Butter Seed
of oil extraction by pressing, ap- ASAE. 1993. Method of Determin- through Modified Clarification,
plied pressure increases the velocity ing and Expressing the Fineness M. Eng. Thesis, University of Ilo-
of oil and thereby aids the oil flow of Feed Materials by Sieving. rin Library, Ilorin, Nigeria.
through the interkernel voids. The ASAE Standard: ASAE 8319. Ag- Ott, L. 1977. An Introduction to
pressure-time effect on thevetia oil ricultural Engineers Handbook. Statistical Methods and Data
extraction, discovered in this study, American Society of Agricultural Analysis. Wadsworth Publishing
is in agreement with the findings of Engineers: 325-327. Company, Belmont, California,
Fashina and Ajibola (1989), Fashina Dutta, A. C. 1974. Botany for De- USA.
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and Reddy and Bohle (1993). This Oxford University Press, U. K. Mechanical Expression of Oil
study has shown that an increase Fashina, O. O. and Ajibola, O. O. from Mustard Seeds. Agricultur-
in the pressing time at a certain ap- 1989. Mechanical Expression of al Mechanization in Asia, Africa
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in most cases. Carpidium Conophorum). Journal Sivala, K.; Bohle, N. G.; Mokherjee,
of Agricultural Engineering Re- R. K. 1991. Effect of Moisture on
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Fashina, O. O. and Ajibola, O. O. of Agricultural Engineering Re-
Conclusions
1990. Development of Equations search, 51:81-91.
Oil yield from mechanical press- for the Yield of Oil Expressed ■■
ing of milled and hydro-thermal from Conophor Nut. Journal of
pretreated thevetia ker nels was Agricultural Engineering Re-
highly dependent on the process- search, 46:45-53.
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temperat ure and pressing time. 1993. Prediction of Oil Yield from
These factors should be taken into Groundnut using the Concept
consideration when planning a wet of Quasi-equilibrium Oil Yield.
extraction process for thevetia oil Journal of Agricultural Engineer-
recovery. ing Research, 55(1):79-87.
The study revealed that high wa- Jairo, A. C. 1981. Phytochemical
ter temperatures might not be neces- Study of Fixed Oil of Thevetia Pe-
sary for the extraction. This discov- ruviana Seed. American Journal
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nut is of high oil content, suggests K han, L. M. and Hanna, M. A.
that a mechanical extraction process 1983. Expression of Oil from Oil-
might be more appropriate. It may seeds - A Review Journal of Ag-
even be assumed that an oil expel- ricultural Engineering Research,
ler would effectively squeeze out 28: 495-503.
oil from the kernels by a mechani- Lindley, J. A. 1991. Mixing Process-
cal process without any thermal es for Agricultural and Food Ma-
pretreatments. Therefore, further terials 2: Highly Viscous Liquids
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Probability and Statistics for En-
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Acknowledgement
Hall of India Private Limited,
The authors acknowledge the as- New Delhi, India.
sistance of Mr. O. D. Raphael dur- Miller, I.; Freund, J. E. and Johnson,
ing the experimentation. R. A. 1990. Probability and Statis-
tics for Engineers. Fourth Edition.
Prentice - Hall of India Private
Limited, New Delhi, India.
Postharvest Losses of Tomatoes in Transit
by
R. J. Bani M. N. Josiah
Professor Professor
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Department of Agricultural Engineering,
University of Ghana, University of Ghana,
P. O. Box 68, Legon P. O. Box 68, Legon
GHANA GHANA
E. Y. Kra
Professor
Department of Agricultural Engineering,
University of Ghana,
P. O. Box 68, Legon
GHANA
high. In the continual fight against including splitting and bruises.

Abstract
hunger and malnutrition, signifi- • Ripeness.
Tomatoes are highly perishable cant increases in food production Coursey and Proctor (1975) clas-
and very susceptible to mechani- have been achieved through the use sified causes of loss into two catego-
cal damage with poor handling and of improved seeds, fertilizers and ries; Social Causes and Technical
transportation. This study was con- improved production practices. Of Causes.
ducted with the primary objective greater significance, however, is the
of establishing the current practices amount of produce available to the Social Causes of Loss
of handling and transportation of consumer which can be achieved Under social causes are such
tomatoes from a main producing with reduction in losses. This will considerations as the shortage of
area, Bolgatanga, in the Upper East help to attain food security and administrative and managerial skills
Region of Ghana, to a main market- poverty reduction. It is unfortunate and the shortage of capital. Lower
ing center, Accra, 815 kilometers that more than 30 years since the levels of technology and of techno-
away. The primary method was to United Nations General Assembly logical education are reflected in the
interview the producers, tomato resolution in 1975 to cut post har- lack of satisfactory handling and
merchants and sellers in the market vest losses by 50 %, the world is transportation techniques.
with the help of a prepared ques- nowhere near significantly reducing
tionnaire. Observations were made these losses, particularly in devel- Technical Causes of Loss
on the journey from Bolgatanga oping countries. Loss figures for Under technical considerations
to Accra. An assessment of losses tomatoes were considered to vary are the physical and physiologi-
along the route was found to be 20 from 20-50 % (FAO, 1977) and very cal integrity of the produce. These
%. limited impact has been made in re- must be preserved as losses occur
ducing these losses. It is necessary as a result of assaults on this in-
to insist on rigid quality standards tegrity. Mechanical injury to the
where fruits or vegetables are being fruit may occur at almost any stage
Introduction
produced for high quality export in the postharvest journey of the
Tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculen- markets. Quality standards used for produce. This includes the process
tum) are of great nutritional value tomatoes produced for export in- of harvesting, unsuitable packing,
and are an important source of vita- clude: transporting under unsuitable con-
mins, and minerals. In spite of this • Appearance, size, color and ditions and exposure in the market
importance, estimates of production shape. during sale. Delicate and sensitive
losses in developing countries are • Condition or absence of defects produce such as tomatoes are often
roughly handled and the damage Nature of injury Cause
inflicted greatly enhances further Abrasions and cuts Rough surface of wooden crates.
deterioration from physiological and Uneven run of vehicles on rough surfaces creating instability
in stucks
phytopathological causes. A more
Bruising and crushing Overfilled crates stacked on each other.
detailed description of losses can be Collapse of stacked crates.
found in Tindall and Proctor (1980). Table 1 Nature and causes of injury during transit
In Ghana, tomatoes are produced
in large quantities in two areas;
Akumadan in the Ashanti Region could vary from produce to produce Bolgatanga to Accra.
and Bolgatanga in the Upper East over a period of time (Shukla and
Region. The major marketing center Royer 1984). Assessment is com-
for both of these producing areas pletely subjective while measure-
Observation and Results
is Accra, a distance of 300 km and ment is an objective determination
of Loss Assessment
815 km away, respectively. The of the samples selected. Estimation
standardization of loss identification is the interpretation of measurement Harvesting
terms for tropical food commodi- from which all losses can be ex- Harvesting was done by hand.
ties has been partially achieved by trapolated. Losses can be measured The indices of maturity and time of
the National Academy of Sciences in monetary terms. They can also be harvests were subjective and were
(1978) study. The primary areas of measured and expressed by percent- based on color, size and shape. Har-
loss have identified as quantitative age of units or loss of weight. vested produce was placed in plastic
loss, qualitative loss and nutritional buckets and enamel coated pans
loss. The discussion in this paper is until full, and then transferred into
limited to quantitative loss, which wooden crates (Figs. 1 and 2).
Objective of the Study
includes losses due to damage in-
curred as a result of inadequate han- • To establish postharvest han- Transport Containers
dling methods. dling and transportation practices The main container used for the
of tomatoes from Bolgatanga in the transportation of tomatoes was a
Postharvest Losses Due to Improp- Upper East Region of Ghana to Ac- rectangular wooden crate measur-
er Handling during Transport cra on the coast. ing 620 mm long, 450 mm wide and
It is generally believed that fresh • To estimate the level of quanti- 450 mm deep. The wall thickness
produce cannot be handled or har- tative loss of tomatoes during the ranged from 20 to 25 mm thick with
vested without inf licting injuries. journey. 2 lateral openings of about 45 mm.
Nevertheless, with careful ground- These wooden crates were not pad-
work and precaution, the damage ded.
can be appreciably minimized. Fre-
Methodology
quently, the injuries appear in the Transportation
form of abrasive cuts and bruises. A total of 25 tomato farmers from Transportation to the market cen-
Bruises usually occur from impact the Bolgatanga producing area, 5 ter was by both open-ended trucks
and compression. tomato merchants, 2 drivers and and closed trucks (Fig. 3). The vehi-
6 retailers in the market in Accra cles had no refrigeration and, espe-
Determination of Losses were interviewed. To observe at first cially, in the case of closed trucks,
Determination of losses is dif- hand the conditions of transporta- this aggravated the condition of the
ficult because they are very differ- tion, a journey was undertaken with tomatoes on arrival at the market.
ent in under various conditions and a loaded truck of tomatoes from
Fig. 1 Enamel coated pans Fig. 2 Wooden crates Fig. 3 Open-ended trucks
Causes of Loss in Transit losses that the study has shown to
Observations on the journey re- be 20 %.
vealed the causes of loss as shown
in Table 1.
REFERENCES
Loss Assessment
Fifteen crates out of a total of Coursey, D. G. and F. J. Proctor,
50 in a medium sized open-end 1978 Towards the qualification of
truck were selected at random for Post harvest loss in horticultural
the loss assessment. The number Produce. Acta Horticulture 49
of tomatoes in each selected crate 15-56.
was counted at the beginning of FAO, 1977 Analysis of an FAO Sur-
the journey. At the end of the jour- vey of Post harvest Crop Losses
ney, that is, on arrival in Accra, the in Developing Countries. AGPP:
number of tomatoes in the selected Misc/27 Rome.
crates were counted and sorted to National Academy of Sciences,
determine the number lost as a re- 1978 Post harvest Food Losses in
sult of spoilage. Tomatoes that were Developing Countries. National
crushed or bruised were considered Academy of Sciences Washington
spoiled. The results are shown in D.C.
Table 2. Shukla, R. J. and J. C. Royer 1984
Proceedings of the 20th Annual
Meeting of Caribbean Food Crops
Society. ST Croix, U.S. Virgin Is-
Conclusion
lands.
Tomatoes provide a rich source of Tindall, H. D. and F. J. Proctor 1980
vitamins and other minerals needed Loss Prevention of Horticultural
for growth and development. How- Crops in the Tropics. Prog. Fd.
ever, it is a highly perishable crop Nutr. Sci. Vol. 4, No. 3-4 pp. 25-
with very high levels of losses re- 39, Pergamon Press.
ported 20-50 % (FAO). Proper han- ■■
dling of the produce from the farm
gate to the market will ensure that
the level of losses will be reduced to
a minimum. Good quality packing
crates with smooth or padded sur-
faces and good transport vehicles
traveling on good roads will reduce
Number of
Number of
tomatoes Percentage
tomatoes in
crushed/ loss
container
bruised
1,200 257 21
1,205 259 21
1,200 270 23
1,190 262 22
1,204 197 16
1,210 216 18
1,222 265 22
1,240 230 19
1,215 246 20
1,254 276 22
total: 12,140 total: 2,478 av.: 20.4
Table 2 Numbers and percentage losses
The Farm Machinery Industry in Japan and Research Activities
The Present State of Farm Machinery Industry

by
Shin-Norinsha Co., Ltd.
7, 2-chome, Kanda Nishikicho,
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 101-0054
JAPAN
world competitive power, saving of Trend of Farm Mechanization

Outlook of Agriculture
production cost became the urgent Agricultural mechanization in
Trend of Agriculture issue. Other big issues in Japanese Japan has remarkably progressed in
In 2002 agricultural total prod- agriculture are, to have enough peo- the field of low land rice, chief crop,
ucts was ¥5,225 billion, accounting ple engaged in farm work to main- in a short period since 1955. Now
for 1.0 % of GNP. The agricultural tain stable agriculture, production rice production is almost mecha-
products imports was ¥4,299 bil- of high quality and safe products to nized from planting to harvesting.
lion in 2001, ¥4,301 billion in 2002, meet the needs of consumers, and In 2002, average working hours
¥4,368 billion in 2003. The agricul- preservation of natural environment on 10a paddy field reduced to 31.0
tural products exports was 302 bil- in rural areas. hours from 117.8 hours in 1970.
lion in 2001, ¥206 billion in 2002, In July 1999, Japanese government In recent years farm machinery
¥196 billion in 2003. enacted the New Agricultural Stable for rice crop is developed to be
Japan depends on imports for large Law, which aims to assure constant larger-sized, higher-efficiency and
part of domestic consumption of feed food supply by raising domestic pro- more commonly used. In addition,
cereals, soybean, wheat. Food self- duction, to encourage multi-func- farm machinery for field crops and
sufficiency rate was 40 % by calorie tions of agriculture, to have sustain- live stock farming is being devel-
base in 2003, 27 % for cereals, al- able development of agriculture and oped and improved, which had been
most the same as preceding year. to promote the development of rural lagged behind so far.
Population mainly engaged in areas. The law makes it a target that From 1993 to 1997, government
farming has been decreasing yet, 50 % of national food consumption carried out Urgent Development
2.59 million in 2003, 4.1 % of total is covered by domestic production, Project to intensify the development
working population. The number of at least to raise self-supply rate up of high performance farm machines
Farm houses decreased to 2.98 mil- to 45 % by 2010. In 2000 Japanese to raise farm productivity and re-
lion in 2003. 74 % of them are com- government enacted guidelines for duce farm work burden. From 1998
mercial farms selling their products dietary patterns to improve national to 2002, government carried out 2nd
in market. Total arable land in Japan dietary, the Food Recycle Law to de- Urgent Development Project to de-
was 4.74 million ha in 2003. crease food waste, the revised Japa- velop new machines for 21st century
Japanese have been getting to nese Agricultural Standards (JAS) which are useful in environmentally
enjoy more a variety of food since Law to improve food safety. BSE in- kind agriculture and useful for la-
1970’s. The production of rice, cident in 2001, food display forgery bor saving in mountains area. The
oranges, milk, eggs has exceeded incident and usage of nonregistered government has carried out “Next
domestic consumption. Under such agricultural chemicals in 2002 made Generation Agricultural Machinery
circumstances, GATT New Round the government to take measures for Urgent Development Project” since
Agreement gave great impact to food safety. 2003. Under these projects, 43 types
Japanese agriculture. In order to get of high performance machines were
developed. They are, a large all- Table 1 Major farm machinery on farm (Unit: thousand)
purpose combine, a full automatic Walking Riding Rice
Power Rice
vegetable transplanters, riding-type Year type type trans- Binder Combine
sprayer dryer
tractor tractor planter
vegetable cultivator, and a Japanese
1970 3,269 183 32 2,178 261 45 1,227
leek harvesting machine.
1975 3,426 501 740 2,607 1,327 344 1,497
In 1995 Ministry of Agriculture,
1980 2,752 1,471 1,746 2,139 1,619 884 1,524
Forestry and Fisheries made a com-
1985 2,579 1,854 1,993 2,151 1,518 1,109 1,473
mittee which studied method to
1990 2,185 2,142 1,983 1,871 1,298 1,215 1,282
reduce cost of farm product materi-
1995 1,344 2,123 1,650 1,714 836 1,120 1,052
als like farm machines. Those farm
2000 1,048 2,028 1,433 1,269 583 1,042 861
product materials are major parts
Source: "Statistical Yearbook of Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheris" by the
of farming cost. In 1996 concrete Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.
movement started in the field of pro-
duction and distribution. Low cost Table 2 Shipment of major farm machinery (Unit: number)
machinery with limited functions
Walking Riding Rice
has been increasing. Power Rice
Year type type trans- Binder Combine
sprayer dryer
Following are the numbers of farm tractor tractor planter
machines in possession of commer- 1997 174,004 87,416 64,859 175,164 16,770 53,095 51,655
cial farm household of Feb. 1, 2000: 1998 173,397 71,840 52,337 157,335 11,757 41,282 38,127
riding tractor reached 2,028,000 1999 180,511 72,533 59,529 164,656 12,010 40,822 38,720
units; walking tractor 1,048,000; 2000 166,996 72,554 55,386 162,030 10,648 40,888 33,159
rice transplanter 1,433,000; head 2001 145,557 65,933 47,285 154,516 8,019 35,685 29,585
feed combine 1,042,000. 2002 142,774 64,781 48,054 150,035 6,991 34,397 28,893
Shipments of major farm machin- 2003 157,470 66,287 47,303 149,949 5,680 34,137 27,609
ery in the domestic market in 2004 2004 142,316 60,964 45,065 154,049 5,421 31,136 30,435
are as follows: riding tractor 60,964 Source: "Survey of Shipment of Agricultural Machinery" by the Ministry of
units (under 20 PS were 12,951; 20 Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.
to 30 PS 27,827; 30 to 50 PS 12,303;
over 50 PS 7,183); walking tractor Government Budget for Agricul- and small scale farming. Agricul-
142,316; rice transplanter 45,065; ture, Forestry and Fisheries tural machinery manufacturers have
combine head feed types 30,433, 2005 government budget for ag- put the machines to meet such mar-
standard ty pes were 703; grain riculture, forestry and fisheries was ket situation. In local agricultural
dryer 30,868; huller 22,880. The 2,967.2 billion yen in total. Major machinery shows, the number of
shipment of safety cabins and safety subject items are; medium size machines in exhibition
frames attached to tractors rose • Food supply under safety and is decreasing while more small and
sharply to 60,625 units. risk control. large size machines are exhibited.
• Acceleration of structural re- The contract farming is further
Plans for Farm Mechanization form in agriculture. going on particularly in rice crop-
2005 government budget for farm • Preservation of agricultural en- ping. Small and medium scale part-
mechanization was used for; vironment and resource. time farmers are more apt to put
• Development of high-perfor- • Promotion of agricultural prod- the farm work to contractors, rather
mance machine and technology; ucts export. than buying expensive machines
“Next Generation Agricultural Ma- • Tech nolog y development to only for weekend farming. A part or
chinery Urgent Development Proj- increase international competitive all of their farm work is undertaken
ect” in collaboration with manufac- power. by large scale farmers or agricul-
turers, universities and institutions • Practical use of biomass. tural production enterprises.
promoted the development and pop- • Preservation of diversified and Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry
ularization of the machines needed healthy forest. and Fisheries regards authorized
in local agriculture and sustainable farmers and agricultural production
agriculture. enterprises as key force to under-
Movement of Farm Ma-
• Saving of agricultural machin- take future agriculture, and give
chinery Industry
ery cost: education for cost saving, full support to them through various
raising farm work contractors. In recent years Japanese agricul- measures. That will further acceler-
*Prevention of farm accident. ture is gradually moving toward ate the movement toward bipolar-
bipolarization, large scale farming izaton in agriculture. For large scale
Table 4 Farm equipment distributor and sales value (Unit: million yen) % increase over the preceding year)
No. of Annual Square Annual by JFMMA (Japan Farm Machinery
Year retailers Employes sales value Inventory meters of sales value Manufacture’s Association) statis-
(1) (2) shop m 2
(2)/(1)
tics. The production for domestic
1985.6 9,142 43,921 946,507 144,837 985,453 103.5
market was 340.9 billion yen, 103.2
1988.6 9,444 45,952 1,015,304 159,798 923,726 107.5
% of the preceding year. The pro-
1991.6 9,480 45,705 1,158,924 170,104 984,700 122.2
duction for export was 163.4 billion
1994.6 8,838 43,112 1,128,087 166,298 978,788 127.6
yen, 110.8 % of the preceding year.
1997.6 8,820 45,090 1,265,902 170,350 901,851 143.5
Production of the major farm ma-
2002.6 8,123 40,441 979,066 145,725 982,529 120.5
chinery is as follows: Wheel type
Source: Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry.
riding tractor 198,913 units increased
by 4.7 % over the preceding year. By
farmers and agricultural production used by small farmers who intend H.P., those under 20 PS amounted
enterprises which undertake a large to maintain their farm land with no to 27,001 units, 20 to 30 PS 80,331
amount of farm work, the most seri- thought of profit. The number of the units, 30 to 50 PS 63,498 units, over
ous problem is unexpected trouble people who start farming after re- 50 PS 28,083 units. About 70 % of
with machines. tirement is also increasing. the total production is for export.
W hile simple troubles can be To cope with further developing The production of walking tractor
fixed by users, many troubles have diversity of the market, agricultural amounted to 199,864 units, which
to be repaired by agricultural ma- machinery manufacturers need to showed an increase of 3.0 % over
chinery dealers. It is absolutely nec- have clear understanding of end- the preceding year. The production
essary for dealers to handle them users’ requirements through daily of over 5 PS walking tractor is on
quickly as soon as receiving a call contact and feed them back to ma- the decrease.
from users. Speedy and flexible re- chinery design and development. The production of combine, which
sponse of dealers helps establishing is next to the riding tractor in pro-
strong connection between dealers duction amount, is 37,340 units (a
and users. Maintenance and repair increase of 19.5 % under the preced-
Trend of Farm Machinery
service operations by dealers will ing year). The most popular type is
Production
be more important in the future. with harvesting width of one meter
On the other hand there is a con- Farm machinery production in head feed.
tinued demand for small machines, 2005 amounted to ¥504.3 billion (5.5 Following are the production of
Table 3 Yearly production of farm machinery (Unit: number, million yen)

Total Walking type tractor Riding type tractor Rice transplanter Power sprayer Blower sprayer
Year
Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value
1998 - 491,973 212,551 29,669 144,774 194,954 53,122 46,218 156,890 7,256 7,973 9,204
1999 - 539,960 253,817 36,365 156,452 220,047 58,137 43,146 153,118 7,416 7,194 9,282
2000 - 520,956 243,995 31,647 163,536 204,339 56,784 44,887 162,527 7,763 6,000 9,896
2001 - 453,946 191,941 25,372 135,353 170,063 50,918 41,887 139,360 6,036 6,465 9,854
2002 - 456,024 174,683 22,172 149,202 184,843 47,911 40,696 191,940 7,953 4,907 7,691
2003 - 450,156 164,536 21,431 174,514 202,519 51,457 44,643 173,047 12,774 4,716 6,715
2004 - 478,039 194,018 24,444 190,116 234,100 47,522 42,606 184,221 14,881 3,984 6,421
2005 - 504,336 199,864 25,810 199,581 248,287 49,631 45,121 162,511 11,715 3,611 6,145
Grain reaper Brush cutter Grain combine Rice husker Dryer Grain polisher
Year
Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value
1998 8,631 2,336 1,012,372 22,236 40,196 103,435 28,113 10,705 32,968 26,543 39,729 3,588
1999 11,816 3,436 1,084,889 24,172 42,173 112,145 37,579 14,491 36,920 29,976 36,342 2,464
2000 11,291 3,104 1,011,889 23,132 41,137 100,671 26,089 9,784 35,780 29,227 39,235 7,667
2001 8,172 2,274 963,965 20,200 36,158 91,210 23,973 9,209 31,567 26,007 36,427 6,972
2002 6,779 1,853 952,898 19,715 35,658 94,608 21,630 8,347 32,160 25,697 25,006 3,842
2003 5,664 1,521 836,409 19,333 36,899 90,811 26,174 9,827 27,419 21,730 27,975 1,825
2004 5,116 1,451 901,688 20,195 31,251 85,375 23,305 8,288 28,761 22,229 29,106 1,857
2005 5,940 1,686 890,978 20,391 37,340 99,996 22,373 8,304 27,111 22,143 25,846 1,518
Source: 1996-2002; "Survey of Status of Machinery, Production" by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry,
2003-2005; JFMMA (Japan Farm Manufacture's Association statistics.
other types of farm machinery; rice According to the governmental 30.4 %). For North America, ¥126.7
transplanter amounted to 49,631 survey by Ministry of Agriculture, billion was for USA, tractor 116,092
units (a increase of 4.4 % under the Forestry and Fisheries, the total sales units, ¥112.6 billion, which was
preceding year), grain dryer 27,111 of farm machinery by Agricultural a major part. Tractors for Asia is
units (an decrease of 5.7 %), huller Cooperative Association reached 31,742 units, but maker’s shipment
22,373 units (a decrease of 4.0 %), ¥272.4 billion in 2003 (¥284.3 bil- is only about 3,200 units, others are
bush cleaner 890,978 units (an de- lion in 2002). The number of Ag- considered to be secondhand ma-
crease of 1.2 %), power pest-con- ricultural Cooperative was 947 in chines.
troller 223,147 units (an decrease of 2003. Average sales amount per co- By the types of machines, trac-
10.9 %), binder (walking type cutter operative increased to ¥290 million. tor (consists main part of export);
for rice and wheat) 5,940 units (a About half of private dealers are 190,764 units were expor ted in
increase of 16.1 %), thresher 2,629 small firms which less than 5 em- 2005, it amounted to ¥153.7 billion.
units (a increase of 3.4 %), foder ployees. In a long time view, with Seeing by horse power, those under
cutter 33,949 units (a increase of 15.8 less demand for agricultural ma- 30 PS amounted to 105,700 units,
%), rice pearling machine 25,846 chines expected in future, improve- those from 30 to 50 PS 63,177 units,
units (an decrease of 11.2 %), rice ment of management structure will those over 50 PS 21,887 units.
sorter 20,620 units (a increase of 4.3 be needed. Major farm machinery, next to
%), tractor, is bush cleaner. The total
exports were 1,001,115 units, ¥21.8
billion. The exports of other farm
Export and Import of
machinery are as follows; walking
Trend of Farm Machinery Farm Machinery
tractor 43,931 units; power sprayer
Market
Export 36,066 units; lawn mower 55,587
In Japan distribution systems for In 2005 the export of farm ma- units; grass mower 52,794 units;
farm machinery is roughly divided chinery amounted to ¥225.1 billion, chain saw 327,452 unit, etc.
into two major channels; the dealers which showed an increase of 12.3 %
concerned and Agricultural Cooper- over the preceding year. Import
atives Association. As of June 2002, By the export destination, ¥134.0 In 2005 the imports of farm ma-
the retail shops were recorded to billion for North America (an in- chinery amounted to ¥44.7 billion,
about 8,100, the employees amount- crease of 6.6 %), ¥40.6 billion for which means an increase of 9.9 %
ed to 40,000 persons, and the annual Europe (an increase of 16.8 %), over the preceding year.
sales amounted to ¥979 billion. ¥39.0 billion for Asia (an increase of Major imported farm machines:
Table 5 Export of farm equipment 2005 (Unit: FOB million yen) Table 6 Import of farm equipment 2005 (Unit: CIF million yen)
Year Unit Value Ratio Major destinations Year Unit Value Ratio Major destinations
1998 143,843 1998 27,513
1999 149,066 1999 23,308
2000 139,049 2000 25,825
2001 126,173 2001 32,603
2002 148,581 2002 33,988
2003 160,734 2003 36,828
2004 200,533 2004 40,719
2005 225,131 100.0 USA, Korea, France 2005 44,742 100.0 Germany, China, France
Seeder, planter 6,322 5,721 2.5 Korea Wheel tractor 3,059 14,390 32.2 France, Germany, UK
Power tiller 43,931 3,178 1.4 Belgium, USA, Spain Pest control
machine - 2,124 4.7 China
Wheel tractor 190,764 153,662 68.3 USA
Power sprayer 36,066 1,203 0.5 USA, Korea, Taiwan Lawn mower 183,085 2,953 6.6 USA
Lawn mower 55,587 6,618 2.9 France, Germany Mower 4,893 2,286 5.1 France, Germany, Italy
Brush cutter 1,001,115 21,824 9.7 USA, France, Italy Hay making 982 760 1.7 France, Germany, NL
machine
Mower 52,794 1,328 0.6 USA, China
Combine 2,589 5,119 2.3 Korea, Taiwan Bayler 691 1,567 3.5 Germany, Italy, France
Grain separator 727 3,200 1.4 China, India, Thai Combine 125 1,775 4.0 Germany, Belgium
Chain sow 327,452 6,950 3.1 USA, Italy, France Chain sow 68,193 1,089 2.4 Germany, USA, Sweden
Others - 16,328 7.3 Others - 17,798 39.8
Source: Ministry of Finance. Totaled by Japan Farm Machinery Manufactures' Assn.
tractor 3,059 units (those more than of increased imported agricultural performance production control
70 PS were 2,518 units of all the products, consumer’s various favor, system with IT technology”, “labor
tractor); chain saw 68,193 units, the decrease of the new farmers, and energy saving, safe production
lawn mower 183,085 units, mower being called for the contribution to system utilizing automation tech-
101,957 units, fertilizer distributor solve the environmental problems. nology” and etc.
2,510 units. Tractors 740 units were That’s why the structural and tech- Research results by BRAIN (Bio-
impor ted from France, and 579 nical reforms in Japanese agricul- oriented Technology Research Ad-
units from German, 506 from Italy, ture are required urgently. vancement Institution) in 2004 were;
504 from UK. The government issued “Basic New seeding technology for rice
Research Plan for Agriculture, For- and soybean, High quality manure
estry and Fisheries” in March, 2005 production technology, Unmanned
to set the objectives of the develop- operation system for agricultural
Trend of Research and
ment in the future ten years. In the machinery, Management support
Experiment
field of next generation farm mecha- system and Safe operation support
The surroundings of Japanese nization technology development. system utilizing IT technology.
agriculture are very hard, because It is encouraged to develop “high ■■
The ABSTRACTS pages is to introduce the abstracts of the article which cannot be published in
ABSTRACTS whole contents owing to the limited publication space and so many contributions to AMA. The readers
who wish to know the contents of the article more in detail are kindly requested to contact the authors.
326 ferent for sampling dates as well as storage containers.

Adequacy of Testing Facilities for Farm Machinery in Seed emergence was greater in early sowing crop and
Indian Punjab: Kamal Vatta, Research Officer, Agro Eco- seed stored in pods and refrigerator respectively. Further
nomic Research Centre, Department of Economics and So- data demonstrated that storage containers were signifi-
ciology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, cantly affected the percentage of healthy seedlings. The
India, Sanjay Kumar, same seed stored in pods and refrigerators has 51.6 % and 52.8
The present paper intends to assess the existing testing % healthy seedlings respectively.
infrastructure, its relevance and adequacy in the State.
There is a Farm Machinery Testing Unit, located at Pun- 333
jab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, which conducts Effect of “Keeping Temperature” on Organoleptic
the tests for a variety of farm machines and equipment. Quality of Curds: Krishna Kumar, Professor & Head and
At present the testing infrastructure is not even suffi- Associate Professor respectively, Department of Agro
cient to take care of the present level of farm machines Processing and Rural Industry, College of Agricultural En-
and equipments. There is need to increase the personnel gineering and Technology, N.D. University of Agriculture
as well as physical resources in the testing centers. The & Technology, Kumarganj-224 229, Faizabad U.P. India, Ma-
manufacturers, although aware of the contribution of hendra Rai, same
machinery testing to quality improvement, shirk from Keeping temperature plays an important role in making
getting these tested because it adds to the cost of produc- quality curds. Temperatures above optimum, adversely
tion and shrinking profit margins due to large number affect the organoleptic parameters of the curds. This ex-
of small manufacturers entering the production without periment was conducted to see the behaviour of organo-
any check. More efforts should be initiated for encourag- leptic parameters of soy-milk curd and buffalo milk curd
ing the testing of those farm machines and equipments, at different keeping temperatures. Above optimum tem-
whose cost of production is above some limit (say around perature of 25 ºC, all the quality parameters of the differ-
Rs. 20,000) and whose volume of demand is very high. ent curds indicated gradual decrease in values till 35 ºC
There is a need for a separate testing centre in Punjab as and quality loss increased faster then after except acidity.
the State is not only a major manufacturer of agricultural Acidity scores decreased from optimum temperature to
machinery and equipments in the country but also has the 35 ºC and it again increased till 45 ºC.
major demand for these. It is also important to keep the
cost of testing the agricultural equipment and machinery 344
down from the manufacturers’ point of view. The Cen- Performance of an Evaporative Cooler: M.N. Josiah, Ag-
tral and the State governments should meet these costs ric. Engineering Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Uni-
on sharing basis and keep these expenditures in the Blue versity of Ghana, Legon. Ghana, R.J. Bani, same, E.Y. Kra,
Box subsidies as allowed in WTO. same
Green plantains were stored in an evaporative cooler
332 built of wooden frame covered with cotton cloth as the
Effect of Seed Storage Conditions on Emergence of absorbing surface. Temperatures and relative humidi-
Healthy Seedling of Soyabean (cv. Lee): G.H. Jamro, Fac- ties inside and outside the cooler were measured by a
ulty of Crop Production, Sindh Agriculture University, Tan- thermohydrograph. An Effigi penetrometer was used to
dojam 70060, Pakistan, L.A. Jamali, Faculty of Agricultural determine the firmness of the plantains after 8, 10, and
Engineering, same, M. Hatam, Department of Agronomy, 14 days. The results indicated that the evaporative cooler
Peshawar Agriculture University, Peshawar, Pakistan, S.K. with an efficiency of 74 percent, and maintaining a steady
Agha, Faculty of Crop Production, Sindh Agriculture Uni- temperature of 27.7 ºC and steady relative humidity of 97
versity, Tandojam 70060, Pakistan percent delayed the ripening process of green plantains
Experiments were conducted at Agriculture Univer- for up to 12 days, with only 1.10 percent weight loss.
sity Peshawar, Pakistan to study the effect of seed stor-
age condition on the emergence and healthy seedling of 345
soyabean (cv. Lee) under field conditions. The treatments Comparative Evaluation of Manual and Mechanical
were cloth bags, plastic bags, gunny bags, pitchers, tin Raw Mango Slicing: Syed Zameer Hussain, Division of
cans, pods and refrigerator. Each treatment was repli- Agr. Engg. U.A.S. Banglore and Division of Food Engg. IIHR,
cated three times in randomized complete block design. Hessaraghatta Banglore, India
Data revealed that field emergence was significantly dif- The Raw mango slicer very useful to raw mango pro-
cessing industries consists of four shafts rotating on ronment temperature in crop’s different growth periods,
bearings and powered with 3 HP A.C. motors connected Creating an automatically controlment irrigation system
separately to the shaft by a chain and sprocket transmis- to implement the crop precision irrigation. This irrigation
sion system. The shaft with circular blades rotate at 750 system was determined using the following procedures:
rpm. Two pair of shaft rotate perpendicular to each other. (1) Nation Instruments’ graphical programming Lab-
One set of shafts has one blade on each shaft. The other VIEW, DAQ broad (PCI-6024E), a series of temperature,
set has one, two and three blades on each shaft which soil moisture and dielectric properties of plant sensors,
cut the mangoes into 4, 6 and 8 slices depending on its signal conditioning circuit were required to detect the
size. The Raw mango slicer was evaluated for different information, and GPS (AG132) was located the sample
varieties namely Neelum, Alphonso, Langra, Raspuri, points in real time. (2) The signals through Nation instru-
Totapuri and Chinnarasam and results were compared ments’ DAQ-6024E broad and GPS position information
with manual slicing. The analysis of the data reveals that from Map 330 receiver by RS-232 serial interface were
the slicer was significantly over manual slicing, when the all combined to the irrigation system with other crops
slicing capacity and labour requirement were taken as the knowledge in Access database to analyze crops water
parameters. Regarding slices with endocarp the differ- requirement situations. (3) According to the information
ence between manual and mechanical slicing was found analysis, fuzzy control aided by NI control toolkit was put
to be non significant for Alphonso, Raspuri, Totapuri out irrigational signals to deal with irrigation execution
and Chinnarasam varieties. However, it was found to be units for watering. Many basic information operations
significant at P (0.05) for Neelum and Langra varieties. functions, such as data display, store and analysis were
Regarding slices with mechanical damage, the difference provided. Moreover, it has accomplished a GIS function,
between manual and mechanical slicing was found to be making watering spot and its corresponding information
non-significant for all the varieties. visible to operators in GIS map, which was convenient for
operators to master both current and basic irrigation in-
350 formation. The whole accomplished system has shown its
Applications of Solar Energy in Agricultural Products great intelligent functions on signals acquisition, analysis,
Drying: Jamal Nourain, Ph. D. Candidate, College of Bio- control compared with traditional irrigation ones.
systems Engineering & Food Science, Zhejiang University,
Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310029, P.R. China, Ying Yibin, Execu- 510
tive Dean and Professor, same Energy Requirement of Different Weed Management
Solar drying is one of the methods for preserving food Practices for Wheat in Indo-Gangetic Plain Zone for In-
in remote areas. Many approaches have been proposed dia: V.P. Chaudhary, Scientist, Project Directorate for Crop-
and developed for the solar drying of crops and other ping Systems Research, Modipuram, Meerut-250110 (U.P.),
produce. This review paper described the techniques of India, D.K. Pandey, Tech. Officer, same, B. Gangwar, Princi-
solar drying and then provided examples, which illus- pal Scientist, same, S.K. Sharma, Principal Scientist, same
trated how this technology could utilize locally available The analysis of the energy requirements for the wheat
materials in the construction of the drying units. The (Triticum aestivum L.) was carried out at the research
solar drying systems generally classified into two types, farm of Project Directorate for Cropping System re-
direct dryers in which solar radiation is absorbed directly search, Modipuram, Meerut during the year of 2000-01
by the produce and indirect dryers in which the solar to 2003-04. The different weed management practices
radiation is used to heat air which then flows through the such as hand weeding twice, herbicides + one hand weed-
volume containing the produce. There are four common ing, criss-cross sowing + one hand weeding, criss-cross
drying techniques that are utilized for drying agricultural sowing + herbicides + one hand weeding, unweeded
products, such as open air drying, firewood/fuel drying, check were subjected to wheat crop to assess the energy
electrical drying and PV1 powered or simple drying. use, one put energy obtained and net return of energy.
Result revealed that the total input energy utilization in
479 wheat varied from 19,589.0 MJ/ha to 20,472.1 MJ/ha for
Study On Crop Precision Irrigation System Based On treatments unweeded check and criss-cross + herbicides
The Virtual Instrument Technique: Bao Yidan, Associate + hand weeding, respectively. The energy use by inor-
Professor, Department of Biosystems Engineering, Zheji- ganic fertilizers represented the major part of total energy
ang University, Hangzhou 310029, Zhejiang Province, P.R. use accounting about 50 percent followed by machinery
China, He Yong, Professor and Dean, College of Biosystems used about 20 percent in all treatments, whereas, irriga-
Engineering and Food Science, same, Wu Yanping, Ms.c. tion consumed about 17 percent energy use of total input
Student, same energy. Total amount of energy use in weed management
The research aims are exploring the special crop’s was varied from 1.93 to 4.22 percent of the total input en-
water demand, the affective of soil moisture and envi- ergy. The hand weeding twice was found to be more en-
ergy consuming than other treatments. This was followed combines have been intensively used for many years now
by herbicides + hand weeding once as well as criss-cross while Thailand manufacturers innovated in 1990s a large
sowing + herbicides + hand weeding once. The energy combine based on surplus chassis of track-type construc-
utilization for weed management was found from 11.6 to tion vehicles. China has a mixture of different combines
21.9 percent higher in traditional seedbed as compared patterned from European and Japanese designs although
with stale seedbed. a few models are simple innovations by small companies.
The criss-cross sowing + herbicides + hand weeding In the Philippines, as in many Asian countries, the
once gave from 71 to 76, from 18 to 19, from 14 to 15 and only option is to buy expensive imported combine. There
from 1 to 3 percent higher output energy as compared were many attempts in the past to introduce imported
with unweeded, criss-cross sowing + hand weeding once, combine harvesters in the Philippines. However, the
hand weeding twice and herbicides + hand weeding once, imported models were mostly confined to field trials
respectively. The net return energy, among five treatment, because of their size vis-á-vis small paddy sizes, heavy
was found to be significantly high in treatment criss-cross weight that causes bogging down in wet soft fields during
sowing + herbicides + hand weeding one (i.e. 71,583.9 the wet season, sophisticated mechanisms that are dif-
MJ/ha) was the statistically at par with herbicides + hand ficult to repair or replace locally, and high investment and
weeding one (i.e. 701,128.2 MJ/ha) which were signifi- maintenance costs. In Vietnam, attempts by government
cantly higher than other treatments. This was followed agencies and field mechanics to introduce and develop
by hand weeding twice (i.e. 58,168.6 MJ/ha) which was smaller models were similarly saddled by problems of
non-significant higher than criss-cross sowing + hand heavy weight (>1 ton machine weight), reliability (local
weeding once (i.e. 54,473.9 MJ ha). The net return energy prototypes operated only for 1 h before breakdown), and
in criss-cross sowing + herbicides + hand weeding once difficulty of the machine to handle lodged crops.
was found from 89 to 96 percent higher than unweeding,
from 23 to 25 percent higher than criss-cross sowing + 526
hand weeding once, from 18 to 20 percent higher than Studies on Hardened Hoof Shoes for Bullocks in Udai-
hand weeding twice and 3 percent higher than herbicides pur and Jaipur Regions of Rajasthan: G.S.Tiwari, Depart-
+ hand weeding once. ment of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, College
of Technology and Engineering, Maharana Pratap Univer-
516 sity of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, Rajasthan,
The Philrice-B&S Minicombine Harvester (Tests and India, Rajeev Garg, same, H.Shrimali, same, R.N.Verma,
Improvements in the Philippines and Vietnam): Eulito U. same
Bautista, Scientist III, Phil. Rice Research Institute, Munoz A survey was conducted in the Udaipur and Jaipur re-
3119, Nueva Ecija, Philippines, Phan Hieu Hien, Director, gions of Rajasthan to collect the information regarding
Center for Agricultural Energy and Machinery, Nong-Lam hoof shoes. According to the design of locally manufac-
University, HoChi Minh City, Vietnam, Alfred Schmidley, tured hoof shoes, shoes of different sizes and weight were
Director, Business Development-Asia, Briggs & Stratton In- got fabricated and hardened by different hardening pro-
ternational East Asia Corporation, Shanghai, China cess. Hoof shoes hardened with powder coating and weld
Rice harvesting and related operations remain as labo- deposition were shoed in the bullocks used for transpor-
rious and time consuming tasks in most Asian countries tation purpose. The life of hardened hoof shoes was com-
mainly because they are still manually done. Although pared with the locally available traditional hoof shoes.
rice threshers have been introduced to reduce the time The powder coated hoof shoes lasted longer as compared
and labor on the system, harvesting and gathering of to weld deposited and traditional hoof shoes.
harvested stalks remain as drudging and laborious tasks.
Small walking-type reapers have also been introduced 531
with limited success since the reaper still relies on man- Evaluation and Standardization of Paddy Threshing
ual labor for gathering before feeding the stalks into a Techniques: Syed Zameer Hussain, Department of Agr.
thresher. Some Asian countries have benefited on reapers Engg. KITE Polytechnic Kashmir, India, Junaid Khan, Divi-
but many countries do not see this as a permanent solu- sion of Agr. Engg., Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricul-
tion. tural Sciences and Technology-Kashmir, India
The combine harvester presents a highly feasible and In some parts of India and particularly in Jammu and
efficient alternative to manual system or reaper harvest- Kashmir State the paddy is threshed in a traditional way
ing as it allows quick turnaround time between the first of beating bundles of paddy against drum or wooden
and second crop, more efficient field handling of paddy logs, which is very tedious, laborious and time consum-
output (less losses, time, and labor), as well as cheaper ing. Thus, the study which aim to document and to study
harvesting cost and better paddy quality (no exposure the various methods of threshing namely power operated
to field elements over time). In Malaysia, reconditioned paddy thresher (T1), handle operated paddy thresher (T2),
pedal operated paddy thresher (T3) and traditional beat- efficiency.
ing method (T4) reveals that the mean threshing capacity
of power operated paddy thresher (T1) (375.25 kg/h) was 556
highest and significantly different from all other methods A Study on Speed of Work and Output during Sus-
when assessed at 5 % level of signficance. Lowest mean tained Working of Mules: R.L. Srivastava, Animal Scientist
threshing capacity (193 kg/h) was observed in traditional (S. Gr.), AICRP on Animal Energy, College of Agricultural En-
method of threshing (T4). When the increase in moisture gineering, Farm Machinery & Power Engineering Depart-
content of grains, the threshing capacity was found to ment, Allahabad Agricultural Institute, Deemed University,
decrease. Further the combination of power operated Allahabad-211007, India, A.K.A. Lawrence, Principal Investi-
paddy thresher at M1 moisture level (11.6 %) showed sig- gator, same, Shibbu Mathew, Sr. Technical Assistant, same
nificantly high threshing capacity (400.5 kg/h). The un- Study was carried with two mules. It was found that
threshed grain percentage which is desirable to be low speed of work was between 3.600 kmph to 4.390 kmph
was recorded to be minimum in traditional method (T4) on 20 %, 25 % and 27 % draft load. Working speed of
and hence greater grain recovery. The variation in thresh- mule reduced with the increase in duration of work and
ing efficiency on changing grain moisture was found to draft level during winter, hot-humid and summer season.
be least. Although, highest threshing efficiency of 99.95 Power output of mule increase with increase in draft load
% was recorded in traditional method (T4) and lowest between 0.648 kw to 0.981 kw but it was decreased with
(93.08 %) when threshing was done by handle operated decrease in working speed of mule and also with increase
paddy thresher (T2). Further the data clearly indicates that in duration of work in winter, hot-humid and summer
all the threshing methods with the exception of power op- season.
erated paddy thresher were at par with respect to cleaning ■■
Book Review
Small Manufacturer’s Toolkit companying Six Sigma, as well as the Handbook of Supply Chain
aspects of the Theory of Constrains that Management 2nd Edition
Author(s): may cause confusion and prevent imple-
Stephen Novak - PPR Management mentation. Author(s):
Services LLC, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA The book reviews many of the most James B. Ayers - CGR Management
Detailed Description: popular quality tools and quality man- Consultants, Playa del Rey, California,
Small manufactures often lack the re- agement systems, fostering an under- USA
sources and expertise needed to choose standing of what should be the foun- Detailed Description:
the management philosophies and pro- dation of any organization. The text Supply chain management (SCM) dis-
cess improvement techniques that could also explores project management, and ciplines have produced a flood of new
provide the most benefit to their bottom examines the requirements surround- concepts, methods, and tools; if applied
line. Sorting through all of the avail- ing the implementation and use of ERP wisely, they will improve results. A re-
able tools and deciding which ones to systems. It emphasizes awareness and source that weeds out and consolidates
adopt can be overwhelming. The small application of Supply Chain Manage- this new information will lower the
Manufacturer’s Toolkit: A Guide to Se- ment techniques, and covers productive business risk of implementing change.
lecting the Techniques and Systems to E-Commerce related applications. The Interpreting models and viewpoints
Help You Win guides you through the book concludes by providing a diagnos- from many fields into a supply chain
philosophies that are constantly being tic tool that helps you determine which context, Handbook of Supply Chain
promoted, enabling you make informed tools, or aspects of tools, are valid for Management, Second Edition recom-
choices. your organization. mends a plan for acting on these in-
Following an introductory chapter, the UK Pond Price: 44.99 sights, reducing confusion and making
author addresses fundamental inventory Published by: the work of supply chain managers both
management and planning tools, includ- Auerbach Publications (Taylor & Fran- faster and more on target with the needs
ing the Sales Operations Planning pro- cis Group) of their companies.
cess that bridges the high-level strategic 6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW, This volume introduces or emphasizes
plan and the midrange master produc- Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA the supply chain management topics that
tion schedule. The book then discusses have grown in visibility or prominence
Lean Manufacturing and the often ac- since the publication of the first edition.
These include: driver of supply chain approach, Maintainability, Maintenance, estimate and then as a measurement of
change; project management approaches and Reliability for Engineers distills reliability, most books on reliability and
for executing supply chain change; knowledge specific to each discipline quality relegate the topic of warranties
globalization and supply chains; the im- into one comprehensive resource. to a single chapter. Today’s engineering
portance of spheres (businesses within After reviewing the history of art student needs an integrated view that
a business) in designing supply chain; three fields and their interrelationships, considers aft aspects that contribute to
the contribution of backbone/enabling the book covers mathematical concepts overall quality along with methods to
process within an organization; and the such as Boolean algebra Laws, probabil- analyze, predict, measure, and improve
“lean” and six sigma movements and ity properties, mathematical definitions, each component.
their implications for SCM. and probability distributions. It includes Reliability and Warranties: Methods
Divided into four parts, this volume reliability evaluation methods such as for Product Development and Quality
begins by providing an overview that fault tree analysis, network reduction Improvement provides this unified treat-
traces the evolution of concepts that method, delta-method, Markov method, ment along with illustrative examples,
define SCM. It then establishes the role supplementary variables method, and end-of-chapter problems, and back-
of SCM in improving operations and the reliability management, both mechani- ground material. Based on the author’s
ability of businesses to compete. cal and human. Highlihting maintain- distinguished experience as a practicing
Section II confronts management with ibility tools and functions, the author engineer and educator, this text supplies
“The Supply Chain Challenge,” made up discusses topics in maintainibilit y students with a modem education in
of five tasks that enable management to management and costing including tasks quality engineering and the skills and
find solutions to problems and generate during product life cycle, program knowledge necessary to succeed in the
ideas for implementing a supply chain plan, organization functions, design real world. It begins with preliminary
improvement project. reviews, life cycle costing, investment results for dealing with failures followed
Section III describes how to perform cost elements, and life cycle cost estima- by the modern definition and view of
critical supply chain improvement tasks, tion models. The author also includes quality, various types and models for
including activities that create a plan as coverage of maintenance engineering, warranties, quality improvement, and
well as tasks needed to implement the focusing on safety, quality, corrective, perspective for achieving reliability and
plan. and preventive maintenance. The book quality goals. It also includes a unique
The book concludes with chapters de- concludes with coverage of maintenance framework for measuring and tracking
voted to case studies; each adds reality management costing and human error in overall quality performance.
to theoretical frameworks. They illus- engineering maintenance and contains Ideal for senior undergraduate and
trate successful and not-so-successful 60 illustrations, 16 tables, and more than f irst-year graduate students taking
endeavors across the supply chain spec- 200 equations. courses on quality, reliability, or indus-
trum. There is a definite need to consid- trial engineering, Reliability and War-
UK Pond Price: 44.99 ermaintainibility, maintenance, and ranties presents a practical, thoroughly
Published by: reliability during product/system design integrated path to meeting both engi-
Auerbach Publications (Taylor & Fran- and other phases. To achieve this goal neering and customer quality goals.
cis Group) effectively, it is absolutely imperative to UK Pond Price: 39.99
6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW, have a certain degree of understanding Published by:
Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA of each of these disciplines. Although Taylor & Francis Group
many books cover one or two of these 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY
topics, this is the first to cover all three 10016, USA
Maintainability Maintenance in a manner useful to engineering pro-
Reliability Engineers fessionals.
UK Pond Price: 56.99 Soil Erosion and Carbon Dy-
Author(s): Published by: namics
Dr. B.S. Dhillon - University of Ot- Taylor & Francis Group
tawa, Ontario, Canada 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY Author(s):
Detailed Description: 10016, USA Dr. Eric J. Roose - Laboratoire MOST
The demands of the global economy LRD-CIRAD, Montpellier, France
requi re ma nufact u rers to produce Dr. Rattan Lal - Ohio State University,
highly reliable and easily maintainable Reliability and Warranties Columbus, USA
engineering products. Recent studies in- Dr. Christian Fetter - IRD - Labora-
dicate that for many large and sophisti- Author(s): toire MOST, MontpeIIier, France
cated products or systems, maintenance, Prof. Marlin U. Thomas - Air Force In- Bernard Barthes - IRD, Montepellier,
and support account for as much as 60 stitute of Technology, Wright-Patterson France
to 75 percent of their life cycle costs. AFB Bobby A. Stewart - University of West
Therefore, the role of maintainability, Detailed Description: Texas A&M University, Texas, USA
maintenance, and reliability has become Our modern view of quality is a mul- Detailed Description:
increasingly significant. Satisfying the tifaceted conglomeration of probabil- In addition to depleting nutrients nec-
pressing need for a volume that address- ity, planning, and perception. Although essary for healthy crops, soil erosion
es these subjects with an interdiscilinary warranties are important first as an processes can affect the carbon balance
of agroecosystems, and thus influence sity. Columbus, USA Detailed Description:
global warming. While the magnitude Detailed Description: This handbook offers effective strate-
and severity of soil erosion are well In order to feed their burgeoning popu- gies to modify and adjust crop produc-
documented, fluxes of eroded carbon are lations, developing nations will need tion processes to decrease the toxicity
rarely quantified. The most complete, to double cereal production by the year of soil contaminants, balance soil pH,
nonpartisan source of information avail- 2050. This increase will have to come improve root growth and nutrient up-
able today on this topic, Soil Erosion from existing land, as little potential take, and increase agricultural yield.
and Carbon Dynamics brings together exists for bringing new land under cul- The Handbook of Soil Acidity provides
a diverse group of papers and data from tivation - a daunting prospect when one methods to, measure soil acidity, deter-
the perspectives of world-renowned realizes that increased use and signifi- mine the major causes of soil acidifica-
sedimentologists, soil scientists, and cantly higher concentrations of carbon tion, calculate acidification rates for spe-
agronomists to resolve whether soil ero- dioxide have led to a severe depletion of cific crop sequences, identify high-risk
sion on carbon is a beneficial or destruc- the carbon pool in the world’s soils. This areas for soil acidification, and model
tive process. is especially telling in developing coun- acidification phenomena. This is an es-
This book collects quantitative data tries where tropical climates further sential resource for plant, crop, soil, and
on eroded carbon fluxes from the scale compromise the soil’s ability to recover. environmental scientists, plant and crop
of the agricultural plot to that of large In Climate Change and Global Food physiologists, botanists, agronomists,
basins and oceans. It quantifies the mag- Security, bestselling editor Rattan Lal agriculturists, and upper-level under-
nitude of eroded carbon for different heads up a team of the world’s top soil graduate, graduate, and continuing-
soil management practices as compared scientists and ecologists to document the education students in these disciplines.
to normal carbon sequestration and history of this impending agricultural UK Pond Price: 125.00
discusses the fate of the eroded carbon crisis and explore possible solutions. Published by:
and whether or not it is a source or sink Throughout this timely text, the authors Mercel Dekker, Inc.
for atmospheric CO2. Finally, the book address six complex themes: 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY
offers data reflecting the impact of soil 1. The impact of projected climate 10016, USA
erosion on soil, water, and air quality. change on soil quality, water resources,
Other important topics include solubili- temperature regime, and growing season
zation, the determination of mineraliza- duration on net primary productivity of Disassembly Modeling for As-
tion rates, carbon transfer, and sediment different biomes sembly, Maintenance, Reuse,
deposition, as well as carbon dioxide 2. Soil carbon dynamics under chang- and Recycling
emissions, global warming potential, ing climate
and the implications of soil erosion on 3. The impact of changes in carbon Author(s):
the global carbon cycle and carbon bud- dioxide and ecological environments on A. J. D. Lambert - Technische Univer-
get. agronomic yields and food production in siteit Einhoven, The Netherlands
Based on the first symposium of the different regions of the world Dr. Surendra M. Gupta - Northeastern
international coIIoquium Land Uses, 4. World food demands and supply University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
Erosion and Carbon Sequestration held during the 21st century Detailed Description:
in Montpellier, France, Soil Erosion and 5. Policy and economic issues related Industry has grown to recognize the
Carbon Dynamics provides data that to carbon trading and enhancing agri- value of disassembly processes across a
links soil erosion to the global carbon cultural production wide range of products. Increasing leg-
cycle and elucidates the fate of eroded 6. Research and development priorities islation that may soon require manda-
carbon at scales ranging from plot to for enhancing soil carbon pool and food tory recycling of many post-consumed
watershed. security goods and a desire to develop more
UK Pond Price: 74.99 This hard-hitting text is essential read- environmentally benign end-of-life
Published by: ing for anyone involved with soil and processes has fueled research into this
Taylor & Francis Group crop sciences as well as policy makers concept. Traditionally, disassembly has
270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY and change agents who need to come to been viewed as the reverse of assembly;
10016, USA the forefront of this issue armed with the however, a novel view considers just the
latest information and viable solutions. opposite, leading to a more optimized
UK Pond Price: 79.99 disassembly process.
Climate Change and Global Published by: Disassembly Modeling for Assembly,
Food Security Taylor & Francis Group Maintenance, Reuse, and Recycling
270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY presents this approach in the context of
Author(s): 10016, USA the entire product life cycle. The book
Dr. Rattan Lal - Ohio State University, examines disassembly on the intermedi-
Columbus, USA ate level, incorporating design for disas-
Norman Uphoff - Cornell University, Handbook of Soil Acidity sembly, concurrent design, and reverse
Ithaca, New York, USA logistics. In this first text to supply a
Bobby A. Stewart - University of West Author(s): comprehensive discussion of the theories
Texas A&M University, Texas, USA Zdenko Rengel - University of WA, and methodologies associated with this
David O. Hansen - Ohio State Univer- Australia approach, the authors incorporate real
world case examples to explore the three wide variety of procedures for human- Rotordynamics
main areas of application of the theory: oriented research and development. Ap-
assembly optimization, maintenance plication demonstrates how to put the Author(s):
and repair, and end-of-life processing. results to use. Dr. Agnieszka Muszynska - A.M.
This is a timely resource for compa- UK Pond Price: 62.99 Consulting, Minden, Nevada, USA
nies that wish to enact environmentally Published by: Detailed Description:
conscious systems efficiently. With an CRC Press As the most important parts of rotat-
analysis of associated costs, system de- 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Ra- ing machinery, rotors are also the most
sign requirements, advantages, and ex- ton, Florida 33431, USA prone to mechanical vibrations, which
pected results, this is also an indispens- may lead to machine failure. Correc-
able tool for researchers, mechanical and tion is only possible when proper and
industrial engineers, and professionals Vibration and Shock Handbook accurate diagnosis is obtained through
involved in concurrent design. understanding of rotor operation and all
UK Pond Price: 48.99 Author(s): of the potential malfunctions that may
Published by: Dr. Clarence W. de Silva - University occur. Mathematical modeling, in par-
CRC Press of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada ticular modal modeling, is key to under-
2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Ra- Detailed Description: standing observed phenomena through
ton, Florida 33431, USA Every so often, a reference book ap- measured data and for predicting and
pears that stands apart from all others, preventing failure.
destined to become the definitive work Rotordynamics advances simple yet
Human Factors methods for De- in its field. The Vibration and Shock adequate models of rotordynamic prob-
sign: Making Systems Human- Handbook is just such a reference. From lems and phenomena related to rotor op-
Centered its ambitious scope to its impressive list eration in its environment. Based on Dr.
of contributors, this handbook delivers Muszy(n’)ska’s extensive work at Bently
Author(s): all of the techniques, tools, instrumenta- Rotor Dynamics Research Corpora-
Dr. Christopher P. Nemeth - Consul- tion, and data needed to model, analyze, tion, world renowned for innovative and
tant, Evanston, Illinois, USA monitor, modify, and control vibration, groundbreaking experiments in the field,
Detailed Description: shock, noise, and acoustics. this book provides realistic models,
There is no shortage of available hu- Providing convenient, thorough, up- step-by-step experimental methods, and
man factors information, but until now to-date, and authoritative coverage, the the principles of vibration monitoring
there was no single guide on how to use editor summarizes important and com- and practical malfunction diagnostics of
this information. Human Factors Meth- plex concepts and results into “snapshot” rotating machinery. It covers extended
ods for Design: Making Systems Hu- windows to make quick access to this rotor models, rotor/f luid-related phe-
man-Centered is an in-depth field guide critical information even easier. The nomena, rotor-to-stationary part rub-
to solving human factors challenges in Handbook’s nine sections encompass: bing, and other related problems such as
the development process. It provides fundamentals and analytical techniques; nonsynchronous perturbation testing.
design and human factors professionals, computer techniques, tools, and signal The author also illustrates practical di-
systems engineers, and research and analysis; shock and vibration method- agnoses of several possible malfunctions
development managers with the orienta- ologies; instrumentation and testing; vi- and emphasizes correct interpretation of
tion, process, and methods to perform bration suppression, damping, and con- computer-generated numerical results.
human-centered research. trol; monitoring and diagnosis; seismic Rotordynamics is the preeminent guide
The book delivers an overview of vibration and related regulatory issues; to rotordynamic theory and practice. It
human factors and the application of system design, application, and control is the most valuable tool available for
research to product and service devel- implementation; and acoustics and noise anyone working on modeling rotating
opment. It enables the reader to define suppression. The book also features an machinery at the machine design stage
a design opportunity, develop product extensive glossary and convenient cross- or performing further analytical and ex-
goals, and establish criteria to meet referencing, plus references at the end of perimental research on rotating machine
those goals. The text offers a road map each chapter. dynamics.
for correcting and analyzing human Brimming with illustrations, equa- UK Pond Price: 97.00
performance information, applying that tions, examples, and case studies, the Published by:
information to the creation of solutions, Vibration and Shock Handbook is the Taylor & Francis Group
and using the information to evaluate most extensive, practical, and compre- 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY
potential solutions. hensive reference in the field. It is a 10016, USA
The book demonstrates, in three sec- must-have for anyone, beginner or ex-
tions, a way to design products that pert, who is serious about investigating
extend, amplify, and enhance human and controlling vibration and acoustics. Standard Handbook of Chains:
capabilities. Human Factors Practice UK Pond Price: 99.00 Chains for Power Transmission
explains research context including the Published by: and Material Handling
operational environment and internal Taylor & Francis Group
and external inf luences. Human Fac- 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY Author(s):
tors Methods explains how to perform a 10016, USA American Chain Association - Naples,
Florida, USA of damage behavior in order to produce dem applications of this burgeoning
Detailed Description: a safe and effective design. Damage field.
Since its founding, the American Mechanics presents the underlying From underlying concepts to practical
Chain Association (ACA) has set the principles of continuum damage me- applications, this book outlines all the
standard of excellence in developing the chanics along with the latest research. necessary information to plan, design,
chain industry and enhancing the benefit The authors consider both isotropic and and implement wireless instrumentation
to customers. The first edition of Chains anisotropic theories as well as elastic and sensor networks effectively and ef-
for Power Transmission and Material and elasto-plastic damage analyses us- ficiently. The author covers the basics of
Handling served as the keystone refer- ing a self-contained, easily understood instruments, measurement, sensor tech-
ence to the field for more than twenty approach. nology, communication systems, and
years. Fully updated with the Latest de- Beginning with the requisite math- networks along with the theory, meth-
velopments, the Standard Handbook of ematics, Damage Mechanics guides ods, and components involved in digital
Chains: Chains for Power Transmission you from the very basic concepts to and wireless instruments. Placing these
and Material Handling, Second Edition advanced mathematical and mechanical technologies in context, the book also
continues to build upon the more than models. The first chapter offers a brief examines the principles, components,
100 years of research and practical ex- MAPLE® tutorial and supplies all of the and techniques of modem communi-
perience developed by the ACA. MAPLE commands needed to solve the cation systems followed by network
This hands-on reference provides various problems throughout the chap- standards, protocols, topologies, and
up-to-date guidance on the selection, ter. The authors then discuss the basics security.
design, utilization, and maintenance of elasticity theory within the continuum Building on these discussions, the
of various types of chains. It authorita- mechanics framework, the simple case book uses examples to illustrate the
tively covers the use of chains in various of isotropic damage, effective stress, practical aspects of constructing sensors
application environments, terminology, damage evolution, kinematic descrip- and instruments. Finally, the author de-
safety procedures, and the history of tion of damage, and the general case of votes the closing chapter to applications
chains. The book features consistent anisotropic damage. The remainder of in a broad array of fields, including com-
selection guidelines to ensure a proper the book includes a review of plasticity mercial, human health, and consumer
choice of chain every time. Updates in- theory, formulation of a coupled elasto- products applications.
clude new information on chain design plastic damage theory developed by the Fined with up-to-date information
considerations, power ratings for roller authors, and the kinematics of damage and thorough coverage of fundamen-
and silent chains, and selecting drives for finite-strain elasto-plastic solids. tals, Wireless Sensors and Instruments:
with a life other than 15,000 hours. This From fundamental concepts to the lat- Networks, Design, and Applications
edition includes an entirety new chapter est advances, this book contains every- supplies critical, hands-on tools for ef-
on flat-top chain conveyors. thing that you need to study the damage ficiently, effectively, and immediately
Including many helpful illustrations mechanics of metals and homogeneous implementing advanced wireless sys-
and a comprehensive troubleshooting materials. tems.
table, the Standard Handbook of Chains: UK Pond Price: 49.99 UK Pond Price: 74.99
Chains for Power Transmission and Ma- Published by: Published by:
terial Handling, Second Edition is the Taylor & Francis Group Taylor & Francis Group
definitive handbook for anyone involved 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY
in the design, selection, use, and mainte- 10016, USA 10016, USA
nance of all types of chains. ■■
UK Pond Price: 79.99
Published by: Wireless Sensor and Instru-
Taylor & Francis Group ments: Networks, Design, and
270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY Applications
10016, USA
Author(s):
Dr. Halit Eren - Curtin University of
Damage Mechanics Technology, Bentley, Western Australia
Detailed Description:
Author(s): Advances such as 3-G mobile com-
Prof. George Z. Voyiadjis - Louisiana munications networks demonstrate the
State University, Baton Rouge, USA increasing capability of high-quality
Prof. Peter I. Kattan - Louisiana State data transmission over wireless media.
University, Baton Rouge, USA Adapting wireless functionality into
Detailed Description: Instrument and sensor systems endows
Before a Structure or component can them with unmatched flexibility, robust-
be completed, before any analytical ness, and intelligence. Wireless Sensors
model can be constructed, and even be- and Instruments: Networks, Design, and
fore the design can be formulated, you Applications explains the principles,
must have a fundamental understanding state-of-the-art technologies, and mo-
Co-operating Editors
B Kayombo M F Fonteh AAK AM B S Pathak R J Bani I K Djokoto D K Some K Houmy J C Igbeka

El Behery El Hossary
E U-Odigboh K C Oni NG AH A B Saeed A I Khatibu E A Baryeh S Tembo HA I de A Nääs

Kuyembeh Abdoun Cetrangolo
-AFRICA- Joseph Chukwugotium Igbeka eral, ARGENTINA

Professor, Dept. of Agricultural Engineering, Univ. TEL+54-11-4524-8041/93, FAX+54-11-4514-8737/39
Benedict Kayombo of Ibadan,, Ibadan, NIGERIA E-mail: [email protected]
Associate Professor of Soil and Water Engineering, TEL+234-2-8101100-4, FAX+234-281030118
Dept. of Agric. Engineering and Land Planning, E-mail: [email protected] Irenilza de Alencar Nääs
Botswana College of Agriculture, University of Bo- Professor, Agricultural Engineering College, UNI-
tswana, Private Bag 0027, Gaborone, BOTSWANA. E.U, Odigboh CAMP, Agricultural Construction Dept.,P.O. Box
TEL(+267)-3650125, FAX(+267)-328753 Professor, Agricultural Engg Dept., Faculty of En- 6011, 13081 -Campinas- S.P.,BRAZIL
E-mail: [email protected] gineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu TEL+55-19-7881039, FAX+55-19-7881010
state, NIGERIA, TEL+234-042-771676, FAX042- E-mail: [email protected]
Mathias Fru Fonteh 770644/771550, E-mail: [email protected]
Asst. Professor and Head, Dept. of Agric. Engineer- A.E. Ghaly
ing, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Dschang, Kayode C. Oni Professor, Biological Engineering Deparment
P.O. Box 447, Dschang, West Province, CAMEROON Director/Chief Executive, National Centre for Agric. Dalhousie University, P.O. Box 1000, Halifax, Nova
TEL+237-45-1701/1994, FAX+237-45-2173/1932 Mechanization (NCAM), P.M.B.1525, Ilorin, Kwara Scotia, B3J2X4, CANADA
E-mail: [email protected] State, NIGERIA TEL+1-902-494-6014, FAX+1-902-423-2423
TEL+234-031-224831, FAX+234-031-226257 E-mail: [email protected]
Ahmed Abdel Khalek El Behery E-mail: [email protected]
Agric Engineering Research Institute, Agricultural Edmundo J. Hetz
Reserch Center, Nadi El-Said St. P.O. Box 256, Dokki N.G. Kuyembeh Professor, Dept. of Agric. Eng. Univ. of Concepcion,
12311, Giza, EGYPT Associate Professor, Njala University Colle, Univer- Av. V.Mendez 595, P.O. Box 537, Chillan, CHILE
sity of Sierra Leone, Private Mail Bag, Free Town, TEL+56-42-216333, FAX+56-42-275303
Ali Mahmoud El Hossary SIERRA LEONE E-mail: [email protected]
Senior Advisor to the Ministry of Agriculture and TEL+249-778620-780045, FAX+249-11-771779
Chairman of (AGES)-Agengineering Consulting A.A. Valenzuela
Group, Ministry of Agriculture - P.O.Box 195 Zama- Abdien Hassan Abdoun Emeritus Professor, Ag. Eng. Fac., University of
lek 11211 Cairo, EGYPT Member of Board, Amin Enterprises Ltd., P.O. Box Concepcion,Casilla537Chillan, CHILE
TEL00-202-335-9304, FAX00-202-3494-132 1333, Khartoum, SUDAN TEL+56-42-223613, FAX+56-42-221167
B.S. Pathak Amir Bakheit Saeed Roberto Aguirre

Assoc. Professor, Dept. of Agric. Engineering, Fac- Associate Professor, National University of Colom-
Project Manager, Agric. Implements Research and
ulty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum, 310131 bia, A.A. 237, Palmira, COLOMBIA
Improvement Centre, Melkassa, ETHIOPIA
Shambat, SUDAN, TEL+249-11-310131 TEL+57-572-2717000, FAX+57-572-2714235
Richard Jinks Bani Abdisalam I. Khatibu E-mail: [email protected]
Lecturer & Co-ordinator, Agric. Engineering Div., National Prolect Coordinafor and Direcror, FAO Ir-
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ghana, Legon, rigated Rice Production, Zanzibar, TANZANIA
Omar Ulloa-Torres
GHANA Professor, Escuela de Agricultura de la Region,
Edward A. Baryeh Tropical Humeda(EARTH), Apdo. 4442- 1000,
Israel Kofi Djokoto Professor, Africa University, P.O.Box 1320, Mutare, San Jose, COSTA RICA, TEL+506-255-2000, FAX
Senior Lecturer, University of Science and Technol- ZIMBABWE +506-255-2726, E-mail: [email protected]
ogy, Kumasi, GHANA
Solomon Tembo S.G. Campos Magana
David Kimutaiarap Some 52 Goodrington Drive, PO Mabelreign,Sunridge, Leader of Agric. Engineering Dept. of the Gulf of
Professor, Deputy Vice-chancellor. Moi University, Harare, ZIMBABWE Mexico Region of the National Institute of Forestry
P.O. Box: 2405, Eldoret, KENYA and Agricultural Research, Apdo. Postal 429. Vera-
cruz, Ver. MEXICO
Karim Houmy -AMERICAS-
Professor and head of the Farm Mechanization Hipolito Ortiz-Laurel
Dept., Institute of Agronomy and Velerinary Medi- Hugo Alfredo Cetrangolo Head of Agric. Engineering and Mechanization
cine II, Secteur 13 Immeuble 2 Hay Riad, Rabat, Full Professor and Director of Food and Agribusi- Dept./ Postgraduate College, Iturbide 73, Salinas
MOROCCO, Tel+212-7-68-05-12, Fax+212-7-775801 ness Program Agronomy College Buenos Aires de Hgo, S.L.P., C.P. 78600, MEXICO
E-mail: [email protected] University, Av. San Martin4453, (1417) Capital Fed- TEL+52-496-30448, FAX+52-496-30240
A E Ghaly E J Hetz AA R Aguirre O Ulloa-Torres SGC H Ortiz-Laurel WJ M R Goyal AK

Valenzuela Magana Chancellor Mahapatra
G R Quick S M Farouk Daoulat M A Mazed M Gurung Wang S Illangantileke S M Ilyas A M Michael G Singh
Hussain Wanjun
T P Ojha S R Verma Soedjatmiko M Behroozi- Saeid J Sakai B A Snorbar C J Chung C C Lee MZ

Lar Minaei Bardaie
William J. Chancellor Asia, International Potato Center (CIP), Re- Bassam A. Snobar
Professor Emeritus, Bio. and Agr. Eng. Dept., Univ. gional Office for CIP-South & West Asia, IARI Professor and Vice President, Jordan University of
of California, Davis, CA, 95616, U.S.A. (Indian Agric. Res. Institute) Campus, Pusa, Science and Technology, P.O.Box 3030 Irbid, 22110,
TEL+1-530-753-4292, FAX+1-530-752-2640 New Delhe-12, 110002, INDIA JORDAN, TEL+962-2-295111, FAX+962-2-295123
E-mail: [email protected] TEL+91-11-5719601/5731481, FAX./5731481 E-mail: [email protected]
E-mail: [email protected]
Megh R. Goyal Chang Joo Chung
Prof./Agric & Biomedical Engineering, Univer- S.M. Ilyas Emeritus Professor, Seoul National University, Ag-
sity of Puerto Rico, P.O.Box 5984, Mayaguez PR, Director of Central Institute of Post Harvest Engi- ricutural Engineering Department, College of Agri-
006815984, U.S.A., TEL+1-787-265-4702 neering and Technology (CIPHET), Ludhiana. P.O., culture and Life Sciences, Suwon, 441-744, KOREA
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Ajit K. Mahapatra
Present add: Agric. & Biosystems Eng. Dept., A.M. Michael Chul Choo Lee
South Dakota State Univ., P.O. Box2120 Brook- 1/64, Vattekunnam, Methanam Road, Edappally Mailing Address: Rm. 514 Hyundate Goldentel Bld.
ings, SD 57007-1496, U.S.A., TEL605-6885291, FAX North P.O., Cochin, 682024, Kerala State, S. INDIA 76-3 Kwang Jin Ku,Seoul, KOREA
605-6886764, E-mail: [email protected] TEL+82-(0)2-446-3473, FAX+82-(0)2-446-3473
Gajendra Singh E-mail: [email protected]
Professor, AFE Program, Asian Institute of Technol-
-ASIA and OCEANIA- ogy, P.O. Box 4, Klongluang, Pathumthani 12120,
Muhamad Zohadie Bardaie
THAILAND
Professor and Deputy Vice Chancellor (Develop-
Graeme R. Quick ment Affairs), Chancellory, Universiti Putra Malay-
Consulting Enginner, 83 Morrisons Road, Peaches- T.P. Ojha
Director General(Engg.) Retd., ICAR, 110, Vineet sia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Darul Ehsan,
ter, Queensland, 4519, AUSTRALIA MALAYSIA
Kung Akbarpur, Kolar Road, Bhopal, 462 023, INDIA
Shah M. Farouk TEL+91-755-290045 TEL+60-3-9486053, FAX3-9426471
Email: [email protected]
Professor (Retd.),Farm Power & Machinery Dept.,
Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh S.R. Verma
2200, BANGLADESH Prof. of Agr. Eng, & Dean Eng.(Retd), 14, Good Madan P. Pariyar
Friends Colony, Barewal Road , Via Ayoli Kalan, Lud- Consultant, Rural Development through Selfhelp
TEL+880-91-5695ext.2596, FAX91-55810
hiana 142027 Punjab, INDIA, TEL+91-(0)161-463096 Promotion Lamjung Project, German Technical
E-mail: [email protected]
E-mail: [email protected] Cooperation. P.O. Box 1457, Kathmandu, NEPAL
Daulat Hussain
Dean, Faculty of Agric. Engineering and Tech- Soedjatmiko David Boakye Ampratwum
nology, Bangladesh Agricultural University, My- President, MMAI(Indonesian Soc. of Agric. Eng. & Associate Professor, Dept.of Bioresource and Agri-
mensingh-2202, BANGLADESH Agroindustry), Menara Kadin Indonesia Lt.29 Jl. HR. cultural Engineering, College of Agriculture, Sultan
TEL+880-91-52245, FAX91-55810 Rasuna Said X-5/2-3 Jakarta, 12940, INDONESIA Qaboos University, P.O. Box 34, Post Code 123,
E-mail: [email protected] TEL+62-(0)21-9168137/7560544, FAX(0)21-527448 Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, OMAN
5/5274486/7561109 TEL+968-513866, FAX513866
Mohammed A. Mazed E-mail: [email protected]
Member-Director, Bangladesh Agri. Res. Council, Mansoor Behroozi-Lar
Farmgate, Dhaka, BANGLADESH Professor, Agr. Machinery, Ph.D, Tehran University EITag Seif Eldin
E-mail: [email protected] Faculty of Agriculture, Karaj, IRAN Mailling Address: Dept. of Agric. Mechanization,
TEL+98-21-8259240, E-mail: [email protected] College of Agriculture, P.O. Box 32484, Al-Khod,
Manbahadur Gurung Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Sultanate of
Store Officer, Bhutan Fruit Products Limited, Sam- Saeid Minaei Oman, OMAN
tse, BHUTAN, TEL+975-65369 Assistant Professor, Dept. of Agr. Machinery Eng.,
Tarbiat Modarres Univ., P.O.Box 14115-111, Tehran, Linus U. Opera
Wang Wanjun IRAN Associate Professor, Agricultural Engineering &
Past Vice Director and Chief Engineer/Chinese TEL+9821-6026522-3(office ext.2060, lab ext.2168) Postharvest technology, Director, Agricultural
Academy of Agricultural Mechanization Sciences, FAX+9821-6026524, E-mail: [email protected] Experiment Station, Sultan Qaboos University,
1 Beishatan, Beijing, 100083, CHINA Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, OMAN
TEL+86-(0)83-001-6488-2710, FAX001-6488-2710 Jun Sakai
E-mail: [email protected] Professor Emeritus, Kyushu University, 2-31-1 Chi- Allah Ditta Chaudhry
haya, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka city, 813, JAPAN Professor and Dean Faculty of Agric. Engineering
Sarath Illangantileke TEL+81-92-672-2929, FAX+81-92-672-2929 and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisala-
Regional Representative for South and West E-mail: [email protected] bad, PAKISTAN
M P Pariyar DB E S Eldin L U Opera AD A Q Mughal R ur Rehmen BT NA Surya Nath

Ampratwum Chaudhry Devrajani Abu-Khalaf
R M Lantin RP SA AMS S F Chang T S Peng S Krishnasreni S Phong- C Rojanasaroj V M Salokhe
Venturina Al-Suhaibani Al-Amri supasamit
,
Y Pinar I Haffar N Hay P V Lang A A Hazza a AP P Kic H Have G Pellizzi AA
Kaloyanov Wanders
A.Q.A. Mughal Suraweth Krishnasreni Mechanization, Higher Institute of Economics, So-

Vice Chancellor, Sindh Agriculture University, Tan- Senior Expert in Agricultural En-gineering, Depart- fia, BULGARIA
dojam, PAKISTAN ment of Agricul-ture, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900,
Thailand, Tel5792153,5794497,5798520,Ext.124, Pavel Kic
Rafiq ur Rehman Fax9405791, E-mail: [email protected] Vice-Dean/Technical Faculty, Czech University
Director, Agricultural Mechanization Reserch Insti- of Agriculture Prague, 16521 Prague 6-Suchdol,
tute, P.O. Box No. 416 Multan, PAKISTAN Surin Phongsupasamit CZECH, Tel+420-2-24383141, Fax+420-2-20921361
Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Dept. of Me- Email: [email protected]
Bherulal T. Devrajani chanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chu-
Professor and Chairman, Faculty of Agricultural En- lalongkom University, Phyathai Road, Patumwan, Henrik Have
gineering, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Bangkok 10330, THAILAND Prof. of Agric. Machinery and Mechanization at In-
Sindh, PAKISTAN stitute of Agric. Engineering, Royal Veterinan/- and
TEL+92-2233-5594 Chanchai Rojanasaroj Agricultural University, Agrovej 10DK2630 Tastrup,
Research and Development Engineer, Dept. of Ag- DENMARK
Nawaf A. Abu-Khalaf riculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives,
Engineer, the Project Directorate in Palestinian Ag- Gang-Khen, Bangkok 10900, THAILAND Giuseppe Pellizzi
ricultural Ministry, P.O.Box 405, Hebron, PALESTINE Director of the Institute of Agric. Engineering of
Telfax: 972-2-2227846/7 Vilas M. Salokhe the University of Milano and Professor of Agric.
E-mail: [email protected] Professor, AFE Program, Asian Institute of Technol- Machinery and Mechanization, Via G. Celoria,
ogy, P.O. Box 4, Klang Luang. Pathumthani 12120, 2-20133 Milano, ITALY
Surya Nath THAILAND, TEL+66-2-5245479, FAX+66-2-5246200 Tel+39-02-503-16871, Fax+39-02-503-168459
Associ. Prof., Dept. of Agriculture, Papua New E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]
Guinea University of Technology, Private Mail Basg,
Lae, PAPUA NEW GUINEA, TEL+675-475-5162, Yunus Pinar Aalbert Anne Wanders
FAX473-4477, E-mail: [email protected] Professor, and Head, Agric. Machinery Dept, Fac- Staff Member, Dept. of Development Cooperation,
ulty of Agriculture, University of Ondokuz Mayis, Netherlands Agricultural Engineering Research Insti-
Reynaldo M. Lantin Kurupelit, Samsun, TURKEY tute (IMAG), Wageningen, NETHERLANDS
Professor, College of Engineering and Agro-Indus-
trial Technology University of the Philippines Los Imad Haffar Jan Pawlak
Banos, Laguna 4031, PHILIPPINES Associate Professor of Agric. Engineering, Faculty Professor, head of the Dept. of Economics and
TEL+63-(0)49-536-2792, FAX+63-(0)49-536-2873 of Agricultural Sciences, United Arab Emirates Uni- Utilization of Farm Machines at IBMER, Professor at
E-mail: [email protected] versity, Al Ain, P.O. Box 17555, UAE the Univ. of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Fac. of
TEL+971-506436385, FAX+971-3-632384 Tech. Sci., POLAND
Ricardo P. Venturina E-mail: [email protected]
President & General Manager, Rivelisa publishing Oleg S. Marchenko
House, 215 F, Angeles St. cor Taft Ave. Ext., 1300 Nguyen Hay Professor and agricultural engineer, Department
Pasay City, Metro Manila,PHILIPPINES Associate Professor, Dean of Faculty of Engineering, Head in All-Russia Research Institute for Mechani-
Nonglam University, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc Dis- zation in Agriculture (VIM), 1st Institutsky proezd,
Saleh Abdulrahman Al-suhaibani trict, Ho Chi Minh City, VIET NAM 5, Moscow 109428, RUSSIA
Professor, Agricultural Engineering Dept.,College E-mail: [email protected] Tel+7(095)174-8700, Fax+7(095)171-4349
of Agriculture, King Saud University,P.O. Box 2460 E-mail: [email protected]
Riyadh 11451, SAUDI ARABIA Pham Van Lang
Director, Vietnam Institute of Agricultural Engineer- John Kilgour
Ali Mufarreh Saleh Al-Amri ing, A2-Phuong Mai, Dong Da Hanoi, VIET NAM Senior Lecturer in Farm Machinery Design at Silsoe
Professor, Dept. of Agric. Engineering, Colleg of , College, Silsoe Campus, Silsoe, Bedford, MK45 4DT,
Agricultural and Food Sciences, King Faisal Univer- Abdulsamad Abdulmalik Hazza a UK
sity, Al-Ahsa,SAUDI ARABIA Professor and Head of Agricultural Engineering
,
E-Mail: [email protected],[email protected] Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Sana a Univer-
,
Milan Martinov
sity, P.O.Box 12355, Sana a YEMEN Full Professor on Agricultural Machinery, Univer-
Sen-Fuh Chang Tel+9671-407300, Fax:9671-217711 sity of Novi Sad, Faculty of Engineering, Institute of
Professor, Agric.-Machinery Dept. National Taiwan E-mail: [email protected] mechanization and machine design, TRG D. Obra-
University, Taipei, TAIWAN dovica 6, 21 121 Novi Sad, PF55, YUGOSLAVIA
TEL+381-21-350-122(loc.298), FAX+381-21-350-592
Tieng-song Peng -EUROPE- E-mail: [email protected]
Deputy Director, Taiwan Agricultural Mechaniza-
tion Research and Development Center. FL. 9-6, Anastas Petrov Kaloyanov
No. 391 Sinyi Road, Sec. 4, TAIWAN Professor & Head, Research Laboratory of Farm
Jan Pawlak OS J Kilgour M Martinov

Marchenko
Back Issues
(Vol.34, No.3, Summer, 2003-)
AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ated Fertilizer Broadcasters (D.S.Wadhwa, Spherical Biogas Plants for Rural Develop-
ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA H.M.Khurana) .............................................. 24 ment (Er. Pur nendu Kumar Mohanty,
(Vol.34, No.3 Summer, 2003) Design and Development of Power-operated Mrs.Minati Mohanty) .................................. 45
Effect of Different Seedbed Preparation Rotary Weeder for Wetland Paddy (Viren A Method for Determining the Center of
Methods on Physical Properties of Soil M.Victor, Ajay Verma).................................. 27 Gravity of a Tractor (Nidal H. Abu-Ham-
(Davut Karayel, Aziz Ozmerzi)................... 9 A study of Soil Properties Relevant to the deh) . .............................................................. 49
Studies on Optimization of Puddled Soil Design of Yam Harvesters in the Benue Energy Requirement in Lac Production (Ni-
Characteristics for Self-propelled Rice Flood Plain of Nigeria (Isaac N.Itodo, J.O. ranjan Prasad, K. K. Kumar, A. K. Jaiswal).54
Transplanter (B.K. Behera, B.P. Varshney) .12 Daudu) . ......................................................... 30 Status and Trend of Farm Mechanization in
Minimizing Error in Row-spacing While Stable Lifters for Harvesting Sugarbeet Thailand (Suraweth Krishnasreni, Pinai
Drilling Seeds (D.S. Wadhwa)..................... 17 (Ghanshyam Tiwari, Ajay Kumar Sharma). 35 Thongsawatwong) ........................................ 59
Improvement and Evaluation of Crop Planter Performance Evaluation of a Combine Har- Studies on Murrah He-buffaloes Using Im-
to Work on Ridges in Irrigated Schemes of vester in Malaysian Paddy Field (Swapan proved Rotary Appratus (Sushil Sharma,
Sudan (S. El Din Abdel Gadir El-Awad)..... 19 Kumar Roy, Kamaruzaman Jusoff, W.I. M. P. Singh) .................................................. 67
Development of a System for Analyses of W. Ismail, Desa Ahmad, Anuar Abdul Ra- The Present State of Farm Machinery Indus-
Nozzle Spray Distribution for Students and him) ............................................................... 38 try (Shin-Norinsha Co., Ltd.) . ..................... 71
Applicators’ Education (Adnan I. Khdair)... 24 Post-harvest Practices of Turmeric in Orissa, The Tokyo University of Agriculture and
Comparative of Weeding by Animal-drawn India (Uma Sankar Pal, Md. K. Khan, G. Technology in Brief (Akira Sasao) . ............ 75
Cultivator and Manual Hoe in EN-nohoud R. Sahoo, M. K. Panda)................................. 45 Higher Educational Programs of the Univer-
Area, Western Sudan (Mohamed Hassan Design, Const r uction and Perfor mance sity of Tsukuba (Masayuki Koike) . ............ 79
Dahab, Salih Fadl Elseid Hamad) .............. 27 Analysis of Two Hay Chopping Machines Main Products of Agricultural Machinery
‘Tapak-tapak’ Pump: Water Lifting Device (Hasan Yumak) . ........................................... 50 Manufactures in Japan (Shin-Norinsha
for Small Scale Irrigation and Rural Water Trends in Agricultural Mechanization in Co., Ltd.) ....................................................... 81
Supply for Developing Countries (E.A. Brazil-an Overview (E. C. Mantovani,I. A.
Ampofo, M.A. Zobisch, E.A. Baryeh)......... 31 Naas, R.L. Gomide)....................................... 55 ◇　　　◇　　　◇
Improved Harvesting of Straw (U.Ch. Eshk- Farm Mechanization in LalgudiTaluk of
araev) . ........................................................... 37 Southern India (S. Ganapathy, R. Karu- AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN
Design and Development of Multi-fruit Grad- nanithi ........................................................... 60 ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA
er (P.K. Omre, R.P. Saxena).......................... 39 A Review of Aerators and Aeration Practices (Vol.35, No.2, Spring, 2004)
Development and Construction of a Machine in Thai Aquaculture (Santi Laksitanonta, On-Farm Evaluation of Current Wheat Till-
for Waxing Fruits and Horticultural Prod- Gajendra Singh, Sahdev Singh) .................. 64 age Systems on Irrigated Vertisols in New
ucts (H.M. Duran Garcia, E.J. Gonzalez Scheme, Sudan (Sheikh El Din Abdel Ga-
Galvan) . ........................................................ 43 ◇　　　◇　　　◇ dir El-Awad).................................................. 9
Comparative Grain Storage in India and Development and Testing of a Seed-Cum-
Canada (K. Alagusundaram, D.S. Jayas, AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN Fertilizer Drilling Attachment to Tractor-
K. Nalladurai)................................................ 46 ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA Driven Cultivator (R.A. Gupta, Paramond
Design Guidelines for Tractor Operator’s (Vol.35, No.1, Winter, 2004) Mohnot, R.M. Satasiya, R.B. Marvia)........ 15
Entry and Exit (Rajvir Yadav, A.H. Raval, Determining Soil Inversion Tillage Interval Development and Evaluation of Weeding
Sahastrarashmi Pund) .................................. 53 in Rice Production (Abdul Razzaq, Liaqat Cum Earthing up Equipment for Cotton
Physical Energy Input for Maize Production Ali,Bashir Ahmad Sabir) ............................. 11 (R. Manian, K. Kathirvel, Aravinda Red-
in Zambia (Ajit K. Mahapatra, R. Tsheko, An Opto-electronic System for Assessing dy, T.Senthikuamr)........................................ 21
K.L. Kumar, Pascal Chipasha)..................... 57 Seed Drop Spacing of Planters (D. Dhalin, Design Parameters for Cocoa Pod Breaker (A
Farm Tractor Conditions in Botswana (Ed- C.Divaker Durairaj,V.J.F. Kumar) ............... 14 Issac Bamgboye, Odima-Ojoh).................... 26
ward A. Baryeh, Obokeng B. Raikane)....... 61 No-till Seed-cum Fertilizer Drill in Wheat A Solar Tunnel Dryer for Natural Convection
An Energy Modeling Analysis of the Integrat- Crop Production after Paddy Harvesting Drying of Vegetables and Other Commodi-
ed Commercial Biodiesel Production from (Jagvir Dixit, R.S.R. Gupta, V.P. Behl, ties in Cameroon (Joseph E. Berinyuy)....... 31
Palm Oil for Thailand (Teerin Vanichseni, Sukhbir Singh) . ............................................ 19 Rural Vegetable Oil Processing in Kenya Sta-
Sakda Intaravichai, Banyat Saitthiti, Th- Slip-on-ring Spraying Devices for Spot tus and Reseach Priorities (D. Shitanda)..... 36
anya Kiatiwat)................................................ 67 Application of Chemicals to Cont rol Design and Development of Agricultural
Eriophyid Mite in Coconut (R. Manian, Wastes Shredder (J.B. Savani, V.R. Vaga-
◇　　　◇　　　◇ K.Kathirvel, T.Senthilkumar, Binisam)...... 23 dia, R.K. Kathiria)......................................... 41
AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN Development and Testing of a Tractor-mount- Dynamometer Design for Traction Forces
ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA ed Positioner for Mango Harvesting (R.A. Measurement on Draught Horses (H.
(Vol.34, No.4, Autumn, 2003) Gupta, R.M. Satasiya, Pramod Mohnot, Ortiz-laurel, P.A. Cowell)............................. 47
Dibble Precision Seeder for Coated Rice N.K. Gontia) ................................................. 28 Reduction of Greenhouse Temperature Using
Seeds (Yang Mingjin, He Peixiang, Yang Manual Sugarcane Harvesting System vs. Reflector Sheet (V.P. Seth, Y.P. Gupta, V.
Ling, Li Qingdong, Chen Zhonghui) .......... 9 Mechanical Harvesting System in Thailand S. Hans).......................................................... 51
Performance of a Prototype Okra Planter (P. (Ding Qishuo, Borpit Tangwongkit, Ratana Farm Accidents in South India: A Critical
K. Sahoo, A. P. Srivastava) .......................... 13 Tangwongki) . ............................................... 33 Analysis (K. Kathirvel, R. Manian, D.
Influence of Different Planting Methods on Efficiency of Cotton Stalk Puller as Influ- Ananathakrishnan, T. Senthikumar) .......... 55
Wheat Production after Harvest of Rice enced by Forward Speed, Wheel Rotational Present Status and Future Strategy on Farm
(K.K. Singh, S.K. Lohan, A.S. Jat, Tulsa Speed and Wheel Tilt Angle (R. Manian, Mechanization and Postharvest Technolo-
Rani) . ............................................................ 18 M.K. Rao, K. Kathirvel, T. Senthilkuamr) .37 gies for Rice Production and Processing in
Modification of the Injection Planter for the A Batch Dryer for Un-peeled Longan Drying Bangladesh (Md Sydul Islam, Md Abdul
Tropics (A.C. Ukatu)..................................... 20 (W. Phaphuangwittayakul, S. Limpiti, Z. Baqui, M Abul Quasem)............................... 59
Comparative Performance of Manually-oper- Alikhan) ........................................................ 41 Mechanization of Polish Agriculture in the
Transition Period (Jan Pawlak)..................... 67 M. Gulam Mustafa)....................................... 28 Field Performance Evaluation od Power Tiller
Extensive Review of Crop Drying and Dri- Operated Air Assisted Spraying System
◇　　　◇　　　◇ ers Developed in India (A. Alam, Harpal (A.G. Powar, V.V. Aware, S.K. Jain, A.P.
Singh, Ranjan Mohnot, H.L. Kushwaha)..... 32 Jaiswal) ......................................................... 46
AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN Insect Inhibitive Properties of Some Consum- Effect of Cone Angle on Droplet Spectrum
ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA able Local Plant Materials on Grains in of Hollow Cone Hydraulic Nozzles (S.
(Vol.36, No.1, Spring, 2005) Storage (D.S. Zibokere)................................. 43 K. Jain, K.G. Dhande, V.V. Aware, A.P.
Para-Ploghing Effect on Soil Retention (P.R. Evaluation and Performance of Raw Mango Jaiswal) ......................................................... 51
Jayan, C. Divaker Durairaj, V.F.J. Kumar).. 9 Grader (Syed Zameer Hussain, S.C. Man- Feasibility of Using Yield Monitors for the
Effect of Storage Conditions on Emergence of dhar, S. Javare Gowda).................................. 46 Development of Soil Management Maps
Helthy Seeding of Soyabeen (G. H . Jamro, Engineering the Crop Establishment System (Jay Radhakrishnan, V. Anbumozhi, Rob-
L.A. Jamali, M. hatim, S.K. Agha).............. 15 for Paddy Wet Seeding (Eden C. Gage- ert H. Hill, Raymond J. Miller).................... 54
Development of a Check Valve Mechanism as lonia, B.D. Tadeo, E.G. Bautista, J.C. Improving Whole Kernel Recoverly in Ca-
an Attachment to a Power Tiller Operated Cordero, J.A. Damian, W.B. Collado, H. shew Nut Processing Specific to Nigeria
Seeder (D. Dhalin, C. Divaker Durairaj, V. Monobe, S. Ishihara, N. Sawamura, M. Nuts (D. Balasubramanian).......................... 58
F.J. Kumar)..................................................... 18 Daikoku, R. Otani)........................................ 49 Processing Factor Affecting the Yield and
Freely Rear Converging Linkage System for Performance of Cage Wheel with Opposing Physicochemical Properties of Starches
No-Till Planter (Santos G. Campos Magna, Circumferential Lugs amd Normal Cage from Cassava Chips and Flour (O.V. Olo-
Brian M.D. Wills).......................................... 24 Wheel in Wet Clay Soil (S. Soekarno, V. mo, O.O. Ajibola)........................................... 65
Fablication and Performance Evaluation of M. Salokhe).................................................... 55 Influence of Seeding Depth and Compaction
Pre-Rasping Unit for Cassava Industries Fabrication and Testing of Tomato Seed Ex- on Germination (P.R. Jayan, V.J.F. Kumar,
(R. Kailappan, S. Kaleemullah, I.P. Suda- tractor (R. Kailappan, Parveen Kasur Baig, C. Divaker Durairaj)..................................... 70
gar, C.T. Devadas, M. Jawaharlal)................ 33 N. Varadharaju, K. Appavu, V. Krishna- Testing, Evaluation and Modification of
Agricultural Tractor Ownership and Off- samy) ............................................................. 62 Manual Coiler for Drip Lateral (S.S. Taley,
Season Utilisation in the Kgatleng District Computer-Aided Analysis of Forces Acting S.M Bhende, V.P. Tale).................................. 75
of Botsuwana (Cecil Patric, Edward A. on a Trailed Plough (Ying Yibin, Zhao Single Hydrocyclone for Cassava Starch Milk
Bayeh, Mataba Tapela).................................. 41 Yun, Jin Juanqin)........................................... 67 (A. Manickavasagan, K. Thangavel)............ 80
Tillage Systems and Their Effect on Some The Effects of Some Operational Parameters Utilization Pattern of Power Tillers in Tamil
Soil Properties, Crop Growth and Shoot on Potato Planter’s Performance (Ebubekir Nadu (B. Shridar, P.K. Padmanathan, R.
Yield of Grain-Amaranth (S.O. Afolayan, Altuntas) ....................................................... 71 Manian) ......................................................... 85
J.C. Igbeka, O. Babalola)............................... 46 The Use of Hot Air from Room Type Coolers ■■
Effect of Concave Hole Size, Concave Clear- for Drying Agricultural Products (Turhan
ance and Drum Speed on Rasp-Bar Drum Koyuncu, Yunas Pinar)................................. 75
Performance for Threshing Sunf lower Effect of Mechanization level and Crop Rota-
(Somposh Sudajan, Vilas M. Salokhe, tion on Yield Energy Requirements (S.K.
Somnuk Chusilp)........................................... 52 Dash, D.K. Das)............................................. 80
Performance Evaluation of Planters for Cot- Simple Quality Evaluation of Chili Pepper
ton Crop (K. Kathirvel, Aravinda Reddy, Based on Continuous Weight Measure-
R. Manian, T. Senthilkuamr)........................ 61 ment During Dehydration Process (T.W.
Spatial Distribution of the No-Till Opener In- Widodo, H. Ishida, J. Tatsuno, K, Tajima,
duce Seed Row Incorporated Crop Residue E. Sakaguchi, K. Tamaki)............................. 84
and Soil Loosing (E.M.H. Tola, K. Koeller).66
Farm Mechanization in Lalgudi Taluk of ◇　　　◇　　　◇
Southern India (S. Ganapathy, R. Karu-
nanithi) .......................................................... 71 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN
Comparative Evaluation of Field Performance ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA
of a Tractor Drawn Straw Reaper and a (Vol.37, No.1, Winter, 2006)
Flail Harvesting of Wheat Straw.................. 76 Evaluation of Solar Drying for Post Harvest
Study on the Development of Agricultural Curing of Turmeric: Curcuma longa L. (J.
Machines for Small-Scale Farmers “Pt. 1, John Gunasekar, S. Kaleemullah, P. Do-
Applied Technology for Morocco and Af- raisamy, S. Kamaraj)..................................... 9
rica” (Toshiyuki Tsujimoto, Hai Sakurai, Front Wheel Drive Effect on the Performance
Koichi Hashiguchi, Eiji Inoue)..................... 79 of the Agricultural Tractor (H. Ortiz-
Laurel, D. Rössel, J.G. Hermosilo-Nieto).... 14
◇　　　◇　　　◇ Development and Performance Evaluation
of a Test Rig for Mechanical Metering of
AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN Sunf lower Seeds (Sukhbir Singh, D.N.
ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA Sharama, Jagvir Dixit, Dinesh Kumar
(Vol.36, No.2, Autumn, 2005) Vasta) ............................................................ 18
A Mathematical Model for Predicting Output Design Development and Performance Evalu-
Capacity of Selected Stationary Grain ation of a Saw Cylinder Cleaner for Me-
Threshers (V.I.O. Ndirika)............................ 9 chanically Picked Cotton (S.K. Shukla, P.
Study on the Development of Agricultural G. Patil, V.G. Arude)..................................... 25
Machines for Small-Scale Farmers Pt. 2, Design Development and Performance Evalu-
“Applied Technology to the Improvement of ation of Portable Cotton Ginning Machines
an Animal-Drawn Plow for Morocco and (P.G. Patil, V.G. Arude, S.K. Shukla)........... 30
Africa” (Toshiyuki Tsujimoto, Hai Saku- Design and Development of Power Operated
rai, Koichi Hashiguchi, Eiji Inoue)............... 14 Roller Type Lac Scraper (Niranjan Prased,
Development an Indsutrial Yam Peeler (A. C. K.K. Kumar, S.K. Panday, M.L. Bhagat)..... 35
Ukatu) ........................................................... 21 The Impact of Power Tillers on Small Farm
Design and Development of a Low-Cost Po- Productivity and Employment in Bangla-
tato Grader (K.C. Roy, M.A. Wohab, A.D. desh (R.I. Sarker, D. Barton)........................ 38

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ISSN 0084-5841

VOL.37, No.2, SPRING 2006

- AFRICA - Verma, S.R. (India)

Yoshisuke Kishida 7 Editorial

Instructions to AMA Contributors........................4 Back Issues......................................................... 103

over the country plough was found working a number of times.

cause possible pescitide contamina- simple tools.

Grain yield, thousand tons

• The milling machine 2 (mill 2) REFERNCES of Vergelegen Community Rural

horizontal and vertical forces up to of t wo mut ually per pendicular

STOP r{2.62F+2.17P+4.05M(2K/�+0.5)/r(K 2+4K/�+0.5)

transducer design program bσmax

Fig. 3 Hyperboloid seed drum with baffle arrangement

150 � 150 150 150

100 100 100 100

150 150 150 150

100 100 100 100

VOL.37 NO.2 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION

7 holes 7 holes 7 holes 7 holes

6 holes 6 holes 6 holes 6 holes

5 holes 5 holes 5 holes 5 holes

150 � 150 150 150

100 100 100 100

150 150 150 150

100 100 100 100

8 holes 8 holes 8 holes 8 holes

7 holes 7 holes 7 holes 7 holes

6 holes 6 holes 6 holes 6 holes

5 holes 5 holes 5 holes 5 holes

150 � 150 150 150

100 100 100 100

150 150 150 150

100 100 100 100

VOL.37 NO.2 2006 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION

7 holes 7 holes 7 holes 7 holes

6 holes 6 holes 6 holes 6 holes

5 holes 5 holes 5 holes 5 holes

Percent variation Variation in seed discharge, percent

Seed rate variation, percent

period of clutch system was more a network of dealerships. But this

Power tiller Working hours Power tiller Working hours

Power tiller Working hours Power tiller Standard Coefficient of

Power tiller Working hours Power tiller Working hours

Diameter of Number of gear Radial speed of Speed of Field capacity of

Selection the Main Types Local

Developing Mathematical Model

Performance Test Followed

all agricultural investments within findings of a study showed that a

Economic and social factors Mean Std. deviation Value

Flow rate (m3/h)

Total pressure head (m)

Flow rate (m3/h) Flow rate (m3/h)

Total pressure head (m)

Flow rate (m3/h) Flow rate (m3/h)

Abdul Elghaffar Jomaa

Fig. 1 System diagram Fig. 2 The hydraulic system

Semi variance Semi variance

between oil yield and water tem- grown in Nigeria as an ornamental

Experimental Design and Proce-

Table 3 Effect of dilution Table 4 Effect of water Table 5 Effect of pressing