Vol.53 No.1 Winter 2022

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AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2022 VOL.53 NO.1
VOL.53, No.1, WINTER 2022
Yoshisuke Kishida, Publisher & Chief Editor
Contributing Editors and Cooperators
AFRICA Mani Indra (India)
Kayombo, Benedict (Botswana) Mehta, C. R. (India)
Fonteh, Fru Mathias (Cameroon) Michael, A. M. (India)
Ndindeng, Sali Atanga (Cote d’Ivoire) Nath, Surya (India)
Abdallah, Said Elshahat (Egypt) Pathak, B. S. (India)
El Behery, A. A. K. (Egypt) Salokhe, Vilas M. (India)
Addo, Ahmad (Ghana) Singh, Gajendra (India)
Bani, Richard Jinks (Ghana) Soni, Peeyush (India)
Djokoto, Israel Kofi (Ghana) Abdullah, Kamaruddin (Indonesia)
Some, D. Kimutaiarap (Kenya) Behroozi-Lar, Mansoor (Iran)
Gitau, Ayub N. (Kenya) Minaei, Saeid (Iran)
Houmy, Karim (Morocco) Mahdavian, Alireza (Iran)
Alonge, Akindele Folarin (Nigeria) Vali Rasooli Sharabiani (Iran)
Oyelade, O. A. (Nigeria) Abdul-Munaim, Ali Mazin (Iraq)
Bindir, Umar B. (Nigeria) Hasegawa, Hideo (Japan)
Igbeka, Joseph C. (Nigeria) Snobar, Bassam A. (Jordan)
Odigboh, E. U. (Nigeria) Chung, Jong Hoon (Korea)
Oni, Kayode C. (Nigeria) Lee, In-Bok (Korea)
Opara, U. L. (South Africa) Bardaie, Muhamad Zohadie (Malaysia)
Kuyembeh, N. G. (Sierra Leone) Gonchigdorj, Enkhbayar (Mongolia)
Abdoun, Abdien Hassan (Sudan) Pariyar, Madan P. (Nepal)
Saeed, Amir Bakheit (Sudan) Jayasuriya, Hemanatha P. W. (Oman)
Khatibu, Abdisalam I. (Tanzania) Khan, Alamgir A. (Pakistan)
Tembo, Solomon (Zimbabwe) Mughal, A. Q. A. (Pakistan)
AMERICAS Mirjat, Muhammad Saffar (Pakistan)
Cetrangolo, Hugo Alfredo (Argentina) Abu-Khalaf, Nawaf A. (Palestine)
Nääs, Irenilza de Alencar (Brazil) Lantin, Reynaldo M. (Philippines)
Ghaly, Abdelkader E. (Canada) Venturina, Ricardo P. (Philippines)
Hetz, Edmundo J. (Chile) Al-suhaibani, Saleh Abdulrahman (Saudi Arabia)
Roudergue, Marco Antonio Lopez (Chile) Al-Amri, Ali Mufarreh Saleh (Saudi Arabia)
Aguirre, Roberto (Colombia) Illangantileke, S. G. (Sri Lanka)
Ulloa-Torres, Omar (Costa Rica) Chen, Suming (Taiwan)
Mesa, Yanoy Morejón (Cuba) Krishnasreni, Suraweth (Thailand)
Rondon, Pedro Paneque (Cuba) Phongsupasamit, Surin (Thailand)
Luna-Maldonado, A. I. (Mexico) Senanarong, Akkapol (Thailand)
Magaña, S. G. Campos (Mexico) Ertekin, Can (Turkey)
Ortiz-Laurel, H. (Mexico) Haffar, Imad (United Arab Emirates)
Bora, C. Ganesh (U.S.A.) Hay, Nguyen (Viet Nam)
Goyal, Megh Raj (U.S.A.) Lang, Pham Van (Viet Nam)
Mahapatra, Ajit K. (U.S.A.) EUROPE
ASIA and OCEANIA Katardjiev, Tihomir Hristov (Bulgaria)
Farouk, Shah M. (Bangladesh) Kic, Pavel (Czech)
Hussain, Daulat (Bangladesh) Müller, Joachim (Germany)
Mazed, M. A. (Bangladesh) Ferentinos, Konstantinos P. (Greece)
Ali, Rostom (Bangladesh) Sigrimis, Nick (Greece)
Wangchen, Chetem (Bhutan) Gasparertto, Ettore (Itaty)
Basunia, M. A. (Brunei) Lobachevsky, Y. (Russia)
Li, M. (China) Martinov, Milan (Serbia)
Luo, X. (China) Jaime, Ortiz-Cañavate (Spain)
Ilyas, S. M. (India) Sims, Brian G. (U.K.)
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EDITORIAL
The term “SDGs” is now being spoken louder vociferously all over the world. Most agencies/compa-
nies are beginning to set mission on how to achieve the “SDGs.” I feel that the term “SDGs” is becoming
the biggest source of corporate promotion. There is a big debate about controlling CO2 emissions to pre-
vent global warming. However, rising temperatures and increased CO2 in the air are not always totally
bad for agriculture. For example, in Japanese greenhouse horticulture, a CO2 generator is used to enrich
the greenhouse with CO2 to increase the yield. In some areas where the temperature is usually low, the
temperature rises and agricultural production improves. On the contrary, the yield decreases due to the
rise in temperature in some desert areas. Then, all counter-measures against CO2 must be prepared and
taken from various points of view.
Under such circumstances, the coronavirus turmoil that started in 2019 is still sustained by mutant
strains. However, the probability of harming humans by mutating is fortunately decreasing. Most meet-
ings/gatherings are convened remotely for both domestic and international conferences. A large interna-
tional agricultural machinery exhibition has also been canceled for the last two years. I’m expecting that
soon we can visit the exhibitions in normal style at the venue with the actual machines displayed and
demonstrated again.
As human beings, we are members of the holistic life system on the earth, and are kept alive in the
form of life. There are many viruses such as this coronavirus in our life system. According to virologists,
one human body has 380 trillion viruses inhabited. There are more than 100 trillion intestinal bacteria,
which do various useful jobs for humans. In other words, humans live as symbiont with such microor-
ganisms. Human beings as symbiont are connected to life systems all over the world.
Agriculture aims for better harmony with the world’s life systems. The work for better harmony means
agriculture in a broad sense. Today, the world’s population continues to grow, surpassing 8 billion and
growing to 9 billion or more. As a result, the amount of agricultural land that supports food per capita is
decreasing every year. However, the most important thing in agriculture in the future is to increase the
land productivity of agriculture. In order to increase the land productivity, we must realize the better ag-
ricultural mechanization.
Agricultural machinery contributes most to the two things: timely operation and accurate work. These two
interventions must increase land productivity and agricultural production worldwide. Currently, AI is wide-
spreading due to advances in computers; and the agricultural machines incorporating this new AI technology
will become new agricultural machines in the future. In other words, it should be agricultural robots.
It is thought that the increase in the size of the machine will be unnecessary in a sense due to this ro-
botization. Currently, the size of machines is increasing in the United States, Canada and other countries
in order to increase labor productivity, but if robots are used, labor productivity can be increased without
increasing the size of machine. Small farming robots will become very important in places where it is not
possible to create large plots like agriculture in the Great Plains, such as farming in production areas. If we
use a drone for spraying operation, we will be able to work unmanned on any form of farmland. Science
and technology are constantly advancing, and new agricultural mechanization is about to emerge.
By the way I will lead the Asian Association for Agricultural Engineering (AAAE) as its President for
2022 to 2023. I sincerely request your cooperation.
Yoshisuke Kishida
Chief Editor
February, 2022
CONTENTS
AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA
Vol.53, No.1, Winter 2022
Yoshisuke Kishida 5 Editorial
Nadezhda Sandakova 7 Agricultural Machinery Cluster Formation Model under Import

Hideo Hasegawa Substitution in Russia
Anna Lyude, Tsyden Sandakov
Elizaveta Kolesnikova
Missels Quécio Carlos Monjane 16 An Overview of the Seed Sector in the Republic of Mozambique
António Machava Júnior
Mauro Estevão Machipane
Hideo Hasegawa
G. Anitha, A. Ashok Kumar 21 Mini Tractor-mounted Sensor-based Aqua Groundnut Planter
A. Srinivasa Rao, Ch. Someswara Rao
Ajay Kumar Verma 27 Design, Development and Performance Evaluation of a Power Op-
Umesh Kumar Dhruw erated Rice Seeder for Dry and Wet Seeding
Tsyden Sandakov, Hideo Hasegawa 35 Effects of Tillage Systems on Grain Production in the Republic of
Daba Radnaev, Nadezhda Sandakova Buryatia, Russia
Anna Lyude
Gatkal Narayan Raosaheb 42 Design and Development of a Two-row Self-propelled Rotary
Vijaya Rani, Naresh, Mukesh Jain Weeder for Narrow-spaced Crops
Hasan Kaan Kucukerdem 46 Evaluating Effects of Post-Sowing Compaction and Sowing Speed
Sefa Altikat on Soil Properties, Distribution of Seed Placement and Second Crop
Maize Performance
Aseem Verma, Rohinish Khurana 55 Design and Development of a Tractor-Operated Biomass Incorpora-
Anoop Kumar Dixit tor
Bhukya Jithender, D. M. Vyas 65 Optization of Developed Continuous Type Pomegranate Juice Ex-
Nickhil C, P. J. Rathod tractor
Julius K. Tangka, Njueze Rodolphe 74 Analysing Failure of the Government-backed Free Tractor Distribu-
Djousse K. Merlain tion to Farmers in the Five Agro Ecological Zones in Cameroon: the
Case of SONALIKA Tractors
Said Elshahat Abdallah 88 SDGs and Waste Management of Agricultural Production in Egypt
Wael Mohamed Elmessery

Abstarcts........................................................ 45, 87 Instructions to AMA Contributors......................99

Co-operating Editors...........................................93 Subscription Information ..................................100
Agricultural Machinery Cluster Formation Model
under Import Substitution in Russia
by
Nadezhda Sandakova Hideo Hasegawa*
Graduate School of Science and Technology, Professor
Niigata University, Institute of Science and Technology,
8050 Ikarashi 2-no-cho, Nishi-ku, Niigata, 950-2181 Niigata University,
JAPAN 8050 Ikarashi 2-no-cho, Nishi-ku, Niigata, 950-2181
[email protected] JAPAN
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Anna Lyude Tsyden Sandakov

Institute of Science and Technology, Graduate School of Science and Technology,
Niigata University, Niigata University,
8050 Ikarashi 2-no-cho, Nishi-ku, Niigata, 950-2181 8050 Ikarashi 2-no-cho, Nishi-ku, Niigata, 950-2181
JAPAN JAPAN
[email protected] [email protected]
Elizaveta Kolesnikova
Dept. of Economic and External Economic Affairs,
Kuban State Agricultural University,
13 Kalinina Str., 350044 Krasnodar
RUSSIAN FED.
[email protected]
current state of the AMI and identi- Russia is one of the largest grain
Abstract
fy issues impeding its development. producing and processing regions
Next, we propose an analytic hier- in the world, and it possesses 20%
A key strategy for Russia’s new archy process as a tool to select proof the world’s supply of fertile land.
economic policy of import substitu- spective participants for the cluster According to the Food and Agricul-
tion in agriculture and the agricul- and present a cluster model. Finally, ture Organization of the United Na-
tural machinery industry (AMI) we evaluate the potential economic tions, Russia could potentially feed
is to improve its competitiveness efficiency of the model using eco- two billion people. However, this
by stimulating innovative activity. nomic and mathematical modeling potential has been limited during
Although some positive trends are tools. the post-Soviet Union period, which
evident, Russian agriculture con- Keywords: Agricultural Machin- adversely affected many sectors of
tinues to be affected by lack of ad- ery, Russia, Food Security, Import the Russian economy, particularly
equate supply of basic materials and Substitution, Сluster Formation. agriculture (Kalabekov, 2010). A
technological obsolescence. In this declining share of agriculture in
article, we suggest that formation of gross added value, a lack of invest-
an industrial cluster in the Rostov ment and a decrease in the competi-
Introduction
region, where national machinery tiveness of domestic food products
production has traditionally been Limited natural resources and resulted in the state being forced to
concentrated, will boost the indus- environmental degradation make import significant volumes of food
try in general and will eventually it crucial to ensure access to safe, from abroad. This situation seri-
enhance the individual competitive- high-quality food in sufficient quan- ously hindered development of the
ness of the constituent companies. tities in all countries of the world, agro-industrial complex and posed
First, we provide an overview of the including Russia. a threat to the food security of Rus-
VOL.53 NO.1 2022 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA 7
sia (Ministry of Industry and Trade the 1990s, particularly in developed the formation of industrial clusters
of Russia, 2017; Romanova and countries, and there is now a sub- in other regions of Russia will ac-
Starikov, 2009). stantial wealth of academic work celerate import substitution.
T he EU and the US i mposed on clusters, consisting of theory, Historically, AM production in
sanctions on the Russian economy empirical analysis and policy im- Russia has been concentrated in the
and Russia responded with counter- plications, upon which we can draw Rostov region. The situation in this
sanctions in 2014, resulting in a (Porter, 1998; Enright, 2000; Krug- region can be interpreted as rep-
radical change in the geopolitical man, 1991; Ellison and Glaeser, resenting a latent AM cluster. The
and economic conditions. This 1997, Kiminami, 2016). Furuzawa enterprises produce heterogeneous
stimulated the Russian government and Kiminami (2011) stated that if, products (although many small en-
to prioritize increasing the potential say, three companies form a cluster terprises tend to work closely with
for import substitution in the real through a business alliance, and a large customer, Rostselmash), but
economy. In the anti-crisis plan ad- each company simultaneously real- they face common problems and
opted in January 2015, a “rational” izes process and product innova- work in related markets, which are
import substitution policy was sug- tions, then their production costs based on demand from the same
gested, which involved promoting will fall and their product quality consumers. The main AM produc-
the development of companies that will increase, as a result of spillover ers in the Rostov region are Rostsel-
were already successfully operating effects. If the entities making up mash, Millerovoselmash, Salsksel-
as industry leaders on a country- the cluster are able to establish such mash, Kormmash, Klever and Ak-
wide scale. A key direction for Rus- win-win relationships, the competi- saikardandetal. The Azov-Black Sea
sia’s new economic policy of import tiveness of the entire cluster would Agro-engineering Academy and the
substitution is to improve the com- be improved, which would lead to North-Caucasian State Zonal Ma-
petitiveness of domestic industry by a concurrent increase in consumer chine Testing Station in Zernograd
stimulating innovative activity. The surplus. could take the lead in organizing the
transition to this innovative path of In Russia, the principles for clus- scientific research core of the clus-
development involves the accelera- ter policies are established in three ter. Universities of the region, such
tion of scientific and technical prog- documents, the Long-Term Devel- as Southern Federal University, Don
ress and the introduction of new opment Concept 2030 (Ministry of State Technical University and Don
technologies in the agriculture sec- Economic Development of Russia, State Agrarian University, could
tor. However, Russian agriculture 2013), the Innovative Development provide the basis for fundamental
has struggled with lack of adequate Strategy of Russia until 2020 and research.
supply of basic material and tech- the Government Decision of July In this paper, we first provide an
nological obsolescence, which have 31, 2015, No. 779 “On Industrial overview of the current situation
hampered the application of innova- Clusters and Specialized Organiza- and the various problems faced by
tive technologies (Sandu, 2010). tions of Industrial Clusters” (here- the domestic agricultural machinery
Numerous studies indicate that, after, the Decision). According to industry (AMI). Based on its actual
for regions seeking new develop- the Decision, cluster enterprises performance, we assume that the
ment strategies, it is vital to imple- included in the register of industrial Rostov region is an appropriate lo-
ment industrial clusters because clusters established by the Ministry cation for the rational import substi-
they are an effective instrument to of Industry and Trade of Russia can tution program and suggest that the
stimulate significant achievements apply for subsidies of up to 50% formation of a cluster in the region
in an innovative economy (Kimin- of costs, provided that joint cluster will positively affect the AMI in
ami, 2016). An industrial cluster is projects are implemented. general and enhance the individual
a group of technologically interact- Despite such government support, competitiveness of companies mak-
ing enterprises and nonproduction to date, only one industrial cluster ing up the cluster. Finally, we select
institutions that are closely located has been registered by the Ministry and evaluate individual companies
geographically and united to ensure of Industry and Trade, the agri- that are the potential participants of
their sustainable and effective devel- cultural machinery (AM) cluster the proposed cluster.
opment, on the basis of partnership established on December 19, 2016,
and alignment of interests (Delgado in the Altai region. Theoretical and
et al., 2016; Feser et al., 2008; Ke- empirical evidence of cluster forma-
Materials and Methods
tels, 2013; Krugman, 1991; Porter, tion under import substitution have
2000). been insufficient to promote greater Our analysis of the current AMI
Policies to develop industrial cluster formation. Given the need situation is based on a substantial
clusters have been adopted since for urgent action, we suggest that study of relevant documents, includ-
8 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA 2022 VOL.53 NO.1
ing government regulations, govern- tial participants using economic and of the analytic hierarchy, as shown
ment programs related to the AMI mathematical modeling tools. in Fig. 1. The second step was to
and official statistics. Data from the identify key evaluation criteria for
Federal State Statistics Service, the 2.1. The AHP assessing the objective. We adopted
agency ASM-Holding, which spe- The AHP is a method of measure- six key criteria, identified through
cializes in consulting and analytics ment involving pairwise compari- a literature review, as follows: net
in the AMI, and the Association of sons. It is one of the most widely profit, patents, assortment, fixed as-
Agricultural Equipment Producers used multiple-criteria decision- sets, revenue and reserves. Finally,
(Rosspecmash) were used. In addi- making tools (Saaty, 2007). AHP six AM manufacturers were placed
tion, data published by the manufac- enables qualitative decisions to be on the lowest level of the AHP
turing companies themselves were made more objectively and it sup- model, representing the alterna-
accessed. ports systematic decision-making tives. These included Rostselmash,
We examined the AMI companies by expressing the interaction and Millerovoselmash, Salskselmash,
in the Rostov region to substanti- hierarchy of factors, thus reducing Kormmash, Klever and Aksaikar-
ate the concept that the competitive the danger of a rough estimation dandetal.
potential of the AMI could be in- (Chen and Huang, 2004). Owing to The next step was to compare the
creased based on cluster formation these advantages, we adopted AHP factors at the same level in pairs and
under the rational import substitu- to evaluate the AM manufacturers measure their comparative contribu-
tion policy. We propose an analytic for the cluster formation under the tion to the main objective. A com-
hierarchy process (AHP) as a tool import substitution policy. The in- parison matrix was set up to com-
to select prospective participants formation obtained was processed pare pairs of criteria or alternatives.
of the cluster. After screening the through a web-based AHP online A scale of values ranging from 1
accounting reports of all 12 AM system (AHP OS). (indifference) to 9 (extreme prefer-
manufacturers in the Rostov region, AHP involves three steps: de- ence) was used for the preferences.
we rejected six on the basis of insuf- composition, comparative judgment This pairwise comparison allows
ficient information or because their and synthesis of priorities. The the decision-maker to evaluate each
operations had ceased. We collected first step required the construction factor’s contribution to the objective
background information on the six of a hierarchical network to pres- independently, thereby simplifying
remaining manufacturers operating ent the problem, with the top level the decision-making process. Here,
in the region and then applied AHP representing the overall objective, the six alternatives were compared
to provide a targeted data synthesis the middle representing the criteria in pairs to measure their importance
and to hierarchically structure the and the lowest level representing the under each criterion. In the final
results. Based on the results, we de- alternatives. In this study, the objec- step, a synthesis of priorities was
termined that three manufacturers tive was to identify the AM manu- conducted to calculate a composite
were most suitable for involvement facturers who would be best suited weight for each alternative, based
in the formation of a cluster. Then, for the cluster formation under the on the preferences derived from
we assessed the feasibility of the import substitution policy. There- the comparison matrix. Following
AM cluster creation in the Rostov fore, the main objective, ‘‘selection calculation of the composite weight,
region, focusing on measuring its of the prospective participants in the we obtained the relative priority of
efficiency (or inefficiency) for poten- cluster’’, was placed at the top level the AM manufacturers for inclusion
in the cluster. The work flow is de-
Fig. 1 The AHP Model scribed in Fig. 2.
Results and Discussion

3.1. Current State of the AMI
During the period 1990-2015,
the efficiency of the domestic AMI
decreased significantly. By 2017,
companies producing domestic AM
contributed only 0.13% to gross
domestic product (GDP) (Ministry
of Industry and Trade, 2017). This
low share of GDP is the result of
a number of factors affecting the modern intensive technologies with shortage, Russia must take measures
AMI. For instance, the low solvency the existing machinery has resulted to modernize its AMI in the near
of agricultural producers means that in harvest losses of 40-50% and future.
the equipment manufacturing plants uncompetitive agricultural products Today, approximately 1.5 thou-
face low domestic demand for ma- and it impedes the implementation sand Russian companies are in-
chinery and equipment. As a result, of innovative technologies, which volved in the production of AM and
AM factories operate at 40-70% of require a mechanization level of 60- its components, and it is the main
their production capacity (Ministry 65% (Ushachev, 2015). activity for 57 of these companies
of Industry and Trade, 2017). Figure Western sanctions and a food em- (Butov, 2017). In 2016, the R&D
3 indicates that very little quan- bargo of Russia in 2014 revealed the expenditures of Russia’s AM manu-
tity of agricultural equipment are import dependence of the agrarian facturers were equivalent to 0.67%
manufactured in Russia. However, a sector and highlighted the need to of their revenue, whereas the world’s
recent subsidy program allowing for reduce the percentage of agricultur- largest AM producers devote more
renewal of obsolete machinery has al products and equipment import- than 4% of revenue to R&D. This
led to an increase in its production ed. Although it is steadily declining, significantly limits the capacity of
(Federal State Statistics Service, the share of imported agricultural industrial enterprises producing
2018). During the period 1990- equipment (Fig. 4) continues to ac- AM to realize their potential for
2016, the condition of the existing count for more than 46% of the Rus- growth. In addition, while the total
AM significantly deteriorated, and sian machinery fleet (Federal State number of AMI employees amount
the availability of the main types of Statistics Service, 2017). Therefore, to 31.3 thousand, the number of
AM decreased each year (Fig. 3). to achieve import substitution and mechanical engineers employed by
In 2016, approximately 85% of the overcome its domestic production AM producers is 737 employees,
tractors and 58% of the grain har-
vesters in Russia were over 10 years Fig. 2 Methodological Steps in the Application of the AHP
old, meaning that their work life had
already expired (Ministry of Indus-
try and Trade, 2017). In 2014, tractor
availability was equivalent to a total
of 247.3 thousand units. However,
considering the total area of culti-
vated land, the need for tractors was
900 thousand units. A deficit of AM
for 1,000 ha of planted crops limits
the technical capabilities of farm-
ers and reduces labor productivity
in agriculture. The annual load of
one harvester is increased to almost
500 ha, extending the harvesting
period to almost 2 months instead of
the standard 7-10 days (Ushachev,
2015).
Low availability of equipment and
inability to meet the requirements of
Fig. 3 Main Agricultural Machinery Possessed and Manufactured Fig. 4 Agricultural Machinery Market
Source: The Federal State Statistics Service, 2017

Source: The Federal State Statistics Service, 2018
which indicates the low innovative viet history and membership in the equipment is provided for Siberia
activity of such enterprises (Minis- Customs Union. and the Far East regions, respec-
try of Industry and Trade of Russia, Comparison indicators for domes- tively. The amount of state support
2017). At the same time, there are tic and foreign AM are shown in is determined by the import substi-
some clearly pronounced positive Table 1, based on the “Strategy of tution program adopted by the gov-
trends in ter ms of innovations. Development of the AMI of Russia ernment from 2014 (Kolesnikova
R&D expenditures have expanded until 2020”. It indicates that Rus- et al., 2017). Agricultural exports
6.6 fold since 2014 and the number sian machinery lags behind foreign increased by 15.9% between 2015
of employed mechanical engineers machiner y in many indicators. and 2016, which demonstrates the
has increased by 98 people (+15.3%) Systemic problems hindering the ef- effectiveness of the import substitu-
(Butov, 2017). fective development of the AMI can tion program. The 2014 devaluation
Three main manufact urers of be divided into two main catego- of the ruble against the dollar and
agricultural equipment-Combine ries: general economic factors and euro also had a considerable impact
Plant Rostselmash Ltd., Concern industrial factors (Konstantinov, on trade. Spikes in the prices of im-
Tractor Plants, and JSC Petersburg 2013). General economic factors ported AM and component parts led
Tractor Plant-account for 92% of the include high bank interest rates (25- buyers to seek alternatives, includ-
equipment produced in the country. 27%) and a reduction in government ing purchasing cheaper domestic
Compared with foreign equipment subsidies for agricultural producers, equipment sold in the local cur-
suppliers, domest ic equipment coupled with rapid price increases rency.
manufacturers have both disadvan- for raw materials and energy. In- For further dynamic development
tages and advantages. Russian AM dustrial factors are the low export of AMI, it is essential to undertake
producers offer a poorer range of share and the dependence on foreign the following actions: a) fully devel-
machinery and have low investment component parts, arising from the op the capacity of the Russian AMI
levels in technical and technological insufficient quality and range of do- to produce tractors, grain and forage
innovations. However, their main mestic materials. The lack of stable, harvesters, tillers, seeding machines
competitive advantages are low effective demand in the domestic and other kinds of AM and equip-
prices, service availability and the market is another hindering factor. ment; b) improve the Russian AM
state’s protectionist policy, which The demand for AM depends on the market potential by establishing
adds to the cost of imported equip- financial situation of the agricultural a dealer network, ensuring avail-
ment. Conversely, the competitive producers. Therefore, the develop- ability of spare parts and services,
advantages of the foreign technolo- ment of the AMI is curtailed by the and offering low prices; c) increase
gies are reliability and productivity low price of grain and by the low investment in R&D for develop-
(Poluhin and Plygun, 2015). Belaru- profitability of agriculture (Sanda- ing new technologies to expand the
sian AM, although imported, holds kova et al., 2017). product range; and d) use state sup-
a significant and dominant sales To stimulate investments in AMI, port programs efficiently. The indus-
position because of its low prices. Russian Government Resolution trial cluster strategy can contribute
There is a tight economic inter- No. 1432, dated December 27, 2012, to the revival of Russia’s AMI with
dependence between Russian and has been implemented. Under the a new innovation-based focus.
Belarus; the latter benefits from the program, the state compensates
Russian government’s protectionist the buyers of domestic equipment 3.2. AM Сluster Formation Model
policies because of its common So- for 25% of its value, or 30% if the The results of the calculations
regarding the ranking of manufac-
turers that could potentially enter
Table 1 Russian Agricultural Machinery versus Foreign Agricultural Machinery the cluster are provided in Table
Indicator
Domestic Import 2, based on the AHP methodology.
production production The results indicated that the maxi-
Tractor Engine power, kW 22-313 60–500 mum priority should be given to the
Tractor Number of models, units about 30 681 patents criteria (ranking of 0.43),
(European
market) whereas the minimum priority was
Tractor Environmental engineering standards Euro 2-3 Euro 3-4 the reserves criteria (0.03).
Tractor, harvester Price, % 60-70% 100% Further options were paired and
Harvester Engine power, kW <373 <612 compared with criteria. Accord-
Harvester Number of models, units 23 147 ing to the weights of the net profit
Source: Ministry of Industry and Trade of Russia. 2011. Science research work: The criteria, Rostselmash company had
strategy of development for agricultural machinery industry of Russia until 2020 the maximum contribution (0.53)
Table 2 Global Priorities Calculation
Criteria
Net profit Patents Assortment Revenue Fixed assets Reserves Global
Companies
The numerical value of the priority vector priorities
0.25 0.43 0.17 0.05 0.08 0.03
Rostselmash 0.53 0.56 0.55 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.55
Millerovoselmash 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05
Salskselmash 0.10 0.23 0.10 0.09 0.18 0.07 0.16
Kormmash 0.07 0.08 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.06
Klever 0.24 0.03 0.20 0.24 0.11 0.25 0.14
Aksaikardandetal 0.02 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.04
and Aksaikardandetal (0.02) had participant and the potential cluster will be considered: Rostselmash
the minimum contribution. Accord- in general. The proposed composi- (Fig. 7), Salskselmash (Fig. 8) and
ing to the weights for the patents tion of the AM cluster in the Rostov Klever (Fig. 9). The previous analy-
criteria, Rostselmash with 0.56 and region, focused on increasing the sis indicated that these three com-
Klever with 0.03 had the maximum potential for import substitution, panies had the highest potential as
and minimum contributions, re- is shown in Fig. 6. We recommend participants of the proposed cluster.
spectively. For assortment criteria, that these companies form a cluster The efficiency of companies en-
the maximum and minimum pref- with Rostselmash at its center if ad- tering the cluster can be represented
erences belonged to Rostselmash ditional proof of the effectiveness of as follows:
(0.57) and Kormmash (0.02), respec- such integration can be provided. E = R / C ...(1)
tively. Again, Rostselmash was the where, E denotes efficiency, R the
leader for the revenue criteria, with 3.3. Economic Efficiency of AM result and C production costs.
a weight of 0.55, whereas Millero- Cluster Formation The profit margin of the company,
voselmash had the minimum prefer- The financial efficiency of a com- a resource indicator, was used for
ence (0.03). Based on the fixed as- pany is one of the most important assessing the efficiency of the com-
sets criteria, the highest weight and economic criteria. Generally, it pany’s economic activities. We used
maximum preference was allocated can be represented by the ratio of the net profit (NP) of the company
to Rostselmash (0.57), whereas Mil- production costs and the obtained and, for costs, all assets of the com-
lerovoselmash (0.04) had the mini- result (Revsine et al., 1999). We will pany (A), for the period under study.
mum preference. Finally, based on assess the feasibility of creating an Thus, the efficiency of the enterprise
the weights for the reserves criteria, AM cluster in the Rostov region, fo- can be measured as follows:
Rostselmash (0.57) and Aksaikar- cusing on the proof of its efficiency E = NP / A ...(2)
dandetal (0.03) had the maximum (or inefficiency) for potential par- For companies operating within
and the minimum preferences, re- ticipants. The following enterprises the cluster, it is necessary to mea-
spectively. Next, we calculated the
global priorities. Variables with a
maximum global priority value were Fig. 6 Agricultural Machinery Cluster Model of the Rostov Region
considered the best. According to
the results, these are Rostselmash,
Salskselmash and Klever manufac-
turers (Fig. 5).
Summing up the results from the
viewpoint of AM cluster creation in
the Rostov region, we identified the
most preferable manufacturers (that
is, based on justified expediency)
as Rostselmash, Salskselmash and
Klever. The AHP application al-
lowed us to allocate those manufac-
turers according to their global pri-
orities for innovative development,
and to simultaneously highlight the
strengths and weaknesses of each
sure the integrated efficiency be- function, the integrated efficiency As the average for the value is the
cause this is the key indicator. It en- index is sufficient. arithmetic mean of the efficiency
ables assessment of whether the vol- The question arises as to whether indicators (EАM = 0.10), we use the
umes of the final product produced the functioning of enterprises in average economic value for further
correspond to the planned volumes, a cluster is more efficient than the calculations. Thus, the formula for
when all resources are used (Ilyen- functioning of each company sepa- calculating the target indicator (TI)
kova, 2007). The integrated efficien- rately and, if so, to what degree? is as follows:
cy of the cluster functioning shows The efficiency indicator (E) does not TI = Ec / EAM ...(6)
the combined economic effect ob- answer this question. To answer it, where, TI is the target indicator,
tained by the cluster from the use of it is necessary to obtain an indica- E c is the integrated efficiency of
all cluster assets. We determine the tor that correlates the integrated cluster and E АM is the mean eco-
efficiency of the cluster as follows: efficiency of the cluster function- nomic value of the efficiency indica-
Ec = NPc / Ac ...(3) ing with an indicator reflecting the tors.
NPc = ∑i=1 NPi
n
...(4) overall efficiency of the enterprises Let us refer to the target indicator
Ac = ∑i=1 Ai
n
...(5) when they operate independently. as the interaction indicator (II). The
where, E c is the efficiency of the For the latter indicator, we can use II correlates the efficiency of the
cluster, NPc is the net profit of the the mean value of the efficiency in- cluster and the mean efficiency of
cluster, Ac is the total assets of the dicators calculated using equation the cluster companies. For the sake
cluster, NPi is the net profit of com- (2) for each company. of simplicity, the EАM will be de-
pany i, Аi is the total assets of com- First, we use the formula of the noted by Em. In general, the II can
pany i and n is the number of com- arithmetic mean, then the formula be represented as follows:
panies (in our case, three). Thus, the of the geometric mean and, finally, II = Ec / Em' ...(7)
integrated efficiency of the cluster the formula of the economic mean Thus, to determine the quality of
is equal to the quotient of dividing to find an acceptable formula for the interaction under the cluster, the
the total net profit by total assets. calculating the mean value. Fur- integrated efficiency of the cluster
For the initial analysis of the cluster ther, we select an appropriate value. and the mean efficiency of the clus-
Fig. 5 Weights of Alternatives Fig. 7 Financial Results and Balance Sheet of Rostselmash
Fig. 8 Financial Results and Balance Sheet of Salskselmash Fig. 9 Financial Results and Balance Sheet of Klever
*EBIT - Earnings Before Interest and Taxes. It is a measure of a firm's profit that includes all expenses except interest and income tax
expenses. It is the difference between operating revenues and operating expenses.
ter companies must be correlated. Using an AHP model, we deter- ASM-Holding. Analytics and con-
According to Table 3, the value of mined the most appropriate partici- sulting in automobile and agri-
the interaction indicator exceeds the pants for the potential cluster. Then, cultural engineering. Available
integrated efficiency of the cluster based on Russia’s new economic at: http://www.asm-holding.ru/,
value. Therefore, we can conclude policy of import substitution, we accessed 23 February 2018.
that functioning under the cluster is proposed a model for cluster forma- Butov, A. 2017. Agricultural ma-
more economically efficient and ef- tion. We estimated the actual level chiner y market. National Re-
fective than functioning as indepen- of “innovative readiness” of AM search Institute. Higher School
dent enterprises for Rostselmash, companies in the Rostov region and of Economics. Moscow. (In Rus-
Klever and Salskselmash. their potential profitability in the sian).
cluster compared with individual Chen, C. J. and C. C. Huang. 2004.
profitability using economic and A multiple criteria evaluation
mathematical modeling tools. of high-tech industries for the
Conclusions
It is economically profitable to science-based industrial park in
A period of stagnation following unite the companies analyzed in an Taiwan. Information and Manage-
the collapse of the Soviet Union industrial AM cluster, focused on ment, 41 839-851.
seriously undermined the overall import substitution. We speculated Delgado, M., M. Porter and S. Stern.
efficiency of Russia’s agriculture in that the formation of the cluster, 2016. Defining clusters of related
general and the AMI in particular. centered on the manufacturer Rost- industries. Journal of Economic
Low quality and reliability and a selmash, will positively affect the Geography, 16 (1), 1-38.
narrow product range of domestic productivity, innovation activity Ellison, G. and E. Glaeser. 1997.
equipment, combined with inad- and development of all enterprises Geographic concentration in US
equate state support, resulted in comprising the cluster. The devel- manufacturing industries: A dart-
extremely high import dependence. opment of its domestic AMI would board approach. Journal of Politi-
Wester n sanctions and counter- allow Russia to conduct an indepen- cal Economy, 105, 889-927.
sanctions that began in 2014 re- dent policy of import substitution Enright M. 2000. Survey on the
vealed these existing problems in for food products, machinery and characterization of regional clus-
the agrarian sector and led the gov- equipment, and contribute to the ters: Initial results. Working pa-
ernment to make an urgent shift to food security of the country. per, Institute of Economic Policy
an import substitution policy based and Busisness Strategy: Competi-
on innovative strategies. Acknowledgments tions program. University of Hong
Government support programs, We thank Dr Amanda Fitzgibbons Kong.
coupled with depreciation of the ru- (PhD) of Edanz Group (www.edan- Federal State Statistics Service.
ble, which has resulted in extremely zediting.com/ac) for editing a draft 2017. Russia in figures. Moscow,
high prices for foreign machinery of this manuscript. Rosstat. (In Russian).
and component parts, have proved Federal State Statistics Service.
to be beneficial for the AMI sector. Available at: http://www.gks.ru/,
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and economic context, traditional Net profit 2779578 37975 269620
strategies of industrial development Total assets 21870628 559757 2476848
cannot provide the necessary solu- Efficiency i 0.127 0.067 0.108
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Russian Government Resolution theory with the analytic hierarchy
An Overview of the Seed Sector in the Republic of
Mozambique
by
Missels Quécio Carlos Monjane António Machava Júnior
Graduate School of Science and Technology, Graduate School of Science and Technology,
Niigata University, Niigata University,
8050 Ikarashi 2-no-cho, Nishi-ku, Niigata, 950-2181 8050 Ikarashi 2-no-cho, Nishi-ku, Niigata, 950-2181
JAPAN JAPAN
[email protected] [email protected]
Mauro Estevão Machipane Hideo Hasegawa*

Eduardo Mondlane University, Professor
Maputo 1406 Institute of Science and Technology,
MOZAMBIQUE Niigata University,
[email protected] 8050 Ikarashi 2-no-cho, Nishi-ku, Niigata, 950-2181
JAPAN
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
tivity seen on the continent (African

Abstract Materials and Methods
Centre for Biodiversity, 2015). ‘Im-
This paper provides an overview proved’ seed use is very low, with This research used data from
of the seed sector in the Republic of only a tiny percentage of the most several sources. We acquired infor-
Mozambique by reviewing relevant commercially-focused farmers using mation from the government of the
documents from the Ministry of them. Maize appears to be some- Republic of Mozambique through
Agriculture and Food Security, the thing of an exception. In general, the Ministry of Agriculture and
Food and Agriculture Organiza- maize cultivation in Mozambique Food Security (MASA), and from
tion of the United Nations and the is increasing and just under 10% of public seed companies, agro-dealer
United States Agency for Interna- maize farmers are using ‘improved’ seed suppliers and service beneficia-
tional Development. We assessed seed, which implies that smallholder ries across the country. Information
the seed value chain as well as the subsistence farmers may also be us- gathered from these sources were
main companies involved in seed ing such seeds. The low fertilizer combined with survey data collected
production across the country. We use, however, indicates that most from various lectures, journals and
additionally analyzed seed produc- farmers using improved seeds are official publications from the Food
tion for the main crops grown in the not using fertilizer. This reduces the and Agriculture Organization of
Republic of Mozambique. productive potential of such seed. the United Nations (FAO). Updated
Keywords: seed sector, Mozam- Local production of agro-inputs, data were obtained from seed sector
bique, seed value chain, seed multi- such as fertilizer and ‘improved’ research centers across the country.
plication, certified seed seed, is practically non-existent,
and the former is limited to some
basic blending of imported products
(Trade and Industrial Policy Strate-
Introduction
gies, 2017). The aim of this study Key Actors in the Seed System
In the “Green Revolution” nar- was to analyze the seed sector in MASA
rative of our time, the low adop- the Republic of Mozambique. We MASA is a public institution estab-
tion rates of ‘improved’ or certified assessed seed production by the lished in 2015 by Presidential Decree
seed from the formal sector in sub- government as well as the private 01/2015 (MASA, 2015). MASA aims
Saharan Africa is a major reason for sector. to contribute to food security, nutri-
the low rates of agricultural production and income generation, ensuring
social and gender equity. MASA’s having been in operation for less than are required for a minimum of two
vision is a prosperous, competitive 5 years. The estimated aggregate seasons, although DUS testing can
and sustainable agricultural sector, seed sales in 2016, based on crop, be performed for only one year if the
capable of offering solutions to the were 4,375 tons of maize, 650 tons of breeder provides an additional de-
challenges of the sector and meet- rice, 364 tons of cowpea and 689 tons scription to supplement the test. The
ing the agrarian market at the global of soya bean (Edward et al., 2017). Seed Services department presents
level. MASA coordinates the devel- varietal testing results to the multi-
opment and implementation of the Overview of the Seed Value Chain stakeholder National Seed Commit-
policies and strategies in its four ma- The public sector dominates the tee that ultimately approves varietal
jor areas of intervention: agriculture, Mozambican seed market. Of the releases and publishes the National
livestock, agricultural hydraulics and 90,000 tons of seed planted for food Varieties List. Members of this com-
food security and nutrition, which crops, 70% is farmer-saved seed, mittee include the National Director
cover the following commodities: 20% is from informal trading and of Agriculture, IIAM, farmers’ asso-
rice, soybean, cotton, maize, banana, only 10% is acquired through the ciations, seed growers’ associations,
sugar, cassava, legumes, poultry, formal sector. Of that 10%, only seed companies and the Ministry
cashew nut, bovine meat and forest one-fifth (1,800) tons is sold outside of Ag r icult u re and Food Secu-
products (USAID, 2015). the government-subsidized system. rity (MASA). The varietal release
MASA considers inputs access Two large companies, SEMOC and system is regarded as functioning
and use as one of crucial measures PANNAR, produce over 90% of poorly, with over 80 varieties await-
for agricultural productivity im- the open-pollinated maize seed, ing approval. A major bottleneck is
provement. Fig. 1 provides the cur- and they provide the production the capability of IIAM to conduct
rent estimates and projections of and marketing of improved maize the required tests. To overcome this
levels of use of seed. varieties for the government at sub- constraint, the MASA is allowing
In 2016, Mozambique had 63 reg- sidized prices. Constraints on the the provisional release of varieties
istered seed companies, of which seed sector include a lack of avail- based on data provided by breeders.
59 were local. Among these 63 able quality seed, the crowding out
registered companies, only 15 were of the private sector and a lack of Access to ‘Improved’ Seed in Mo-
actively engaged in the production awareness of the benefits of ‘im- zambique
and marketing of at least one of the proved’ seed (USAID, 2016). Most far mers in Mozambique
four focal crops. All 15 produced cannot access ‘improved’, high-
maize seed, 3 produced rice seed, Varietal Testing and Release quality planting materials. This sec-
11 produced cowpea seed and 6 pro- The Seed Services department tion focuses on cereal and legume
duced soya bean seed. Most of the w it h i n M A SA i s t h e p r i m a r y seed developed mainly by the public
seed companies produce maize and implementer of the Seed Law. The agricultural research system and ex-
cowpea seed because these crops Instituto Nacional de Investigação panded to the foundation seed stage
are highly suitable for the growing Agrária (IIAM) conducts varietal mainly by public agencies. The terms
conditions in large parts of the coun- testing, although independent insti- “foundation seed” and “basic seed”
try’s central and northern regions. tutions can also submit their own are used interchangeably in this dis-
Consequently, most seed companies data. Both Distinctness, Uniformity cussion. This section identifies key
are also based in these areas. Most of and Stability (DUS) and Value for institutions and players in the seed
Mozambique’s companies are young, Cultivation and Use (VCU) testing production system, discusses their
roles, lays out the legal and regula-
Fig. 1 Estimates and projections of seed use in the Republic of tory framework surrounding seed
Mozambique (MASA, 2015) production, examines foundation
seed production and seed multipli-
cation, estimates ‘improved’ seed
utilization for key field crops and
identifies priority policy, regulatory
and institutional issues for a broader
public-private sector discussion.
Seed Certification and Quality

Assurance
The Seed Services department is
responsible for seed certification. Its
primary tasks include field inspec- bitions on private firms producing in the past and that the production
tions, seed quality laboratory tests and foundation seed. Information on ba- of basic seed of the main varieties
the issuance of official certificates. sic seed production is unfortunately met the multiplying firms estimated
scanty and inconsistent across sourc- demand in 2009-10. USEBA’s con-
Common Sanitary and Phytosani- es. Some informants report that the straints to producing basic seed are
tary Measures quality of basic seed is also suspect. as follows:
Mozambique allows the import of According to the GCP(Global Com- a) Low availability of breeder seed:
both registered varieties of seed and pact Program)/MOZ/099/EC Project No stocks of breeder seed exist
non-registered varieties subject to progress report of March 2011, 470 for ~50% of the released varieties;
obtaining an import license from the tons of basic seed were produced in b) Inadequate facilities to store
Seed Services department. An import 2009-10 with support of the MINAG/ foundation seed at IIA M and
license usually takes one to two weeks EC/FAO project, the GCP aims to Zonal Centers; and
to process. Mozambique’s quarantine provide technical Assistance. Of that, c) An inadequate irrigation infra-
regulations are in keeping with the 227.5 tons (48%) was maize seed, structure required for seed multi-
Southern African Development Com- 165 tons (35%) rice and 76.8 tons plication.
munity’s (SADC) Harmonized Seed (16%) soya bean. The total quantity
Regulations (USAID, 2016). of basic maize seed produced in Seed Multiplication
2009-10 was theoretically enough to Local Production of Unimproved
Foundation Seed Production produce 9,100 ha of maize C1 seed Seed
Basic seed production is central- in 2010-11 (assuming a planting rate Through the Departamento de
ized at the Unidade de Semente of 25 kg/ha), but this amount was Sementes and Provincial Director-
Básica (USEBA) of IIAM. In 2009- not close to that achieved in prac- ates of Agriculture, the govern-
10, Lozane Farms was the only pri- tice. The total quantity of basic rice ment has been promoting local seed
vate seed company that USEBA con- seed produced in 2009-10 was theo- production by individual farmers,
tracted to produce basic seed. During retically enough to produce around farmer groups and associations in
that year, the company produced 2,000 ha of rice C1 seed in 2010-11 cooperation with certain non-gov-
~25 tons, of which ~20 tons was sold (assuming a planting rate of 80 kg/ ernmental organizations. This activ-
to SEMOC and the balance to the ha). This estimate appears to be high, ity is coordinated through regional
MASA/ European Community (EC)/ as MozFoods reports having grown farmer associations and federations
FAO project. According to USEBA, 2,450 tons of certified seed in 2009- (Southern, Central and Northern).
private companies’ production of 10 (likely on ~800 ha, with mean The commodities covered under
foundation seed is limited because yields of ~3.0 tons/ha). According these programs include maize, rice,
the low demand does not justify in- to USEBA, 826 tons of all types of groundnuts, sesame, beans (feijão
vesting in a substantial increase in foundation seed were planned for vulgar), and cowpeas (feijão nhem-
their production, with the exception 2010-11, of which 33% was maize ba). The amount of seed produced
of irrigated rice (owing to strong and 53% was rice. Private seed com- under these programs increased
urban demand). Another constraint panies concluded that, at best, IIAM from a 3 year average of 5,871 tons
is the lack of financial resources for can meet only 50% of the estimated from 2004-05 to 2006-07 to an av-
contracting seed producers. Unlike demand for basic seed. USEBA as- erage of 6,474 tons from 2007-08
Ghana, Mozambique has no prohi- serts that the proportion was greater to 2009-10. The seed produced is
Fig. 2 Area and production of local unimproved seed by year Fig. 3 Area and production of certified rice seed by year
(Ministry of Agriculture/National Directorate of Agrarian (Ministry of Agriculture/National Directorate of Agrarian
Services/Seed Department, 2010) Services/Seed Department, 2010)
used for local distribution through its seed has had major germination IIAM, including crop varieties. The
farmer organizations, cooperatives problems in the past several years. dissemination activities by those
and traders; it is also used in some IKURU-multiplied seed is produced units involves the establishment of
government seed support programs under contract with smallholder demonstration plots at the farmers’
(Fig. 2) (World Bank, 2012). companies and some agribusinesses fields and research stations as well
as part of the Techno Serve program, as result demonstration plots and
Private Sector Certified Seed Pro- the selected commodities of certified technology exhibition centers. They
duction and Sales seed production are shown in Figs. provide technical assistance and
SEMOC and PANNAR produce 3-5 (World Bank, 2012). consider farmers’ preferences and
over 90% of open-pollinated maize assessments of varieties and other
seed, and MozFoods/MIA is the only Government Distribution of ‘Im- technological packages.
registered rice seed producer, grow- proved’ Seed The extension approach is slightly
ing 70% of its certified seed on its The government is the main sup- different for maize hybrids in com-
own farm and 30% under contracts plier of seed to farmers and this parison to OPVs. For hybrids, dem-
without growers. Hybrid seed pro- occurs through the Plano de Acção onstration plots are carried out by
duction in Mozambique is limited. para Produção de Alimentos, its food researchers from the public national
PANNAR was the only company production support program, and the research system, CGIAR and the
producing hybrid maize seed in European Union voucher program private sector, because the trials
2010 (180 tons of ‘PAN 67’ were implemented by the International require high-level technical skills,
multiplied in Mozambique and 150 Fertilizer Development Center. which are limited at the extension
tons were imported). In 2009, PAN- office level. However, the extension
NAR imported 1,469.5 tons of ‘PAN Rural Extension office can easily handle the OPV
67’. PANNAR contracts with Moz- The public extension services are demonstrations (USAID, 2015).
Foods/MIA and a few commercial more predominant than private ser-
seed growers to multiply the hybrid vices. The extension directorate at Enhancement of Seed Legislation
seed in Mozambique. The other 16 MASA intervenes in the process of In 2013, the government approved
registered companies are smaller, technology transfer to the farmers a new national legislation on seed
producing less than 150 tons annu- and brings the farmers’ feedback production, trade, quality control
ally of seed, mainly open-pollinated regarding the acceptability of the and seed certification. This legisla-
varieties (OPVs) of maize and rice, existing varieties to researchers. tion aims at developing seed; grant-
as well as small quantities of sor- In addition, the extension services ing accreditation to private sector
ghum, cowpea, common bean and bring farmers’ needs to the attention agents in seed breeding and provid-
groundnut varieties. Lozane Farms of researchers to guide breeders in ing protection to new varieties of
produced 168 tons of seed in 2009- the development of demand-oriented plants. Mozambique was expected
10, and some of it was under contract varieties. The Directorate of Train- to align its national legislation on
to PANNAR and SEMOC. IKURU, ing, Documentation and Technol- seed with SADC regulations. In
a federation of smallholder organi- ogy Transfer at IIAM, handles the April 2014, the MASA, with its
zations, is a supposed importer and transfer and dissemination, as well partners, launched the National Plat-
producer of soya bean seed and ses- as socio-economic-related stud- form of Dialogue of Seed Sector to
ame, although one source notes that ies, of technologies developed by enhance the business environment
Fig. 4 Area and production of certified maize seed by year Fig. 5 Area and production of certified wheat seed by year
(Ministry of Agriculture/National Directorate of Agrarian (Ministry of Agriculture/National Directorate of Agrarian
Services/Seed Department, 2010) Services/Seed Department, 2010)
in this sector. This platform will dissemination work that is performed FAO. 2016. Country Fact Sheet on
address the challenges and offer so- prior to varietal releases. The dissemi- Food and Agriculture Policy Trends.
lutions to improve the performance nation work is mainly limited to field Ministry of Agriculture of the Re-
level of the sector and those of dif- days and is sometimes restricted to public of Mozambique/National
ferent actors in the seed value chain, groups of farmers involved in on-farm Directorate of Agrarian Services/
including public and private sectors trials. This could be improved through Seed Department. 2010. Available
and the end users (FAO, 2016). multi-disciplinary engagements at the online: http://www.masa.gov.mz
end stage, prior to release, consider- (accessed on 12/10/2018)
Seed-related Policies ing the value chain actors and taking Ministry of Agriculture and Food
The Seed Law of 1994 (Decree into account the main outcomes of the Security of the Republic of Mo-
41/94) focuses on production and ‘improved’ variety. zambique. 2015. Available online:
marketing in formal seed systems, ht t p://w w w.masa.gov.m z (ac-
but it does not even mention the Acknowledgements cessed on 13/10/2018)
informal seed system. The same We thank Lesley Benyon, PhD, USAID. 2015. Mozambique Early
applies to all of the strategic and from Edanz Group (www.edan- Generation Seed Study. Available
regulatory documents that were zediting.com/ac) for editing a draft online: https://www.usaid.gov/
subsequently created to regulate of this manuscript. reports-and-data (accessed on
and implement The Seed Law, with 15/10/2018)
the exception of the National Seed USAID. 2016. Southern Africa Re-
Strategy (1997-2001), which recog- References gional Seed Sector Assessment.
nizes the role of the informal sector Available online: https://www.
(Pereira and Heemskerk, 2012). African Centre for Biodiversity. usaid.gov/reports-and-data (ac-
The Seed Services department of 2015. The Expansion of the com- cessed on 15/10/2018)
the MASA is responsible for all seed- mercial Seed Sector in Sub Saha- Trade and Industrial Policy Strate-
related regulatory activities, including ran Africa: Major Players, Key Is- gies. 2017. Case st udy on the
the provision of import and export sues and Trends. Available online: agricultural inputs regional value
licenses. It operates three regional http://www.acbio.org.za (accessed chain in Southern Africa: South
seed laboratories. The central labora- on 5/10/2018) Africa, Mozambique, Tanzania
tory in Maputo received several seed Edward, M., M. Alberto, A. Tomo and Zambia.
germination cabinets from FAO but and M. Mugoya. 2017. Mozam- Swiss Development Corporation
none are in working order. Several bique brief. The African Seed (SDC). 2011. Analysis of Seed
private sector seed companies com- Access Index. Available online: Production, Commercialization
plained about the lack of staff and the https://tasai.org/ (accessed on and Use in Mozambique.
long delays in seed certification and 12/10/2018) World Bank. 2012. Agribusiness
seed testing results. The Seed Ser- Pereira, I. and W. Heemskerk. 2012. Indicators Mozambique. Available
vices department itself indicated that Integrated Seed Sector Develop- online: https://www.worldbank.
equipment needs and staff training ment (ISSD Africa). Mozambique org/en/research (accessed on 17/10
are key problems. PANNAR stated Seed Sector Assessment. /2018) ■■
that varietal testing takes 3 years and
costs US$2,300/variety/year, which is Table 1 Estimates of domestic certified seed sales (Swiss Development Corporation
more expensive than in other SADC (SDC), 2011)
countries (USAID, 2016). Quantities
Company Types of seed produced
sold (tons)
SEMOCa OPVb maize, beans, rice, sorghum, peanut 5,000
MozFoods Rice, OPV/hybrid maize, wheat, beans 2,050
Conclusions PANNAR OPV/hybrid maize, sorghum, peanuts 1,500-2,000
Dengo Comercial OPV/hybrid maize, beans, sorghum 555
Low agricultural productivity and
Morais Comercial OPV/hybrid maize, beans, peanuts, 270
the need to feed an increasing African horticultural crops
(and global) population in an era of IKURO OPV maize, soybeans, peanuts, beans, sesame 250
climate change will require the adop- Lozane Farms OPV maize, beans, sorghum, soya beans 168
tion of ‘improved’ or certified seed. Semente Perfeita Horticultural crops and broad mix grains, 60
The private sector is seen as the pri- legumes
mary agent for achieving this goal. Quiniho Comercial Grains, horticultural crops 40
There are several limitations in JNB Empreendimentos OPV/hybrid maize, beans, horticultural crops 15-20
terms of socio-economic research and IAVc Horticultural crops, maize, beans 21.5
Mini Tractor-mounted Sensor-based Aqua Groundnut
Planter
by
G. Anitha A. Ashok Kumar*
M. Tech student Principal Investigator, AICRP on FIM
Dept. of Farm Machinery and Power, Dept of Farm Machinery and Power,
Dr.NTR College of Agricultural Engineering, Dr.NTR College of Agricultural Engineering,
Bapatla, 522101 Bapatla, 522101
INDIA INDIA
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
A. Srinivasa Rao Ch. Someswara Rao

Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Dept of Farm Machinery and Power, Dr.NTR College of Food Science & Technology,
College of Agricultural Engineering, Bapatla, 522101
Madakasira, 515301 INDIA
INDIA
system, seed planting and water ap- or sweetened. They are rich in pro-
Abstract
plication can be done simultaneously tein and vitamins A, B and mem-
Groundnut is grown on large in a single operation. This increases bers of the B2 group (Chennakrish-
scale in almost all the tropical and the moisture content of soil and sus- nan, 2012). The cake can be used for
sub-tropical countries of the world. tainability of seed for germination. manufacturing artificial fiber.
Groundnut is the sixth most impor- With this technology, the water can Planting operation is one of the
tant oilseed crop in the world. In be applied along with the seed at the most important cultural practices
India, most of the farmers are small targeted location which helps the associated with crop production.
and marginal farmers, hence there is farmers to plant the crop even under Increase in crop yield, cropping
a demand of small implements that low rainfall conditions (low moisture reliability, cropping frequency and
could be used as multifunctional de- content of the soil). crop returns all depend on the uni-
vices. Hence a mini tractor-mounted Keywords: Groundnut planter, form and timely establishment of
sensor-based groundnut aqua planter Aqua Planter Mini tractor, Sensor. optimum plant population. In India,
was designed and developed. Mostly most of the farmers are small and
in India, the groundnut crop is plant- marginal farmers; hence, there is a
ed during starting of the rainy season demand of small implements which
Introduction
i.e. from the month of May to July, could be used as multifunctional
and most of the crop is cultivated Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea devices by attaching simple compo-
under rain fed conditions. Few of the L.) is the sixth most important oil- nents to be fitted to the low hp trac-
farmers irrigate the crop using con- seed crop in the world. The major tor. The short growing season and
ventional methods such as sprinkler groundnut producing countries in the scarcity of labor make high need
and drip irrigation, but it requires the world are India, China,Nigeria, for the intermediate technology to
high capital investment. The basic Senegal, Sudan, Burma and the be used for deep loamy and clayey
idea of mini tractor-mounted ground United States of America. It con- mixed red and black soils.
nut planter cum site specific precision tains 48-50% oil and 26-28% pro- The cost of agricultural inputs is
water applicator is that the dropped tein and is a rich source of dietary increasing day by day and there is a
seed from the metering mechanism fiber, minerals and vitamins. It is clear preference to reduce the use of
of planter can be detected by an in- also used in soap making and in waters in agriculture, hence to make
frared (IR) sensor and activate the manufacturing cosmetics and lubri- agriculture profitable and to reduce
solenoid valve to discharge water cants, olefin, stearin and their salts. the water usage precision agricul-
close to the dropped seed. With this Kernels are also eaten raw, roasted ture can be a promising alternative.
The recent advancement in technol- level.
Material and Methods
ogy creates a need for precision ag- Basic specifications of seed drill
riculture which include right amount The self-propelled groundnut planter should be derived from agro-
of input at right time of application planter was designed as a functional nomic and operational parameters,
and in right quantity to increase and experimental unit. The design of source of power, labor requirements
farm productivity by reducing farm machine components were based on and economic condition of farmers
losses. One of the objectives of pre- the principles of operations, tested hence mainly concentrated in this
cision agriculture is to minimize and compared with the conventional study.
the volume of water by using site- method, to give a correct shape in
specific application system. form of prototype. The mechanical Development of Groundnut Planter
The groundnut is the only nut that design details were carefully laid A groundnut planter was designed
grows below the earth. The ground- out so as to give adequate functional and developed that is suitable for a
nut plant is variable annual herb, rigidity for the design of machine. mini tractor at Dr. NTR College of
which grows up to 50 cm in height. Agricultural Engineering, Bapatla.
The flowers of the plant develop a Physical Characteristics of Seed Before mou nti ng of g rou nd nut
stalk that enters into the soil, forms a Initially the physical charac- planter to the mini-tractor, Auto-
pod containing generally two seeds teristics of groundnut seed were CAD drawings were used for fab-
that mature in about two months. measured. It was observed that, the rication of the machine. The seed
When they leave off, the plant turns average length, width and thickness and fertilizer box were made up of
yellow. The plant is then removed of dry seed were found as 13.11, 7.43 1 mm MS sheet. The seed box hav-
from the earth and allowed to dry. and 6.40 mm, respectively. How- ing three sections were made as per
The tractor is most versatile ma- ever, the length was found to vary designed and a funnel was also pro-
chine used in India for various farm between 13.36 to 14.04 mm, the vided inside the seed box to carry
operations and transportation. In In- seed width was found to vary be- the groundnut from spoons and de-
dia there is a trend of mounting vari- tween 7.33 to 7.69 mm whereas the liver it to the furrow opener through
ous machines like Combine and other seed thickness was varied between the seed delivery tube.
implements to the tractor as most of a maximum and minimum of 6.33 The shafts of seed and fertilizer
the operations are seasonal in nature to 6.60 mm, respectively. metering device having 20 mm di-
so there is a need to develop tractor ameter cold rolled round section
mounted implement to decrease its General Design Considerations of steel shaft were used. Two bushes
ideal time. The planting and water ap- Planter were provided as bearings of shaft
plication can be done by integrating The design of planter consists at both ends. The metering device
ground nut planter and site specific of several steps and would require of the seed has been made up of 3
water applicator to the mini tractor basic information on the following mm thick black MS plate with 20 cm
which could be useful to the small were considered: diameter of round plate. Round bars
and marginal farmers. This technique a) Crops and their characteristics. of MS having 4 mm diameter and
helps the farmers those completely b) Soils and climatic conditions dur- 50 mm length were taken for join-
depend on the rain fed irrigation ing sowing seasons. ing the spoons with the round plate.
like less rainfall region in Andhra c) Agronomic requirements of crops The spoons were made up of 2 mm
Pradesh. It also permits the farmers and yield levels. thick round MS coins having 35 mm
to go for cultivation with minimum d) Sources of power available. diameter by stamping of coins with
quantity of water, since the water will e) Labor requirements for seeding. specified die to give proper shape of
be applied only on targeted location, f ) Socio-economic conditions of the spoons. The gears of fertilizer
application of water avoided in non- farmers. metering device were made up of
targeted areas, hence possibility of g) Size of holding. MS round pipe and 8 × 7 mm rectan-
water saving. By keeping above men- h) Level of manufacturing skill at gular section 12 bars having 35 mm
tioned parameters in mind, the objec- small finished components. length were welded at the periphery
tives of the present study are to design i) Ease of operation, calibration and of the round pipe. A ground wheel
and develop a groundnut planter suit- maintenance. was made up of 30 × 5 mm MS flat
able for mini tractor, to develop a sen- j) Safety and operation, calibration having length 120 cm by bending
sor based site-specific precision water and maintenance. in circular shape and 12 pentagonal
applicator and integrate to the planter k) Safety and operator’s comfort. pegs were welded at the periphery of
and to evaluate the developed ground- l) Expected level of cost of machine the wheel for better griping with soil.
nut aqua planter cum under laboratory and cost of machine operation. The ground wheel was attached with
and field conditions. m) Net benefit expected at farmer’s the main frame by providing a hinged
Table 1 Specifications of the developed planter units were integrated to work as a
SI. No. Seed damage, % single unit for planting as well as
Overall height, mm 1200 site specific water/water applications
Overall length, mm 1450 simultaneously. The developed elec-
Overall width, mm 900 tronic control unit was attached on
Weight, kg 90 the groundnut planter with suitable
Metering mechanism Vertical plate cup or spoon attachments as shown in Fig. 3. The
Power source, hp (Tractor Mitsubishi 180D) 18.5 step by step procedure for integra-
No. of rows Three tion of ground nut planter and elec-
Planter price, Rs. 13000 tronic control unit is given below.
Plant to plant spacing, cm 10 ±0.5 a) Water tank was connected to the
Row to row spacing, cm 30 planter fertilizer hopper, with
Type Fully mounted angle iron by making a similar
cross-section of tank using nut
joint of 30 × 8 mm MS f lat. Two delivery tube using IR obstacle sen- and bolt arrangement.
gauge/depth control wheels made up sor and to activate the solenoid valves b) Elect ron ic cont rol u n it was
of 30 × 5 mm MS flat used developed for site delivering specific precision placed just above the seed hopper
mounted for the frame. These were fungicide. The developed groundnut by placing it in a plastic container
fabricated by bending in circular planter is a three row planter; hence at bottom of the water tank and
shape. Three tines were made up of in the present study three IR sensors close to the seed delivering tube.
medium carbon steel, heat treated were used for detecting the seeds in c) 12 V DC High pressure water
to shovel hardness of RC – 40/45. A three seed delivery tubes and three pump was connected to the front
three point hitch system was con- solenoid valves used for delivering side of seed hopper using an angle
nected to the frame of the developed the fungicide in each row. Accord- iron, nut and bolt arrangement.
groundnut planter to mount to the ingly three relay switches were also d) 12 V DC Battery was kept a side
mini tractor three point linkages. The used for activation of the solenoid of the fertilizer hopper for giving
developed groundnut planter with se- valves by multiplying the voltage power supply to the ECU and wa-
lected that tractor has been presented power supply. An Arduino Mega ter pump.
in Fig. 1. The specifications of the 2560 Microcontroller board was used e) Three solenoid valves were con-
developed planter are given in Table to read, process the three IR sensor nected at the top of the three fur-
1. The Complete driving system at- signals and also to activate the three
tached in the groundnut planter for solenoid valves simultaneously. The Fig. 3 Developed planter cum site
transmission of power from ground output pin of the IR sensor was con- specific precision water applicator
wheel is shown in Fig. 2. nected to the digital pins of 2, 3 and
4 of the microcontroller.
Development of Electronic Con-
trol Unit for water application Integration of Groundnut Planter
Electronic Control Unit (ECU) was with ECU
developed for delivering the précised The developed ground nut planter
fungicide at required time and right and electronic control unit for site
place, by detecting the seed in seed specific precision water application
Fig. 1 Developed groundnut planter with test tractor Fig. 2 Driving system of groundnut planter
row opener’s shaft using nut and Table 2 Measurement of water saving percentage
bolt arrangement for delivering SI. Water consumption, litre
Sensor Status Mean, litre
the water at required time. No. T1 T2 T3
f) The water tank, DC pumps and 1 With activation 2.0 2.5 2.7 2.4
solenoid valves were connected 2 Without activation 10.0 10.8 11.0 10.6
using 10 mm hose pipe, adapters 3 Water saving (%) 80.0 76.8 75.5 82
and T Joints. Pump inlet was con-
nected to the water tank and outlet force found to vary from 285 to 296 The seed missing index of the planter
was connected to the main line of kg at an average depth of 11.5 cm as at different speed of operation is
water supply system of water using change in speed of operation from 1 shown in Fig. 5. It was observed that
T-joints. The inlet of solenoid valve to 2.5 km/h. as increasing the speed of operation
is connected to the T-joint of main It was also observed that the draft of the planter, the seed missing index
line and outlet is connected to a pipe force requirement of planter has of the planter also increased. This is
discharge the water on the ground. been increased with increase in also may be due to increasing wheel
speed of operation. It may be due to slippage of the ground wheel.
the acceleration of the soil particles
and imparted kinetic energy to the Uniformity of Seed Spacing
Results and Discussions
soil. The effect of depth of operation The uniformity of seed spacing
Evaluation of the Sensor-Based on draft force of the implement is was measured under actual field
Groundnut Aqua Planter shown in Fig. 4. condition. It was observed that dur-
The developed groundnut planter ing 10 m distance coverage of the
cum site specific precision water ap- Missing Index (MI) planter, the seed to seed spacing of
plication was evaluated under actual The seed missing index of ground- the planter in all the rows found to
field conditions. The parameters mea- nut planter was observed during its vary from 9.6 to 11.5 cm with an av-
sured and results obtained during the evaluation. It was found that during erage depth of 10.2 cm. This varia-
evaluation are presented in Table 2 10 m distance coverage of the planter tion may be due to seed displace-
and discussed in the below sections. at constant depth, the average num- ment in the furrow due to sudden
ber of seeds missed during pickup by fall. It was also observed that, the
Measurement of Draft Force the metering mechanism of the plant- developed seed metering mecha-
During evaluation of the planter er was 2.7 in a row at a speed of 1 nism dropped only single seed. The
under actual field condition, it was km/h. Similarly the number of seeds row to row spacing of the developed
observed that, the draft force require- missed during pickup by the meter- groundnut planter was observed as
ment of the planter found to vary ing mechanism of the planter was 30 cm in the field. A provision was
from 125 to 139 kg at an average 4.8 in a row at a speed of 1.5 km/h, also made on the planter to increase
depth of 5.3 cm as change in speed of whereas the number of seeds missed or decrease the row to row spacing
operation from 1 to 2.5 km/h. Simi- during pickup by the metering mech- by adjusting the U-clamps of the
larly, the draft force requirement of anism of the planter was 9 in a row at tines as per the requirement.
the planter found to vary from 160 to a speed of 2.5 km/h. Thus the miss-
171 kg at an average depth of 8.7 cm ing indexes of planter were found as Measurement of Wheel Slippage
as change in speed of operation from 2.7, 4.8 and 9% at an operating speed of Ground Wheel
1 to 2.5 km/h, whereas, the draft of 1, 1.5 and 2.5 km/h respectively. The percentage wheel slip of the
Fig. 4 Effect of depth of operation on draft force of planter Fig. 5 Seed missing index of the planter at different speeds
Table 3 Measurement of seed damage percentage time of operation. The Fig. 7 shows
SI.
No. of No. of seeds dropped No. of seeds damaged Seed the effect of operating speed on field
revolution of damage, capacity of developed planter. Dur-
No. T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3
ground wheel %
ing field evaluation, it was observed
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0
that, the field efficiency seen to vary
2 5 19 21 19 1 1 2 5.0
from 83.3 to 73.6% as the change in
3 10 39 40 39 2 3 1 5.1
speed of operation from 1 to 2.5 km/
4 20 77 79 81 3 4 6 5.5
h (Fig. 8). It may be due to the less
groundnut planter was measured un- ing the depth of operation maybe due theoretical time consumed while in-
der actual field condition. It was ob- to increase in draft force of the planter. creasing in speed.
served that the distance covered in 10
revolutions of the ground wheel is 3.7 Theoretical and Effective Field Seed Damage Percentage
m at no load condition, whereas, the Capacity The seed damage percentage of the
distance covered in 10 revolutions of The theoretical field capacity and planter was measured under labora-
the ground wheel with load is 3.4 m effective field capacities of the plant- tory condition. It was observed that,
at a depth of 5.3 cm. The wheel slip er were calculated. Theoretical field for 10 revolutions of the ground wheel
was obtained as 10.52%. capacity found to vary from 0.06 to on lifted position, the total quantity of
The wheel slip was observed at dif- 0.15 ha/h with an average value of collected seeds were 40 in each row, in
ferent speeds and depths of operation 0.1 ha/h and effective field capacity which the number of damaged seeds
of tractor implement combination. It found to vary from 0.05 to 0.11 ha/ were observed as 2 and is presented
was found that during different depths h with an average value of 0.076%, in Table 3. Therefore, the seeds dam-
at constant forward speed of the plant- as the change in speed of operation aged percentage was obtained as 5%.
er, the wheel slip was increased while from 1.0 to 2.5 km/h respectively. During testing it was observed that the
increasing the depth of operation as The field capacity was increased timing of seed drop was irrespective
shown in Fig. 6. The reasons for in- with increase the speed of operation; of the rotation of ground wheel speed.
creasing the wheel slip while increas- it may be due to the increase in rated The experiments were conducted for
20 revolutions of the ground wheel,
and then also found the similar type
Fig. 6 Effect of depth of operation on wheel slippage of ground
wheel of results. It clearly shows that the de-
veloped ground planter is suitable for
planting of groundnut seeds without
any damage.
Measurement of Water Saving

Percentage
The water saving of the site spe-
cific precision water applicator was
observed under actual field condi-
tion. It was found that the average
water consumption without activa-
tion of IR sensor is about 10.8 litre,
Fig. 7 Effect of operating speed on field capacity Fig. 8 Effect of operating speed on field capacity
whereas the water consumption of j) By using this Electronic Control tar and L. Ali. 2010. Effect of seed
the system with activation of the Unit (ECU) technology an amount rate and row spacing on yield and
sensor system is observed as 2.4 of 77% water consumption can be yield components of wheat. Jour-
litre. It was also observed that the saved. nal of Agricultural Research. 48
percentage water saving of the de- k) With this sensor based technol- (2): 151-156.
veloped site specific precision water ogy application of excess liquid Jeona, H. Y., H. Zhua, R. Derksena,
application is about 77%. The ex- water consumption could be saved E. Ozkanb and C. Krausea. 2011.
periment was replicated three times which leads to reduction in envi- Evaluation of ultrasonic sensor for
for its better performance. ronmental pollution. variable-rate spray applications.
Computers and Electronics in Ag-
riculture. 75: 213-221.
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Design, Development and Performance Evaluation
of a Power Operated Rice Seeder for Dry and Wet
Seeding
by
Ajay Kumar Verma Umesh Kumar Dhruw
Professor & Principal Scientist Ph.D. Scholar & Assistant Professor
Dept. of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, Dept. of Agricultural Engineering,
Faculty of Agril. Engineering, IGAU, College of Agriculture and Research Station Bemetara,
Raipur, Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh
INDIA INDIA
[email protected]
taining seed disc with a funnel was was Rs 22,025 and Rs 25,110, with
Abstract
linked horizontally. It could cover 8 B:C ratio as 2.9 and 3.5, respectively.
Direct seeded rice (wet or dry row rows of seeds in a single pass. The
seeding) is one of the methods suit- row to row spacing was 20 cm. An
able for rainfed rice cultivation in opening was made in the upper part
Introduction
Chhattisgarh, India. In wet seeded of the seed box for storing the dry
rice (WSR), the pre-germinated seeds or pre-germinated seeds at the Rajkumara et al. (2003) reported
seeds are broadcasted or sown in time of operation under dry or wet that transplanting is becoming an
rows on the saturated soil surface, field conditions respectively. increasingly difficult option due to
after puddling. Dry seeded rice The plant to plant spacing can be shortage and high cost of labour,
(DSR) involves broadcasting or varied from 20, 15 and 10 cm by us- scarcity of water and the reduced
drilling the seed into non-puddled ing 4, 6 and 8 numbers of cups, re- profit. Wet seeding on puddled soil
soil, usually after dry tillage. There spectively. The average seed rate for either through broadcasting or in
is no such single versatile machine 20 cm row to row and 15 cm plant to rows is gaining popularity due to
available for used in both WSR and plant spacing was found to be 17.8 lower labour requirement, shorter
DSR cultivation. Thus, a power kg/ha and 22.1 kg/ha for wet and dry crop period and efficient water use.
operated 8-row riding type commer- conditions. The actual field capac- Direct-seeding of rice has the po-
cially available rice transplanter was ity and field efficiency for wet and tential to provide several benefits to
modified for direct-seeded rice for dry conditions of the machine was farmers and the environment over
the wet and dry condition. It consists 0.22 ha/h & 0.25 ha/h and 71.8% conventional practices of puddling
of a 4-stroke 2.94 kW, 2600 rpm air & 77.6%, respectively. The average and transplanting. The various ben-
cooled diesel engine, power-driven fuel consumptions were found to be efits are enumerated below:
traction wheel, gear box, universal 2.88 l/ha and 2.56 l/ha for wet and a. Saves labour (1-2 v/s 25-30 la-
coupling, sets of bevel and spur gear, dry conditions. The cost of operation bour/ha for transplanting system).
float for wet seeding and hoe type of sowing of rice by power operated b. Sowing can be done in stipulated
furrow openers for dry seeding, and rice seeder was Rs.1043/ha which time frame because of easier and
cup feed metering mechanism. The was 7.8 times less than from manual faster planting.
cup dimensions of 12 mm diameter transplanting of rice and 2.3 times c. Early crop maturity by 7-10 days
and 10 mm depth were found best less than riding type mechanical rice which allows timely planting of
with a permissible peripheral veloc- transplanter. Per hectare cultivation subsequent crops.
ity up to 20.5 m/min. A series of cost of rice by power operated rice d. More eff icient water use and
cup type metering mechanism con- seeder on wet and dry field condition higher water stress tolerance.
e. More profitability especially un- superior to normal transplanting and given due consideration.
der assured irrigation facilities. broadcasting of sprouted seed @ 75
f. Better soil physical conditions. kg/ha. Drum seeder technology @ Assumptions for the Design
Limited operation window is 30 kg seed per ha reduced the seed The following assumptions were
available for DSR in the rainy rate by 45 kg/ha as compared to the made while designing of the power
season. If rains continue, the soil broadcasting of seed on puddled soil operated paddy seeder:
becomes saturated. Under such cir- and resulted in a higher return to a. The power operated paddy seeder
cumferences using the conventional farmers over normal transplanting/ should be capable of working
seed drill for DSR becomes difficult broadcasting of sprouted seeds. in both dry as well as wet field
due to clogging and chocking of The constraints to adopting drum condition. The design should be
furrow openers. Under such circum- seeder technology are the require- simple for quick interchangeabil-
stances, manual sprouted rice drum ments of adequately puddled, lev- ity with limited tools.
seeder is one of the options for sow- eled and properly drained fields. b. The number of seeds placed si-
ing pre-germinated paddy seeds. Pulling them on puddled f ields multaneously in particular rows
Balasubramaniam et al. (1998) de- involves drudgeries. Besides this, should be roughly the same over
fined drum seeder is the machine, their capacity is rather low. Hence each meter of row length.
which sows dry seeds at specified covering larger areas of rice is te- c. The seed rate of power operated
rates on seedbed. The wet seeder dious and time consuming. There- paddy seeder can be changed
means the machine that uses wet fore it is necessary to develop a ma- from 15 to 25 kg/ha.
seeds (soaked and incubated seeds) chine which can be operated in both d. The number of seeds requires 3 to
and spread seeds on wet seedbed on dry and wet field conditions. 4 seeds per drop for DSR and 2-3
wet puddled soil. Suibbaiah et al. per drop for WSR.
(2002) evaluated the performance e. The row to row spacing should be
of a drum seeder in farmer’s fields. 20 cm.
Crop established with the drum f. The distance between plant to
seeder resulted in higher mean grain Commercially available 8-row plant distance should be main-
yield (4.63 t/ha) that was at par with riding type power operated rice tained either 20 cm, 15 cm or 10
transplanting (4.25 t/ha) and supe- transplanter was modified for dry cm as per requirements through
rior over broadcasting (3.34 t/ha). seeded rice (DSR) and wet seeded by changing the number of cups
Visalakshi and Shreesha (2013) rice (WSR) with some modifica- in the metering disc of the cup
evaluated the perfor mance of a tion in the transmission system and feed mechanism.
drum seeder in direct sown paddy development in the metering unit g. Placing of seeds at an appropriate
under puddled condition during for the sowing of dry or germinated depth and covering with soil layer.
Kharif season for three years to rice seeds. So that uniform distribu- h. Seeds should not be injured by
evaluate the eff iciency of dr um tion of seeds in both conditions by the seed metering and placement
seeder at different seed rates (20, the single machine should be done. devices.
30 and 40 kg/ha) and optimum seed The engine power was utilized for i. The material of construction of
rate was quantified. The results the forward movement of the driv- different components should be
showed that use of the drum seeder ing wheel as well as for rotation of easily and locally available. Use
at 30 kg seed/ha recorded increased metering mechanism. The design of standard sizes of steel section,
grain yield by 26% and 22% (7.58 t/ of machine components was based fasteners and chains would help
ha), respectively over that of 20 and on the principles of operations. The in easy inter-changeability and
40 kg/ha seed rate. It was also found mechanical design details were also replacement of any part as per re-
Fig. 1 Conceptual design for Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) and Wet Seeded Rice (WSR)
Table 1 Brief specification of the power operated rice planter for wet and dry field mechanism through chain sprocket
Particular Specification assembly mounted over the f loat.
Engine Air cooled diesel The row to row spacing maintained
Power 2.9 kW (4 hp) by power seeder was 20 cm and
Rated rpm 2600 plant to plant spacing can be varied
Traction wheel 0.67 m, No. of lugs -15 from 10 cm to 20 cm by changing
Transport wheel cum depth control wheel 240 mm diameter, width -50 mm the number of cups. It is sowing the
No. of rows 8 seeds in eight rows in a single pass.
Row spacing (cm) 20 The design was simple and easy
Plant to plant spacing (cm) 10, 15 and 20 cm for farmers to use. An opening was
Seed metering Cup feed type made in the upper part of the seed
Metering shaft speed adjustment Change of sprocket box for storing the pre-germinated
Float for wet field Stainless Steel seeds at the time of operation under
Furrow opener for dry field Hoe type wet field condition. Funnel and seed
Overall dimension (L × W × H) 2550 mm × 1980 mm × 1100 mm disc with cup feed was placed inside
the seed box for the effective drop-
quirement. ing type machine fitted with a 2.94 ping of seeds from the seed box to
kW, 2600 rpm, single cylinder, air the field.
Design of Power Operated Paddy cooled diesel engine which powers
Seeder for Dry and Wet Field the forward movement of the driv- Design of Frame
Conditions ing wheel and rotary motion to the Mild steel (MS) square section
Based on the agronomic require- metering mechanism. The drive frame was designed to mount fur-
ment of paddy and assu mption wheel receives power through V- row openers for dry sowing and
made, the power operated paddy belt, cone clutch and gear box. Gear stainless steel float for wet seeding.
seeder for dry and wet field condi- box for ground wheel comprises The seeding mechanism was mount-
tion was developed by designing the three sets of the spur gear. The in- ed on a frame at the rear side of
individual components. The concep- put shaft of gear rotates at speed of power seeder. The main frame was
tual design of the machine for Di- 1300 rpm and then according to the designed for maintaining the proper
rect Seeded Rice (DSR) is shown in shifting of gear lever it reduced up height of the drop of seed during
Fig. 1a and wet seeded rice (WSR) to 185 rpm. A universal shaft from sowing. Eight furrow openers 20 cm
in Fig. 1b. the gear box provides power to the apart were arranged on tool frame
sets of bevel and spur gear box and for dry seeding. The frame design
Brief Details of the Developed from then power is transmitted to was based on the stresses produced.
Power Seeder input shaft of gear box of metering The frame was subjected to torsion
The specifications of the machines mechanism as 468 rpm and then fi- and bending due to induced draft.
are presented in Table 1. nally reduces up to 20.5 m/s periph- On the basis of the cross-sectional
It is a single wheel, 8-row rid- eral speed to the cup feed metering area of furrow opener (11.4 cm 2)
specific soil resistance for the heavy
Fig. 2 Isometric view of the frame soil (0.2 kg/cm 2), 8 furrow open-
ers were arranged in a single bar.
By the calculation, a hollow square
bar section 30 × 30 × 5 mm was se-
lected. The overall dimension of the
frame was 1130 × 1700 × 910 mm.
The height was kept to 55.5 cm. The
isometric view of the main frame is
shown in Fig. 2.
Float
The floating mechanism was an
important part of the machine, as it
helps the machine to float in muddy
conditions without sinking. The
f loats reduce the ground reaction
due to the buoyancy effect. In the
present study float made of the stain- Seed conveyor having the dimen- mounted at the front side of the
less sheet which controls the depth sion of 40 × 15 × 10 mm was used seeder. Hence most of the weight
of shearing as required in different to covey seed from cup to receiving was available on the drive wheel of
ground conditions. The f loat was a box from which seed goes to the the machine. Power seeder consists
curved at the front end to avoid the furrow through the tube in dry field of two gear boxes. The first gear
entry of puddled soil on it. The shape condition and for wet condition, the box was used to provide power to
of the float was trapezoidal and the seed goes directly into the puddled the traction wheel and the second
front width was 1140 mm and rear soil. The row to row spacing main- gear box was used to give power to
width was 1700 mm. The length of tained by seeder was 20 cm and the shaft of the metering mechanism
the float was 800 mm. plant to plant spacing was 20, 15, 10 (Fig. 5). The power transfers from
cm by using 4, 6 and 8 cups of seed the engine to the gearbox through
Design of Cup Feed Metering De- metering units. The cup feed and the universal cross shaft and finally
vice seed conveyor is shown in Fig. 3. to the metering mechanism. Gear-
The cup feed metering mecha- Receiving boxes were attached box comprises of three sets of the
nism was chosen for maintaining just below the metering device for spur gear. The input shaft of gear-
the plant to plant distance within receiving the seeds which were box rotates at speed of 1300 rpm in
the row. The design methods were dropped from the metering unit which one spur gear was attached
adopted as given by Sharma and to the soil. The dimension of the having 20 numbers of teeth. This
Mukesh (2010) for a seed metering box is 210 × 200 × 50 mm made of spur gear was engaged with another
mechanism. The average length of MS. Details of the receiving box is spur gear having 40 numbers of
the rice seeds commonly grown shown in Fig. 4. teeth which rotate the countershaft
varieties by the farmers was 9.3 and it reduces 1300 rpm to 650 rpm.
mm. Therefore, taking 25-30% ad- Power Transmission System In first gear, 20 number of teeth
ditional length for sprouted rice, the The forward motion of seeder was serve as driver gear that meshed
diameter of the cup of the metering achieved through the drive wheel. with driven gear having 70 number
device was taken as 12 mm. The The drive wheel works in puddled of teeth, which reduced the speed
diameter of the shaft for revolving soil offers rolling resistance, as well from 650 rpm to 185 rpm. When
metering was 30 mm. The metering as tractive efforts. The engine was second gear engages then 22 num-
unit consists of seedboxes, cup feed,
Seed conveyor, receiving the box. Fig. 3 Cup feed and seed conveyor
The cross-section of the seed
box was trapezoidal in shape. It
was made of MS sheet of 18G. The
bottom was kept inclined from the
horizontal. The dimension of seed-
box was 195 × 180 × 240 mm. The
capacity of each seed box was 3.25
kg. Total 8 numbers of seed boxes
were mounted in the mainframe.
Fig. 4 View of receiving box Fig. 5 Power transmission system of Power operated paddy seeder
ber of teeth of driver gear rotates motion of the power seeder. The pe- on a dry basis. The bulk density of
along with 38 numbers of teeth with ripheral speed of the ground wheel the soil sample was 1.45 g/cc. The
a speed of 376 rpm. When the third was 21 rpm with a diameter of 0.67 mean diameter of soil clod size was
gear engaged then 24 numbers of m. Lugged type wheel was used 38.4 mm after seedbed preparation.
teeth of driver gear rotates along for designing of the ground wheel For the preparation of the puddled
with 22 numbers of teeth with a which was made of cast iron be- field for WSR one summer plough-
speed of 709 rpm. cause of its suitability under wet or ing was done at friable moisture
Gearbox for the metering mecha- sticky soil whereas pneumatic wheel condition (17.4% dry basis). Pre-
nism was placed over float it consists was used in road condition. germinated rice seeds were sown
of an assembly of bevel and spur in the puddled field after 36 h of the
gear. Input speed to the gearbox was soil settlement period. The average
520 rpm which is received by the f loat sinkage was observed at 2.4
bevel pinion having 16 numbers of cm.
teeth which was engaged with bevel Power operated paddy seeder was
gear of 40 numbers of teeth and designed, fabricated and perfor- Germination Test of Paddy Seed
transmitted to the spur gear having mance evaluated in the field of In- Seed germination test was con-
teeth 28 with the help of revolving dira Gandhi Agricultural University ducted for dry seed (T1), 24 h water
shaft of 30 mm diameter. The speed Raipur. The variety of paddy seeds soaking than 12 h incubation period
received by this spur gear was en- taken for the study was MTU-1010. (T2), 24 h water soaking than 24 h
gaged with another spur gear having The field testing was performed by incubation period (T3), 24 h water
44 numbers of teeth and transmitted 6 cups per disc metering mechanism soaking than 36 h incubation period
to the metering shaft with the help in both DSR and WSR. The average (T4) and 24 h water soaking than
of chain sprocket mechanism. The length, width, and thickness of dry 48 h incubation period (T5). For all
number of teeth in pinion sprocket rice seeds were 9.18 mm, 2.41 mm the treatments 300 seeds were sown
was 12 and the number of teeth in and 1.93 mm respectively. The soil into the randomized block field
driving sprocket was 48. of the study area was silty loam (In- and plant population after 10 days
ceptisols). The average bulk density was noted. The plant germination
Ground Wheel of paddy was 0.6 g/cc. For DSR the of paddy seed from the dry seed
The ground wheel is a device field was prepared by two passes was observed as 61.2 percent. The
which receives power from the en- of the cultivator and one pass of pre-germination test of paddy seed
gine through several sets of gear disc harrow. The average moisture incubation period from 12 h, 24 h,
and makes possible to the forward content at 20 cm depth was 15.2% 36 h, and 48 h after 24 h of soak-
ing the germination percentage was
Table 2 Germination percentage of paddy seed obtained as 62.7 %, 67.2 %, 79.3
Number of seed The average length Average and 74.2 % respectively (Table 2).
Treatment The result shows that there was a
taken of sprout, mm Germination %
T1 300 - 61.4 significant difference in germination
T2 300 0.68 62.3 percentage at various incubation pe-
T3 300 1.23 67.3 riods at 5% level of significance.
T4 300 1.96 79.3
T5 300 2.93 75.7 Methodology for Measurement of
Performance Parameters
Table 3 Average seed rate by using different numbers of cups in the metering unit The performance testing of power
Average seed rate (kg/ha) operated eight-row paddy seeder
Four Cups Six Cups Eight Cups was carried out as per test code
Average 11.60 17.81 22.03 and procedure provided by RNAM
SD 0.83 0.78 1.09 (1995) during the year 2017 & 2018.
CV (%) 7.19 4.36 4.96 The power operated paddy seeder
was calibrated in the laboratory for
Table 4 Plant to plant spacing desired seed rate. Three different
Number of cups in Spacing (cm) numbers of cups viz. 4, 6, and 8 on
metering disc Mean SD CV (%) each seed metering units were used.
4 18.91 2.14 11.30 The calibrations results are as given
6 13.93 1.10 7.88 in Table 3.
8 9.05 1.46 16.17
Performance Evaluation of Power Table 5 Miss index (MI) and multiple index (DI)
Seeder for Dry Seeded Rice 4 Cups 6 Cups 8 Cups
S.No.
Machine Parameters MI % DI % MI % DI % MI % DI %
The field performance parameters Mean 3.22 3.63 5.12 4.35 5.12 5.57
viz. row to row spacing, depth of SD 1.17 1.09 1.34 1.33 0.94 2.12
seed, number of seeds per drop, CV 36.39 30.01 26.25 30.62 18.39 38.09
number of seeds per square meter,
speed of operation, sinkage, miss efficiency were found at 0.25 ha/ index, etc. were measured during
index and multiple index, etc. were h and 77.6%. Fuel consumption of the field test. The average number of
measured during the field test. The the power seeder was calculated by seeds dropped was close to the theo-
row to row distance was 20 cm. the topping method. The average fuel retical no. of seeds per hill i.e. 2-3
average depth of the seed in the row consumption was 2.68 l/ha in dry seeds. The average hill spacing was
was 3.24 cm. The average number of seeding condition. influenced by the number of cups in
seeds dropped per hill was observed Crop Parameters the metering disc (Table 7).
2-3 seeds per hill. The average hill The plant height and effective til- Skips or misses created when
spacing was influenced by the num- lers per m 2 at 30 DAS, 60 DAS and seed drooping cup fail to drop seed
ber of cups per metering disc. The at harvest was taken on DSR during during sowing. It was observed
hill spacing increased with the de- the year 2017 and 2018 (Table 6). that miss index and multiple index
crease of cups in disc irrespective of were 2.5, 4.1 & 4.5% and 3.9, 4.7
germination conditions (Table 4). Performance Evaluation of Power and 5.1% for 4, 6 and 8 cups re-
Miss index (MI) and multiple in- Seeder for Wet Seeded Rice spectively. It was noticed that lower
dex (DI) values for WSR are given Machine Parameters values of miss index and multiple
in Table 5. Miss index (MI) was The field performance parameters index were found in wet seeded rice
highest (5.12%) for 8 cups meter- viz. row to row spacing, number of as compared to direct seeded rice.
ing mechanism. It was found lowest seed per drop, number of seeds per The actual field capacity and field
with 4 cups metering mechanism. square meter, speed of operation, efficiency were found as 0.23 ha/h
Multiple index (DI) was counted sinkage, miss index and multiple and 72% respectively. This was less
among the randomly selected 5 m
segment of eight rows. MI was also
Fig. 6 Power operated paddy seeder for dry seeding and sown crop
found the minimum for 4 cups.
Lower values of the MI and DI
indicate the better performance of
the machine as compared to 6 and
8 cups. However, 6 cups and 8 cups
were also performed satisfactorily.
The actual field capacity varies ac-
cording to the speed of operation
and time taken to cover the field.
The actual field capacity and field
Table 6 Crop Parameters under direct dry seeded rice

30 DAS 60 DAS At Harvest
Year Year Year
Observation
2017 2018 2017 2018 2017 2018
Mean SD CV Mean SD CV Mean SD CV Mean SD CV Mean SD CV Mean SD CV
Plant height 39.9 5.0 12.5 44.4 3.2 7.3 62.5 5.1 8.1 72.8 2.7 3.7 108.1 4.2 3.9 113.8 2.4 2.1
(cm)
Number of 211.6 9.2 4.3 199.8 13.4 6.7 215.9 8.6 4.0 204.2 14.4 7.0 222.8 7.1 3.2 217.6 14.9 6.8
tillers/m2
Panicle - - - - - - - - - - - - 18.7 1.5 7.9 19.4 0.9 4.6
length (cm)
Grain yield - - - - - - - - - - - - 41.1 1.8 4.4 43.7 1.7 3.9
(q/ha)
Straw yield - - - - - - - - - - - - 47.5 1.5 3.2 51.9 2.8 5.4
(q/ha)
Harvest - - - - - - - - - - - - 46.4 1.8 5.8 45.7 1.9 4.8
Index (%)
Table 7 Plant to plant spacing on wet condition vailing rates and it was found to be
Number of cups in Spacing (cm) Rs. 8,149 and Rs. 2,403 respectively.
metering disc Mean SD CV (%) Costs of production were as-
4 19.8 1.9 9.4 sumed to be the money expenditure
6 14.6 1.4 9.6 incurred for the resources used to
8 9.7 1.2 12.3 produce rice. The total cost of pro-
duction of rice under DSR and WSR
as compared to dry field condition %. The average length of panicle was calculated and it was found
because of the low operating speed was found 20.7 cm. It was observed Rs 22024/ha and Rs 25112 /ha, re-
of the machine and more turning that the length of panicles varies spectively. The Benefit-Cost ratio
losses. The average fuel consump- significantly at 5 % level of signifi- (BCR) was found as 2.9 for DSR
tion was found at 2.83 l/ha. cance for DSR and WSR. The yield and 3.5 for WSR. Based upon the
Crop Parameters was found 57.4 q/ha in the year 2016 result it was concluded that farmers
The plant height, number of til- and 57.8 q/ha in the year 2017. are able to grow rice if they fail to
lers, panicle length at 30 DAS, 60 direct dry sowing due to continuous
DAS and at harvest was taken and Cost Analysis rains comes and saves the cost of
the result is given in Table 8. The The cost of the developed self- operation of sowing of paddy from
average spacing was closed to the propelled paddy seeder was calcu- power operated paddy seeder it was
theoretical spacing of 15 cm with lated to be Rs. 95,100. The costs of Rs.1043.3/ha which was 7.83 times
6 numbers of cups in the metering operation of power operated rice less than manual transplanting of
unit. The fuel consumption varied seeder for dry and wet seeding has rice and 2.3 times less than mechan-
between 2.78 to 2.98 l/ha with an been computed and are given in ical rice transplanter.
average of 2.83 l/ha in wet condi- Table 9. The per hectare cost of op-
tion. The actual average seed rate eration for manual transplanting and
was found to be 17.81 kg/ha in six mechanical rice transplanting by 8
cups. The field efficiency of paddy rows riding type rice transplanter
Conclusions
seeder in wet condition was 71.88 were calculated on the basis of pre- 1. A self-propelled 8-row riding
type mechanical transplanter has
been modified for wet seeded per-
Fig. 7 Power operated paddy seeder for wet seeding and sown crop
germinated rice on puddle field or
direct seeded dry rice into non-
puddled soil after dry tillage. The
actual field capacity for wet and
dry conditions of the machine was
0.22 ha/h & 0.25 ha/h respective-
ly. The developed machine can be
used for both the conditions as per
the requirement.
2. The seed rate can be varied with
Table 8 Crop parameters under direct wet-seeded rice

30 DAS 60 DAS At Harvest
Year Year Year
Observation
2017 2018 2017 2018 2017 2018
Mean SD CV Mean SD CV Mean SD CV Mean SD CV Mean SD CV Mean SD CV
Plant height 37.8 3.7 8.6 47.0 0.6 1.3 66.2 2.6 3.9 74.1 3.7 5.0 106.1 6.0 5.7 114.6 2.7 2.3
(cm)
Number of 196.6 12.9 6.6 211.1 4.3 2.0 200.8 13.4 6.7 214.3 4.7 2.2 227.8 18.5 8.1 234.5 3.4 1.4
tillers/m2
Panicle - - - - - - - - - - - - 20.9 1.0 4.6 20.5 0.7 3.8
length (cm)
Grain yield - - - - - - - - - - - - 57.4 1.68 3.07 57.8 1.4 2.7
(q/ha)
Straw yield - - - - - - - - - - - - 61.3 1.2 2.0 61.0 1.6 2.7
(q/ha)
Harvest - - - - - - - - - - - - 47.2 1.3 4.8 46.6 1.7 5.2
Index (%)
changing the hill spacing 20 cm, Rajkumara, S., N. G. Hanamaratti
15 cm and 10 cm by using 4 cups, and S. K. Prashanthi. 2003. Direct
6 cups and 8 cups, respectively wet seeding in rice -A review, Ag-
in the metering mechanism. The ric. Rev, 24(1), 57-63.
plant to plant distance increased RNAM. Oct. 1995. Agricultural
with a decrease in the number of Machinery Design and Data Hand
cups on metering unit irrespective Book (Seeders and Planters ) Asia
of germination and hopper filling and Pacific.
conditions. The corresponding Sharma, D. N. and S. Mukesh. 2010.
seed rates obtained were, 11.60 Farm machinery design principles
kg/ha, 17.81 kg/ha and 22.03 kg/ and problems, second edition, Jain
ha. brothers.
3. The average number of seeds Subbaiah, S. V., K. Krishnaiah and
dropped per hill was 3-4 seeds in V. Balasubramanian. 2002. Evalu-
dry seeding and 2-3 seeds in wet ation of drum seeder in puddled
seeding for pre-germinated seeds rice fields. J. of Agril. Mechani-
of sprout length 2 mm. The plant zation in Asia, Africa and Latin
germination of dry paddy seed America. 33(4): 23-26.
was observed as 61.2% and pre- Visalakshi, M. and A. Sireesha.
germinated seeds after 24 h soak- 2013. Performance of drum seeder
ing and then incubation period in direct sown paddy under pud-
of 12 h, 24 h, 36 h, and 48 h was dled condition. J. Res. ANGRAU
obtained as 62.7%, 67.2%, 79.3% 41(2): 16-20.
and 74.2%, respectively. ■■
4. The cost of operation of sowing
of rice by power operated rice
seeder was Rs.1043/ha which was
7.8 times less than from manual Table 9 Cost of operation of developed paddy seeder and cost of cultivation of rice
transplanting of rice and 2.3 times Particulars Cost, Rs.
less than riding type mechanical The capital cost of the machine C 95100
rice transplanter. The B:C ratio Life of Machine in Years L 10
found 2.9 and 3.5 by using power- Working Hours per Year H 200
operated rice DSR and WSR re- Salvage Value S 9510.0
spectively. Interest value I 0.1
Fixed Cost
Acknowledgment Depreciation, Rs/h 42.79
The authors are grateful to the Interest on the capital, Rs/h 26.15
Indian Council of Agricultural Re- Housing Rs/h 1%C 4.75
search (ICAR), “Niche Area of Ex- Taxes 1%C 4.75
cellence Programme” Farm Mecha- Insurance 1%C 4.75
nization in Rainfed Agriculture, for Total Fixed Cost, Rs/h 83.19
granting financial assistance during Operating Cost
the course of the investigation. Repair and Maintenance cost @ 6% of capital cost 28.53
per annum, Rs/h
Fuel Cost @ 71 Rs per liter, Rs/h 49.7
Lubrication cost @ 30% of the fuel cost, Rs/h 14.91
REFERENCES Wages of 2 operators (Rs. 281/day) Rs/h 70.25
Total operational cost 163.39
Balasubramanium, V. and A. C.
Total cost, Rs/h 246.58
Morales. 1998. An introduction to
Total cost, Rs/ha (Dry seeding) 986.32
direct seeded rice system. Paper
Total cost, Rs/ha (Wet seeding) 1072.09
presented at National Workshop
Comparative cost of cultivation of rice under different prevailing practice
cum Group Meeting on CREM-
Rice seeder for dry Rice Transplanter Manual
NET program in India, Director- and wet seeding transplanting
ate of Rice Research, Hyderabad Cost of operation 1072.09 2402.63 8149.0
India, 7-9 January. (Rs./h)
Effects of Tillage Systems on Grain Production in
the Republic of Buryatia, Russia
by
Tsyden Sandakov Hideo Hasegawa*
Graduate School of Science and Technology, Professor
Niigata University, Institute of Science and Technology,
8050 Ikarashi 2-no-cho, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181 Niigata University,
JAPAN 8050 Ikarashi 2-no-cho, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181
JAPAN
Daba Radnaev Nadezhda Sandakova

Engineering Department, Graduate School of Science and Technology,
Buryat State Academy of Agriculture, Niigata University,
8 Pushkina Str., 670024 Ulan-Ude 8050 Ikarashi 2-no-cho, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181
RUSSIAN Fed. JAPAN
Anna Lyude
Institute of Science and Technology,
Niigata University,
8050 Ikarashi 2-no-cho, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181
JAPAN
board cultivation technology, which

Abstract Introduction involves multiple passes of trac-
We determined the impact of dif- Grain production is one of the tors and machines in the field, was
ferent tillage systems on grain yield main agricultural sectors in the Re- implemented in the Republic during
and costs on Kolkhoz Iskra farm public of Buryatia, Russia. Severe the Soviet period. Theoretical and
near Ulan-Ude, in the Mukhorshi- climatic conditions, specific land- technological recommendations for
birsky region, Republic of Buryatia, scape traits, and soil diversity are farming that did not consider lo-
Russia, in 2013-2015. On average, among the causes of unsustainable cal specifics were developed in the
the productivity of oats cultivated grain production in the Republic central regions of the USSR. As a
by no-tillage and minimum tillage (Bolonev, 2001). The total sown result, problems of soil compaction
systems increased over the three area is 152 600 ha, with grain and and fertility preservation of arable
years. Minimum tillage and no- leguminous crops occupying about land have arisen and become more
tillage systems are expedient, prof- 56% of this total. Wheat represents acute every year (Batudaev et al.,
itable alternatives to conventional the most significant share of grain 2010).
moldboard soil tillage because they crops, accounting for over 52.7%, The following critical problems
cost less, and lead to an increase in followed by oats and barley (Federal of grain production have to be ad-
crop yield and conservation impacts State Statistic Service, 2016). dressed: (1) Cultivated crop yields
on the soil as compared with the The main types of soils in the ara- must be increased; (2) Costs must be
conventional system. ble land of Buryatia are chestnut soil reduced and crop production profit-
Keywords: grain production, till- (43.2%), gray forest soil (22.5%), ability increased; and (3) Soil fertil-
age systems, yield, resource-saving and black earth (12.3%) (Batudaev ity must be restored and improved.
technology, Republic of Buryatia et al., 2010). The conventional mold- The key to solving these problems
requires involvement of all technol- Table 1 Machine Specification
ogies toward resource saving, based Specification of Tractor K-701
on Russian and world experience Type of machinery Harrowing, moldboard plowing, and
(Revyakin et al., 2011). cultivating.
Sustainable agriculture should be Manufacturer Peterburgsky Traktorny Zavod
organized into a system and ana- Engine power, kW 220
lyzed as a relationship: soil-plant- Dimensions: length/width/height, m 6.82/2.85/3.68
climate area-socioeconomic condi- Total weight, kg 11450
tions-crop efficiency (Wang et al., Specification of Plow PLN 8-40
2008; Bucur et al., 2011; Afzalinia Type of machinery Plowing to a depth of up to 30 cm in
various soils that are not clogged with
et al., 2012; Domuta et al., 2012). rocks, stones, or other obstacles
Multifunctional technologies aim Manufacturer Belagromash
to reduce resource consumption, Field capacity, ha / h 2.9
particularly in the area of aggressive Number of furrows 11
soil tillage, while simultaneously Working width, m 2.8
obtaining high yields, soil conserva- Dimensions: length/width/height, m 4.55/3.91/1.22
tion, and environmental protection. Total weight, kg 1025
(Ailincai et al., 2011; Marin et al., Specification of Cultivator KPE-3.8
2011; Gao et al., 2012).). The influ- Type of machinery Presowing (up to 16 cm depth) and
ence of soil tillage systems on soil autumn soil tilling, with up to 50%
properties and resource efficiency is stubble remaining on the surface
shown by the important effects they Manufacturer LesAgroMash, Kirov
have on conservation of soil fertility Working width, m 3.91
and the sustainability of agricultural Field capacity, ha / h 2.35-3.50
systems. (Uhlin, 1998; Sarauskis et Dimensions: length/width/height, m 6.55/3.91/0.22
al., 2009; Vural and Efecan, 2012). Total weight, kg 1150
Currently, the most promising Specification of Seeder SZU-3.6
soil-protecting, resource-saving Type of machinery Grain seeding and applying fertilizer
methods include minimum tillage Manufacturer TD Agro-Resurs, Lipetsk
and no-tillage. Minimum tillage Working width, m 3.6
and no-tillage aim for maximum Field capacity, ha / h 3.2-4.3
accumulation and conservation of Insertion depth, m 0.4-0.8
moisture in the soil, reduction of Dimensions: length/width/height, m 4300/3700/1650
machinery passes over the field, and Total weight, kg 1380
reduction in total costs for grain
production (Rusu, 2014; Sandakov (Reicosky, 2001). Domestic studies in the soil (Panov et al., 2008).
et al., 2019). on the use of resource-saving tech- Over the last decade, several
The most evident effect of till- nologies also affirm humus increase studies (Larionova et al., 2003; Ro-
age is documented for soil organic
matter. Reicosky (2001) reports that Fig. 1 Map of the study site
under comparable rotation there is a
gradual increase in soil organic mat-
ter under minimum tillage regimes.
The highest humus content is found
in no-tillage and the lowest in plow-
ing systems. Moreover, the distribu-
tion pattern of organic matter in the
soil profile matches very closely the
concentration of soil biota, showing
high levels in the topsoil and declin-
ing with depth. Carbon enrichment
of unplowed soils indicates that the
conservation of soil organic matter
contributes to carbon sequestration
and lower global warming impacts
Table 2 Crop calendar for oat production in Buryatia with SZU-3.6.
C: Resource saving. Cultivation
Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.
with APD-7.2. Seeding with Kuz-
Tillage bass-8.5.
D: Resource saving. Simultaneously
Seeding cultivating and seeding with Kuz-
bass-8.5.
Cultivation The oats variety was Dogoi, the
seeding rate was 4.5 million pcs
Harvesting
grains per ha, and the sowing date
Straw Harvesting was 27 May. Crop care and harvest-
ing were the same in all variants of
the experiment (Table 2).
manovskaya, 2008; Vuichard et al.,
2008; Kurganova et al., 2010, 2014; Seedling Complex Kuzbass-8.5
Schierhorn et al., 2013) aimed to es- Study Site We also carried out a comparative
timate the total carbon sequestered We carried out experimental work test of wheat seeding with Kuz-
in Russian soils due to the croplands on Kolkhoz Iskra farm near Ulan- bass-8.5 on 1000 ha. Calculations of
abandonment. However, such es- Ude (51° 8' 11.4828" N, 108° 14' the costs per hectare of arable land
timations were not performed for 14.2908" E) of the Mukhorshibirsky for various agro-technical works
the croplands of the Republic of region in the Republic of Buryatia, were made while comparing con-
Buryatia, leaving this important Russia, in 2013-2015. ventional and minimum tillage.
research topic unexamined. Nor has The seeding complex Kuzbass-8.5
there been sufficient past research, Experimental Conditions (Fig. 2) performs multiple opera-
or scientific results, in the area of To test the efficiency of minimum tions in one pass: cultivating, har-
soil compaction mitigation and its tillage compared with conventional rowing, seeding, applying fertil-
evaluation from the standpoint of tillage, we carried out a production izers, packing and leveling the soil.
yield and costs in Buryatia. This experiment according to the follow- Use of this complex allows the gap
article, therefore, aims to add to the ing conditions (Table 1): between soil preparation and seed-
robust experiment-based knowledge A: Conventional. Moldboard plowing, which is typical in conventional
that does exist and to determine the ing - K-701, PLN 8-40. Separate technology in Russia, to be elimi-
impact of different tillage systems seeding with SZU-3.6. nated. Favorable conditions are cre-
on grain yield and costs in Buryatia. B: Resource saving. Cultivation ated for germination and the forma-
with APD-7.2. Separate seeding tion of a normally developed plant
Fig. 2 Schematic Diagram of Kuzbass-8.5 Fig. 3 Schematic Diagram of APD-7.2
1: tank of seed and fertilizer, 2: wheel, 3: furrow-opener, 4: 1: wheel, 2: chisel, 3: rollers, 4: hitch attachment, 5: soil disker, 6:
harrow, 5: soil packer, 6: frame, 7: hitch attachment. Unit: m frame. Unit: m
in the future (Agro LLC, 2018). Bokhiev and Urbazaev (1979) and high overall porosity, high water
Batudaev et al. (2010) note that the permeability, low water retention
Tillage Unit APD-7.2 chestnut soils of Buryatia are sig- capacity, and a small range of active
The design of the tillage unit nificantly different from their ana- moisture. To increase their yield,
APD-7.2 (Fig. 3) means that damp logues in the European part of Rus- measures to save and accumulate
soil is not extracted from the lower sia, especially with respect to the moisture are first needed. Lack of
layers, so retaining moisture; soil humus content. The former develop moisture in the spring and early
cultivation is carried out at a given on light soil-forming rocks (sands, summer periods means that plants
depth; and the use of this implement loam) in dr y steppe conditions. significantly reduce their productiv-
allows the saving of energy resourc- They are referred to as loam, sandy ity. Soil fertility has been measured
es, as several soil tillage operations loam, and sandy soils by virtue of as 13-15 points, which is almost two
are performed in one pass (Sibsel- their mechanical composition. The times lower than in western Siberia,
mash OJSC, 2018). content of natural clay throughout and the agroclimatic potential is
the soil profile is no more than 30%; 0.46-0.48 (the average for Russia is
Soil and Climatic Characteristics the fine sand fraction is 38-53%; the 1) (Batudaev et al., 2010).
of the Republic of Buryatia coarse dust is 10%-21% and the silt
Buryatia is in the center of the is 3%-12%. In contrast to similar
Eurasian mainland. The average soils in the European part of Rus-
annual air temperature is −0.5 °C sia, сhestnut soils in Buryatia have
to −2.8 °C. January is the coldest a light granulometric composition. We found a significant difference
month, with average temperatures This feature determines their fun- in favor of the seeding complex
of −25 °C to −35 °C, at an absolute damental physical water properties: Kuzbass-8.5 in wheat cultivation on
minimum; they can reach −40 °C to
−58 °С. This leads to deep-freezing
Fig. 4 Conventional and Minimum Tillage for Wheat Seeding on 1000 ha
of the soil to a depth of 3-3.5 m. In
July, the average monthly tempera-
ture reaches 15-25 °С (Batudaev
et al., 2010). Annual precipitation
is 250 -340 m m. Chest nut soils
comprise the greatest proportion
of older plowed lands, which occur
along steppe and intermontane de-
pressions, and the southern slopes
of ridges and foothills. These soils
make up 60%-66% of the Republic’s
land area and about 42% of culti-
vated arable land (Bokhiev and Ur-
bazaev, 1979; Batudaev et al., 2010).
Fig. 5 Conventional and Minimum Tillage for Wheat Seeding on 1000 ha*
(a) Conventional tillage (b) Minimum tillage

* Costs per ha of arable land for different agro-technical works
1000 ha (Fig. 4). This was explained shown a high efficiency of using increasingly be convinced to adopt
by the machinery performing all APD-7.2 and Kuzbass-8.5. Even in minimum tillage and no-tillage,
operations inherent in conventional the hot, dry summer of 2014, there and сreate a significant impaсt on
tillage in one pass. was no significant change in the maximizing global сarbon seques-
We calculated the costs per hect- yield of grain grown with minimum tration. Inсreased farming opera-
are of arable land for various agro- tillage and no-tillage. Hence, we tions effiсiency will сontribute to an
technical works when comparing conclude that the use of minimum overall mitigation of greenhouse gas
conventional and minimum tillage tillage and no-tillage in grain cul- emissions (Mehra et al., 2018).
(Fig. 5). tivation is expedient and profitable. Disintegration of the Soviet Union
Fig. 5 shows that the total cost The soil tillage system influences and the сollapse of the сollective
for 1 ha was 65 USD for the fol- the yields obtained in a differenti- farming system that followed led to
lowing conventional sequence of ated way. abandonment of former сroplands
technological operations during the in Russia, including in the Republic
vegetative period: spring plowing Carbon Sequestration and Humus of Buryatia. The area of agricultural
(K-701 + PLN 8-40), cultivation (K- Content land in Russia decreased from 639.1
701 + KPE-3.8), seeding (DT-75 + Most land use changes signifi- million ha (as of 1 January 1990)
SZU-3.6), chemical weeding (MTZ- cantly affect the amount of carbon to 400 million ha (as of 1 Janu-
82 + ON-600), combining (Yeni- sequestered in vegetation and soil, ary 2010). Reductions were also
sei-1200), and straw harvesting (K- thereby shifting ecosystem carbon noted in the Republic. From 1990
701). By including Kuzbass-8.5 (i.e., balance (Houghton, 2010). Mehra to 2010, agricultural land in Burya-
direct seeding) the cost was reduced et al. (2018) suggest that future tia declined by 18.7 thousand ha
by 24% to 52.5 USD for 1 ha. research should focus on monitor- (or 0.6%), and arable land by 122.6
Fig. 6 shows the ratio of yields ing the factors responsible for soil thousand ha (or 12.8%). In 1990 ar-
obtained in a differentiated way to ecology and the “carbon-in” versus able land covered 954.6 thousand
average yield of oats for Buryatia. “carbon-out” equation when consid- ha, hayfields 355.7 thousand ha,
It shows that within 3 years the ering the contribution of minimum and pastures 1788.2 thousand ha;
highest yield was obtained with tillage and no-tillage technology in 2010, these figures were 832.0
the direct seeding technology by in mitigating climate change. The thousand ha; 389.8 thousand ha;
Kuzbass-8.5. Almost the same yield profitability of сonservation ag- and1858.0 thousand ha, respectively
of oats was obtained with APD- riculture systems aсross a great (Administration of the federal ser-
7.2 + Kuzbass-8.5 (minimum till- diversity of сropping environments vice of state registration, cadastre
age). Therefore, the experiment has will ensure that loсal farmers will and cartography for the Republic of
Buryatia, 2011).
Fig. 6 Yield of Oats by Different Seeding Technologies* These were the most widespread
and abrupt land use changes in the
northern hemisphere in the 20 th
century (Lyuri et al., 2010). The
sudden withdrawal of сroplands
in the 1990s resulted in several
environmental benefits, including
substantial carbon sequestration in
post-agrogenic ecosystems. Kur-
ganova et al. (2015) estimated the
total extra carbon sink in abandoned
сroplands in Russia to be 45.5 Mha,
at a rate of 155 ± 27 Mt С/year. This
additional carbon sink could cancel
out about 18% of the global CO2
released by deforestation and other
land use changes, or compensate an-
* A: Conventional. Moldboard plowing: K-701 and PLN 8-40. Separate seeding with nually for about 36% of the current
SZU-3.6. fossil fuel emissions from Russia.
B: Resource saving. Cultivation with APD-7.2; separate seeding with SZU-3.6. The extra carbon sink provided by
C: Resource saving. Cultivation with APD-7.2; seeding with Kuzbass-8.5. post-agrogenic ecosystems in Rus-
D: Resource saving. Simultaneous cultivation and seeding with Kuzbass-8.5.
E: Average yield of oats throughout the Republic of Buryatia. sia contributes possibly about one-
third of the total current carbon Buryatia have concentrated mainly Ailincai, C., G. Jitareanu, D. Bucur
balance of the former Soviet Union on cost factors. However, focus and A. Mercus. 2011. Influence of
(Kurganova et al., 2015). Hence, the should be on the effects of systems tillage practices and fertilization
disintegration of the former Soviet and resource saving in terms of en- on crop yields and soil properties
Union significantly affected the na- vironmental resources, as only then in long-term crop rotation (soy-
tional and global carbon budget over can agricultural systems be sustain- bean-wheat-maize) experiments.
a few decades after land use chang- able and durable in agronomic, eco- Journal of Food, Agriculture and
es. Kurganova et al. (2015) also stat- nomic, and ecological terms. Environment, 9 (1): 285-289.
ed that the soil carbon buildup due The carbon enrichment of un- B a t u d a e v, A ., V. B o k h ie v, T.
to natural vegetation establishment plowed soils indicates that the con- L a p u h i n , A . U l a n ov a n d B.
occurs much more slowly than soil servation of soil organic matter con- Tsybikov. 2010. Agriculture of
organic carbon losses after convert- tributes to carbon sequestration and Buryatia. BSAA, Ulan-Ude, Rus-
ing of grassland or forest to arable lower impacts on global warming. sia (in Russian).
land. This should be borne in mind We suggest, therefore, that future Bokhiev, V. and N. Urbazaev. 1979.
if, in future, there is a new expan- research into tillage methods in the Soil-protective agricult ure in
sion of unused land. Kurganova et Republic of Buryatia should focus Buryatia. BSAA, Ulan-Ude, Rus-
al. (2015) conclude that the disinte- on monitoring the factors responsi- sia (in Russian).
gration of the Soviet Union and the ble for soil ecology and the “carbon- Bolonev, P. 2001. Grain market for-
subsequent collapse of the collective in” versus “carbon-out” equation mation in the Republic of Burya-
farming system in the early 1990s when considering the contribution tia. Doctoral thesis. BSAA, Ulan-
had prolonged and positive ecologi- of minimum and no-tillage technol- Ude, Russia (in Russian)
cal implications, including powerful ogy to mitigating climate change. Bucur, D., C. Jitareanu and C. Ailin-
effects on the carbon cycle and bud- The advantages of minimum and cai. 2011. Effects of long-term soil
get. no-tillage soil systems in Buryatia and crop management on the yield
L ong-t e r m u se (25 yea r s) of can be used to improve methods in and on the fertility of eroded soil.
minimum tillage to a depth of 8-10 low-producing soils with reduced Journal of Food, Agriculture and
cm for grains promotes the forma- structural stability, as well as mea- Environment, 9 (2), 207-209.
tion of a composite soil structure sures for water and soil conserva- Federal State Statistics Service.
with a marked improvement in the tion throughout the ecosystem. 2017. Official statistical data for
agrophysical, agrochemical, and the Republic of Buryatia. Avail-
biological indicators of its upper Acknowledgments able at: burstat.gks.ru. Accessed
layer fertility (Panov et al., 2008). We thank Elaine Monaghan, BSc 11 June 2017 (in Russian).
Multifactorial field experiments car- (Econ), from Edanz Group (www. Domuta, C., G. Sandor, C. Samuel,
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Design and Development of a Two-row Self-
propelled Rotary Weeder for Narrow-spaced Crops
by
Gatkal Narayan Raosaheb Vijaya Rani
Assistant Professor Professor & Head
Dept. of Agril. Engg., College of Agriculture, Dept. of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering,
Selu, Maharashtra, INDIA CCS Haryana Agricultural University,
[email protected]) Hisar, Haryana, INDIA
[email protected]
Naresh Mukesh Jain

Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Dept. of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, Dept. of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering,
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, CCS Haryana Agricultural University,
Hisar, Haryana, INDIA Hisar, Haryana, INDIA
labour requirement over manual improved hand tools or power oper-

Abstract
hand hoe i.e. Kasola. ated machines appear to be the most
Improper weed control can cause Keyword: Rotary weeder, weed- practical and efficient method. Hu-
about 30-35% reduction in crop ing. man power in agriculture is declin-
yield. Weeding is mostly done man- ing day by day. In addition labours
ually in narrow-spaced crops in In- wages are also increasing. On the
dia. Mechanical weed control in row contrary, the machines are becom-
Introduction
crops reduces drudgery, save time, ing popular as a source of power
cost of operation and labour require- In India, large proportion of the and are replacing costly labour and
ment. Presently, single-row weeder population depends on agriculture. reducing drudgeries of manual op-
for wide-spaced crops are available There are several constraints in erations. Therefore, use of power
and being used, but for narrow- agriculture like climate change, in- weeder is the need of the day be-
spa ced c rops we e d i ng is done sect, pests but, weeds are the major cause it reduces the cost of weeding,
manually. A two-row self-propelled reason for lower yield per unit ag- maintain timeliness, meet-up scar-
rotary weeder for narrow-spaced ricultural area. A weed is any plant city of agricultural labour, are en-
crop was designed and developed. growing in the wrong place at the vironment friendly as compared to
The developed rotary weeder con- wrong time and harming the crop use of weedicide and also pulverize
sists of 5 hp engine, main frame, production. It competes with crops the soil. Environmental degradation
rotary unit, handle, transport wheel for water, nutrient and light which and growing demand for organically
and J-type blade. The field capacity, ultimately reduce the crop yield. produced food, is also increasing
field efficiency, weeding efficiency Delay and negligence in weeding interest in the use of mechanical
and plant damage by the developed operation may cause 30 to 60% de- weeders. Nonchemical weed con-
rotary weeder were found to be 0.09 crease in crop yield (Singh, 1988). trol also ensures food safety. The
ha h-1, 67.98%, 80.12%, and 2.9%, Mechanical weed control is very precise inter and intra-row weeders
respectively. The cost of operation, effective as it helps to reduce human could contribute significantly to the
payback period and breakeven point drudgery involved in manual weed- safe food production. Though there
of developed rotary weeder were ing. It kills the weeds and also keeps are rotary weeder available for wide
calculated as Rs 1733 ha-1, 1.18 year the soil surface loose ensuring row spacing crop, the problem exist
and 91.84 h yr-1, respectively. The proper soil aeration and water intake with narrow spaced crops.
developed rotary weeder saved 93% capacity. Mechanical weeding using Most of the power tiller manu-
factured in the country are in the maximum width of cutting blades Cs = Reliability factor that is
range of 8-10 hp. i.e. power tillers as 22 cm (because plant leaf spreads equal to 1.5 for non-rocky soils
are not used in narrow spaced row in crop rows and there was chances and 2 for rocky soils
crops due to the lack of its manoeu- for plant damage) and depth of op- Nc = Power of the engine
vrability. Presently, no effective eration as 5 cm (because at weeding nc = Traction efficiency, value for
rotary power weeder is being used stage, depth of root growth of weeds the forward rotation of the rotor
commercially in India for narrow- not more than 5 cm) (Thorat et al, shaft is 0.9
spaced crops. Therefore, this study 2014), the power transmission effi- nz = Coefficient of reservation of
was undertaken to develop a rotary ciency of belt-pulley system as 70%, engine power which is between
power weeder for narrow-spaced minimum revolutions required for 0.7-0.8
crops. weeding as 150 rpm (Chertkiattipol Umin = Minimum tangential speed
et al, 2010). of blades, m s-1
The furrow cross-section cut by Ta ngent ial per ipheral speed ,
two row weeder = 2 × (22 × 5) Umin was calculated by using fol-
= 220 cm 2 lowing equation
The developed rotary weeder con- Draft of weeder = Specific draft × Umin = (2 π N R) / 6000
sists of the following main compo- furrow cross section = 1100 N Where,
nents. Tot al power requ i rement for N = Revolution of rotor, 150 rpm,
Power source: It is required for pro- weeder in hp, and
viding power to the rotary unit = (Draft × Speed) / (Efficiency) R = Radius of rotor, cm. (Taken
and driving wheels of the weeder. = 1.309 kW = 1.75 hp as approximately equal to blade
Rotary unit: It is required for the = 1.75 × 2.5 (Take factor of safety length) = 19.5 cm
weeding operation. 2.5) Umin = 3.06 ms-1
Main frame: All functional unit of = 4.37 hp By using equation Eqn, Ks,
rotary weeder are mounted on the Therefore, a commercial engine of Ks = 124.08 kg
main frame. 5 hp was selected as a power source The maximum moment on the ro-
Power t ransmission system: To for the weeder. tor shaft (Ms) is calculated by the
transmit power to different com- following equation
ponents of the rotary weeder. Rotary Shaft Ms = Ks × R
Tyre: Tyre are required for easy For designing the rotary shaft, the Where,
movement of weeder in field. maximum tangential force which R = Rotor radius, cm
Clutch system: For controlling the can be endured by the rotor was Ms = 2419.5 kg cm
weeder. considered. The maximum tangen- The rotary shaft was made from
tial force occurred at the minimum mild steel having yield stress of 520
Power Requirement of Weeder blades tangential speed which was MPa. The allowable stress on the
To estimate power requirement of calculated by the following equation rotor (τ) was calculated by the fol-
weeder , average walking speed of (Bernacki et al., 1972): lowing equation (Mott, 1985):
man was taken as 3 km h-1, for san- Ks = Cs (75 Nc nc nz / Umin) ...(1) τ = (0.577 k σ) / f
dy loam soil specific draft of soil as Where, Where,
2-5 N cm-2 (Kepner et al., 1978), the Ks = Maximum tangential force τ = Allowable stress on rotor
Fig. 1 Schematic of rotary weeder Fig. 2 The developed rotary weeder
shaft, kg cm-2, number of blades for particular the rotary weeder. The rotary unit
k = Coefficient of stress concen- flange. consisted of four flanges and four
tration equal to 0.75, Ke = 62.04 kg blades were mounted on each flange.
σ = Yield Stress, 520 MPa, and Numbers of blades used were 16.
f = Coefficient of safety is equal Development of Rotary Weeder The rotary weeder covered two rows
to 1.5. Based on design values of differ- each 22 cm. The power was trans-
τ = 150 MPa = 1500 kg cm-2 ent components, a two row self-pro- mitted from engine to intermediate
The torsional moment is the most pelled rotary weeder was developed shaft and from intermediate shaft
important factor that significantly in the workshop of Department of to rotor shaft on which blades are
affects the rotor shaft design. Con- Farm Machinery and Power Engi- mounted. The specification of devel-
sidering the equation for calculating neering, College of Agricultural oped weeder is shown in Table 1.
the torsional moment on rotating Engineering and Technology, CCS
shafts, the required diameter for the HAU, Hisar, Haryana. Main frame
rotary tiller shaft was obtained as: of rotary unit made of mild steel,
d = 3√(16 Ms) / (τπ) Rotor shaft was made of mild steel
d = 3√(16 × 2419.5) / (1500 × 3.14) having 30 cm length and diameter of The rotary weeder was developed
= 2.02 cm 2 cm. Tyres were provided for trans- and evaluated in mustard crop, row
Therefore, 2.5 cm diameter rotor portation and handle for operating to row spacing of crop was 45 cm.
shaft was selected.
Table 1 Specifications of weeder
Cutting Blade
Sl. Parameter
The total power of the machine No.
Parameter
value
was distributed between the blades. 1 Engine Diesel
Number of flanges were calculated 2 Engine HP 5
by the following equation: 3 Starting system Recoil
i = b / bi 4 Cooling system Air cooling
Where, 5 Clutch Dog clutch
b = Working width, cm, (Taken 6 Size of tyre, inch 2.75-18
as 22 cm because plant leaf 7 Overall length of machine, mm 1900
spreads in row) 8 Overall width of machine, mm 950
bi = Distance between the flanges 9 Overall height of machine, mm 1070
on the rotor, cm (Assumed 6 10 Main frame, mm
cm) Length 950
i = 22 / 6 Width 250
= 3.67 (approx. 4) Thickness 250
Four blades were considered on 11 Rotor shaft on which blade are mounted, mm
each of the flanges (Ze = 4). There- Length 300
fore, the total number of the blades Diameter 20
obtained was: 12 Type of blade J type
N = i × Ze 13 Rotary unit wt, kg 52
= 4 × 4 = 16 14 Overall unit wt, kg 178
The soil force acting on each of
the blades (Ke) was calculated by Table 2 Performance of two row weeder in comparison of manual hand hoe i.e. Kasola
the following equation: Sl. Rotary power Manual weeding,
Ke = (Ks Cp) / (i Ze ne) Parameter
No. weeder Kasola
Where, 1 Depth of operation, mm 50-55 40
Ks = Maximum tangential force, 2 Field capacity, ha h-1 0.09 0.05
kg, 3 Field efficiency, % 67.98 -
Cp = Coefficient of tangential 4 Fuel consumption, l h-1 1.6 -
force, 5 Weeding efficiency 80.12%
i = Number of flanges, 6 Plant damage 2.9%
Ze = Number of blades on each 7 Cost of operation, Rs ha-1 1733 7060
side of the flanges, an 8 Time saving over manual weeding, % 93 -
ne = Number of blades which 9 Payback period, yr 1.18 -
act jointly on the soil, by total 10 Break Even Point, h yr-1 91.84 -
As presented in Table 2, the depth and 91.84 h yr-1, respectively. Barger. 1978. Principles of farm
of weeding ranged from 50 mm to machinery. 3rd edition, CBS Pub-
55 mm and fuel consumption was lications and Distributors, New
1.6 l h-1. The field capacity and field REFERENCES Delhi.
efficiency of developed rotary weed- Mott, R. 1985. Machine elements
er was 0.09 ha h-1 and 67.98%. The Bernacki, H., J. Haman and C. Z. in mechanical desig n. Mer ill
weeding efficiency, and plant dam- Kanafojski. 1972. Agricultural publishing company, Columbus,
age of the developed rotary weeder machines, theory and construc- Ohio.
were 80.12%, and 2.9%, respective- tion. US Department of Agricul- Singh, G. 1988. Development and
ly. The cost of operation for weed- ture and National Science Foun- fabrication of improved grubber.
ing by manual hoe i.e. Kasola was dation, Washington D.C. Agricultural Mechanization in
Rs 7060 per hectare and for rotary Cherkiattipol, S., T. Niyamapa, W. Asia, Africa and Latin Ameri-
weeder it was Rs 1733 per hectare. Jantaradach and K. Saensuwan. ca.19 (2): 42-46.
The rotary weeder saved Rs 5327 2008. The performance of rotary Thorat, D. S., P. K. Sahu, De. Di-
per hectare as compared to manual power tiller using prototype ro- pankar and M. A. Iquebal. 2014.
hoe i.e. Kasola. Rotary power weed- tary blades in dry-land field. In- Design and development of ridge
er saved 93% time over manual ternational Journal of Science and profile power weeder. Journal of
weeding. The payback period and Technology. 1(special issue): 17- Agricultural Engineering. 51(4):
breakeven point of developed rotary 26. 7-13.
weeder were calculated as 1.18 year Kepner, R. A., R. Bainer and E. L. ■■
The ABSTRACTS pages is to introduce the abstracts of the article which cannot be published in
ABSTRACTS whole contents owing to the limited publication space and so many contributions to AMA. The readers
who wish to know the contents of the article more in detail are kindly requested to contact the authors.
2016
Energy Auditing of Pearl Millet Production in Irrigated Region at Hisar in Haryana State of India: Raveena Kargwal
([email protected]), Yadvika, M. K Garg, V. K. Singh
The aim of this study was to examine the energy consumption pattern for pearl millet production in irrigated region
of Haryana state of India. Farmers with marginal, small and medium land holdings were selected for the study. The
data were collected through a questionnaire by face to face interview of farmers. Different unit operations performed
in pearl millet production were studied in irrigated region. Both the source-wise (Direct and Indirect energy) and oper-
ation-wise energy consumption were calculated for all categories of farmers. Energy that was consumed in preparatory
tillage, sowing, interculture, fertilizer, irrigation, pesticide, harvesting, threshing and transportation were calculated
for pearl millet cultivation. The energy inputs such as human energy, animal energy, machinery, fuel/diesel, fertilizer,
chemical and seed energy were determined. The average energy input of marginal, small, and medium farmers were
2853.09 MJha-1, 3032.21 MJha-1 and 4024.50MJha-1, respectively. The energy ratio varied from 3.92-13.80.
2022
Performance of Agricultural Equipment for Field Transplanting of Sugarcane Sprouts: H. Ortiz-Laurel* (*Correspond-
ing author: [email protected]), H. Debernardi-de-la Vequia, D. Rosas-Calleja, A. A. Gomez-Jimenez, I. A. Gomez-Juarez
The conventional billet planting of sugarcane (Saccharum spp) in Mexico is slow, expensive and germination-deficient. New
planting methods are explored for improving crop field productivity. This work shows the field assessment of an agricultural
tractor-mounted prototype for transplanting two-months old sugarcane (Saccharum spp) sprouts, according to the following
parameters; uniform sprouts treatments, field separation between seedlings, up right placement into the soil, good soil covering
and field uniformity at planting. The device was subjected to field performance trials on a readily tilled soil for planting, although
slightly stoned on the surface. Tractor and implement combination travelled at a field speed of 0.3 m s-1 when adjusted to place
seedlings at 900 mm separation on a row. In the field, transplanting separation between seedlings had a variation of 3.4%. The
prototype had just one transplanting unit. When assisted by two laborers, it can achieve a field capacity of 2.5 ha day-1. Thus, for
a field capacity of 2 ha day-1 and operating for 120 days per planting season, investment on the machine can be recovered in two
years. Planting operation by using the prototype is up to 8 times more economical when compared with manual transplanting.
Evaluating Effects of Post-Sowing Compaction and
Sowing Speed on Soil Properties, Distribution of Seed
Placement and Second Crop Maize Performance
by
Hasan Kaan Kucukerdem* Sefa Altikat
Biosystem Engineering, Agriculture Faculty, Biosystem Engineering, Agriculture Faculty,
Iğdır University, Iğdır University,
Iğdır, TURKEY Iğdır, TURKEY
Corresponding author:
[email protected]
ment for C2 treatments were 650.5 growth and yield (Veen et al., 1992).
Abstract
kg.ha-1 and 2580 mm, respectively. Additionally, microbial and enzyme
Planting and post-planting appli- Soil water content (42.71%, 53.05%, activity occurs less in compacted
cations are important in soil physi- 55.35%) and soil temperature (19.46 soil compared with non-compacted
cal properties, seed distribution, °C, 19.65 °C, 19.76 °C) increased soil (Dick et al., 1988). However,
seedlings emergence and yield of with increase in C0, C1 and C2, total denitrification rate is higher
maize (Zea mays L.). Main objec- respectively. Increase in sowing in the compacted soils (Ball et al.,
tive of this research was to evaluate speed cause disturbance of unifor- 1999).
the effects of field traffic and sowing mity of seed in seedbed. Seedlings The optimal bulk density for plant
speeds on soil physical properties, emergence were positively affected growth is 1.3 g.cm -3. It has been
seedling emergence, sowing per- by soil compaction but there was no determined that the bulk density,
formance and crop yields for maize statistically significance seed distri- which causes the plant growth to
production. This two-year study bution and seed uniformity. stop is 2 g.cm-3 (Singh et al., 1992).
was conducted on Iğdır plain soils Key words: compaction, seed Penetration resistance can affect
(clay Petrocambids) in the eastern placement, sowing performance, plant root development and cause al-
region of the Turkey from 2014 to traffic, yield terations in crop yield. The penetra-
2015. A tractor used for three dif- tion resistance of 3 MPa or more is
ferent wheel traffic applications; considered to be the limiting barrier
no traffic (C0), one pass (C1) and to root development (Hakansson
Introduction
two passes (C2) with three different and Lipiec 2000). In addition, Silva
sowing speed; 5.4 (V1), 7.2 (V2) and Soil compaction is an important et al. (2000) indicated that penetra-
10.8 (V3) km.h -1. The hypothesis parameter for soil physical proper- tion resistance greater than 2 MPa
of this work included that the field ties, seedling emergence and crop is one of the most important criteria
traffic would cause changing in yield. If field soil is compacted, the defining extreme soil compaction.
soil physical properties that maize soil bulk density (Pagliai and Vi- It is necessary to compact to the soil
yields would be affected and also an gnozzi, 2002), root growth (Ikeda at certain levels in order to increase
increasing in sowing speed would et al., 1997), seedlings emergence the contact between the seed and the
affect the sowing quality. Results and crop yield reduce (Botta et al., soil and to provide uniform germi-
showed that penetration resistance 2009). Reduction in soil porosity re- nation.
value produced by C2 treatment was duces root penetration into the soil Field traffic with high axle load
higher. The highest average green (Botta et al., 2007). Nutrient avail- is one of the biggest factors for soil
herbage yield and plant height val- ability reduced (Grath and Hakans- compaction. Hakansson and Reeder
ues were found in 2015 the measure- son, 1992) and it causes reduction (1994) stated that a 14% loss on
maize yield takes place after re- tion of the sowing depth and varia- properties and functions because of
peated wheel traffic on agricultural tion coefficient are very important the reduction in C mineralization
soils. Ressia et al. (1998) found that for maize sowing (Altikat, 2011). (Grigal, 2000) and C-N ratio (Li et
soil compaction produced a 30% Precision seeder is generally used al., 2004). Soil pore system in the
reduction in maize (Zea mays L.) for maize. This machine theoreti- compacted soil is generally an un-
yields at the condition of 1.2 Mg.m-3 cally places seeds at an optimum favorable condition for microorgan-
bulk density. Similarly, Canarache spacing and to obtain a better grow- isms because this situation generally
et al. (1984) stated that increase ing volume per seed (Karayel and restricts gas-water ratio (Beylich et
in bulk density (per 1000.g.cm -3) Ozmerzi, 2002). The efficiency of al., 2010) and causes lower oxygen
caused a reduction in maize grain this machine depends on its use at diffusion rate (Bilen et al., 2010).
yield 18%. They also indicated that the sowing speed. Sowing speed ef- The main objectives of this study
number of tractor passes change the fects coefficient of variation of seed were (1) to compare the effects of
soil physical properties and biggest distribution. Stable sowing depth different field traffic levels on soil
alterations were observed between 0 is an important factor to achieve physical properties and yield of
to 8-10 passes. uniformity of seedlings emergence maize and (2) to determine the ef-
Maize (Zea mays L.) shows poor (Stockton et al., 1996). Gan and fects of different sowing speeds on
leaf plasticity, scarce tillering capac- Stobbe (1995) stated that variable sowing quality and yield of maize.
ity and a low prolificacy which leads sowing depths reduced wheat (Triti- This study hypothesized that (1)
to a reduced ability to compensate cum aestivum L.) yield in compari- maize yields are affected by field
low plant densities (Tourn et al., son with uniform sowing. Karayel traffic and (2) changing in sowing
2003). For this reason, sowing qual- (2009) stated that increase in the speed affect distribution of seed and
ity such as uniform sowing depth, sowing speed resulted increase in hence yield of maize.
intra and inter row seed distribution coefficient of variation of soil depth
area, mean spacing, standard devia- and distribution of seeds along the
length of row. Also, the highest
Table 1 Initial soil physical properties emergence time and percent emer-
for 0 to 0.3 m depth range (mean of gence obtained at the sowing speed 2.1. Site Description and Weather
2014 and 2015)
was 1.0 m.s-1. Data
Properties Values
Increased mechanization increas- A two-year (2014 and 2015) field
Sand (%) 18.50
es soil compaction because heavy study was managed at the Iğdır
Silt (%) 32.00
agricultural machineries are used University experimental fields (39°
Clay (%) 49.50
during the plant growing season 48' 06.69" N, 44° 34' 58.30" E, 800
Texture class Clay
(Altikat, 2013). As a result of soil m altitude), which are located in the
Bulk density (g.cm-3) 1.18
compaction, distribution of soil ag- east of Turkey. The site has different
Cone index (MPa) 0.864
gregate size and soil porosity alters, climatic characteristics from other
Water content (% d.b.) 20
this situation affects soil microbial cities in the region. Cropping sys-
Organic matter (g.kg-1) 1.16
tem is two harvest a year in the site
where the major crops are winter
Table 2 Climatic data belong to experimental area
wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and
Average temperature Monthly and annual total spring maize (Zea mays L.). Soil
(°C) precipitation (mm)
Months classification is Aridisol, Petrocam-
(1950- (1950-
2014 2015 2014 2015 bids (USDA-NRCS, 2010) soil tex-
2015) 2015)
January -4.5 1.2 -3.3 15.3 2.2 13.6 ture is clay and the other properties
February 2.1 4.3 -0.2 3.6 4.4 16.3 of soil as, CaCO3 (6.53 g.kg-1), EC
March 10.1 8.5 6.5 17.2 52.0 20.8 (1228 µS.cm -1), pH (8.0), P (27.24
April 15.7 13.8 13.3 30.5 44.1 34.2 ppm), K (0.037 meq.100g-1) and con-
May 19.6 18.3 17.8 49.9 41.5 47.7 centration of organic matter in soil
June 23.5 25.1 22.2 34.6 27.8 33.4 was 1.06%. The experimental field
July 27.7 28.7 25.9 7.7 0.3 13.8 had been tilled with conventional
August 28.1 27.2 25.2 5.0 14.3 9.8 system for ten years. Soil physical
September 22.4 37.2 20.1 15.2 1.4 11.1 and mechanical properties are given
October 13.6 16.6 12.8 27.1 96.2 25.1 in Table 1. The monthly air tem-
November 5.4 9.2 5.8 20.5 4.5 17.1 perature, total precipitation of the
December 3.4 1.5 -0.4 11.0 13.7 13.1 experimental area is summarized in
Aver./Total(*) 13.92 15.96 12.14 237.6 302.4 256 Table 2. Data for the experimental
years 2014 and 2015 as well as long- stress 206 kPa and 154 kPa, respec- 2002).
term averages (1950-2015) are pre- tively. Tractor tyres were inflated PE = (Ste / n) × 100 ...(1)
sented. to a pressure of 1.1 bar. The total MET = (N1T1 + N2T2 + ... + NnTn) /
weight of the tractor was 3.4 Mg. (N1 + N2 + ... + Nn) ...(2)
2.2. Field experiments and crop The mean of water content (%) of ERI = Ste / MET ...(3)
management soil surface measured just before Where PE is the percentage of
A completely randomized design sowing and data were 13 g.kg-1 and emergence (%), MET is the mean
(3 × 3) with three replications was 14 g.kg-1 for 1st and 2nd experimen- emergence time (day), ERI is the
used for the experiment. The treat- tal periods, respectively. The water emergence rate index (seedling.day.
ments consisted of the combination content of soil at the time of plant- m-1). N1 ... Nn is the number of seed-
of three different sowing speeds ing was 18% for the first year and lings emerging since the time of
(5.4, 7.2 and 10.8 km.h-1) and three 20% for the second year. previous count; T1 ... Tn is the num-
different wheel traffic for intra- ber of days after sowing, Ste is the
row compaction (no traffic, one 2.3. Physical Properties of Soil number of total emerged seedlings
pass and two passes). There were Soil bulk density was determined per meter. n is the number of seeds
nine treatments in each block and for the depth ranges of 0-200 mm sown per meter.
size of blocks were 4.5 m by 30 m. with 50-mm intervals using stain-
Blocks within the treatments were less steel rings having dimensions of 2.5. Sowing Quality
separated by buffer strip 5 × 5 m 50 mm diameter by 50 mm height. Measurement of the sowing depth
interval to allow equipment maneu- Each treatment was sampled three was taken in the vertical plane.
vering. Conventional tillage system times. A penetrometer (Field Scout Mean sowing depth and coefficient
was used in the experiment. For this SC 900 Soil Compaction Meter) was of variation were determined by
purpose, a moldboard plough was used for determination of penetra- measuring the mesocotyl length of
set to a depth of 300 mm, followed tion resistance for soil compaction. 30 maize plants for all treatments
immediately by two passes with a Penetration resistance were deter- and replications. Uniformity of inter
tandem disk harrow and one pass of mined in 0-200 mm soil depth with and intra row seed distribution was
a shaped spring tooth harrow. Hido 50-mm intervals. examined using the distances be-
hybrid maize (Zea mays L.) (0.025 D u r i n g s e e d l i n g e m e r ge n c e tween emerged plants randomly se-
t.ha-1) was sown on April 20, 2014 per iod, measu rements at 0 -120 lected at 1 m distance in each treat-
and April 22, 2015 with a pneumatic mm depth in each treatment were ment. Theoretical inter and intra
seeder equipped with axe t y pe conducted to determine seedbed row distances were used to calculate
opener and press wheel. Press wheel temperature and water content of the standard deviation, the varia-
of the seeder were used for depth soil content. Water content of soil tion coefficient and means (Altikat,
control. They did not affect the seed- content during emergence period 2011).
soil compaction level. Maize seeds was measured using a time do- Standard deviation ellipse method
were sown at the 50 mm sowing main reflect meter, TDR (Spectrum was used to determine the seed
depth, row space 150 mm and intra- Equipment, Model Field Scout TDR dist r ibut ion area ( Karayel and
row space 750 mm. The process of 300). 20 measurements were taken Ozmerzi, 2007). In this criterion,
irrigation was performed at first randomly in each treatment by us- seed points were drawn on a graph
when height of plants was around ing 120 mm rods. The data were and their distribution met the ellipse
150-200 mm. During growing sea- saved into the data logger and then criterion. Semi-length of major axis
son, three surface irrigations were transferred to a computer. Seedbed of ellipse was standard deviation
made in interval of three weeks for temperature was measured using from row center of seeds and semi-
whole year. A tractor (New Holland a Barnat 90 type digital soil ther- length of minor axis of ellipse was
TD85D) was driven at 7.2 km.h-1 for mometer. Temperature data were the standard deviation of sowing
intra-row soil compaction (one pass taken for 100 mm depth by using depth. The seed distribution area
and two passes) on the treatments in 120 mm rods, with 5 replications in (A) was calculated using the follow-
three blocks to account for spatial each treatment. ing equation:
variability. An online decision sup- A = S a × Sb × π ...(4)
port tool Terranimo (Schjønning et 2.4. Seedlings Emergence S a: Standard deviation from row
al., 2016) used to evaluate the tyre Percentage of emergence (PE), center of seeds (mm)
contact area and vertical stress dis- mean emergence time (MET), emer- Sb: Standard deviation of sowing
tribution. Terranimo estimated front gence rate index (ERI), and were depth (mm)
and rear wheels soil contact area as deter mined using the following A: Area (mm 2)
0.1 m 2 and 0.17 m 2, maximum soil equations (Karayel and Ozmerzi, There are some pneumatic planter
per for ma nce a nalysis met hods da-1), plant height (mm), ear diame- the experiment, these values were
identified in Kachman and Smith ter (mm), 1000 seed weight (g), seed observed 42.35%, 52.91%, 56.00%
(1995). The multiple index (I mult) is number in ear (seed) used by Keskin and 19.01 °C, 19.16 °C, 19.27 °C, for
the percentage of plant distance that (2001). C0, C1 and C2, respectively. Greater
are less than or equal to half of the soil compaction increased soil water
set plant spacing and the percentage 2.7. Statistical Analyses content (Altikat and Celik, 2011)
of multiple seed drops. Miss index The ANOVA procedure, appropri- and soil temperature (Diener, 1974).
(I miss) is the percentage of plant ate for randomized complete block For both experiment years, maxi-
distance greater than 1.5 times the design, was the procedure used to mum rainfall was 9 mm at study
set seed distance and indicates the analyze the variance of the obtained area. This value was not suitable
percentage of missed seed locations data. Means were compared using for seedling emergence and rainfall
or skips. Quality of feed index (Ifq) Duncan’s multiple range tests. was not affect the soil water content.
is the percentage of plant spacing In study of the growing period of
that is more than half but no more maize air temperature and rainfall
than 1.5 times the set distance. A ran its course. The average air tem-
practical upper limit of precision is perature was moderate and similar
29%. Although there is upper limit 3.1. The Soil Water Content and in growing period and not exceeded
of 50% on the precision in theory, Seedbed Temperatures 30 °C in both years of experiment.
the values bigger than 29% should Effects of soil compaction on the Tourn et al. (2003), soil and air tem-
be approach with suspicion. seedbed temperature and water perature affect plant maturity time
Imult = n1 / N ...(5) content are given in Fig. 1. During from seeding to harvest.
Imiss = n 2 / N ...(6) the germination, maximum seedbed
Ifq = 100 − (Imiss + Imult) ...(7) temperature and soil water contents 3.2. Penetration Resistance and
were determined at the C2 (two Soil Bulk Density
2.6. Crop Yield passes) compaction level for both 1st This study found that compaction
In order to determine the yield and 2nd experimental periods. by passing two times (C2) caused
values, 10 corn plants were ran- The first year of the experiment, greater changes in topsoil properties
domly selected from each treatment. average seedbed water content and than compacted by passing one time
Harvesting was done taking into temperature values were 43.07%, (C1) or no-pass (C0). Fig. 2 shows
consideration the common methods 53.19%, 54.69% and 19.90 °C, 20.14 the penetration resistance (PEN)
such as green herbage yield (kg. °C, 20.26 °C, in the second year of and soil bulk density (BD) measure-
Fig. 1 Changes in soil water content (%) and seedbed temperature (°C) for two experimental year after compaction. C0: No pass,
C1: one pass, C2: two passes, (ns): not significance
The first year of experiment The first year of experiment
ments for both year of experiment. Table 3 Statistical analysis of sowing performance values
In the experiment, average PEN Percentage of Mean Emergence Time Emergence Rate Index
values for the first year 1.40, 1.51, Factors Emergence (%) (day) (seedling.day.m-1)
1.69 MPa and for the second year 2014 2015 2014 2015 2014 2015
1.23, 1.46, 1.80 MPa for C0, C1 and V1 93.47a√ 90.18a 16.42a 15.10ns 0.402b 0.47ns
C2 respectively. The greatest PEN V2 88.87b 85.94b 15.49b 15.14ns 0.426a 0.46ns
values obtained at the 300 mm soil V3 82.70c 83.35c 15.38b 15.16ns 0.429a 0.46ns
depth. These values were 2.18 and P 0.000** 0.000** 0.000** 0.943 0.000** 0.782
2.36 MPa at C2 treatment for the C0 85.94b 84.96b 16.34a 16.01a 0.404b 0.43c
first and second year of experiment, C1 88.88a 86.28ab 15.50b 15.25b 0.425a 0.46b
respectively. It is important to note C2 90.21a 88.23a 15.45b 15.20b 0.428a 0.50a
that typical tillage depths in Turkey P 0.011* 0.021* 0.000** 0.000** 0.000** 0.000**
are approximately 300 mm and it is √: Means within the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly
different C0: Control (No pass); C1: One pass; C2: Two passes, V1: 5.4 km.h-1, V2:
considered the topsoil layer from 0 7.2 km.h-1, V3: 10.8 km.h-1.
to 300 mm in this experiment. Ac-
cording to Botta et al. (2008), yield average seedlings emergence were and 0.42 seedlings.d -1.m -1 for PE,
reduction can be observed in case determined as 88.35%, 15.76 days MET and ERI, respectively. In the
of exceeding 2.5 MPa. PEN values
in this study were above the critical Fig. 2 Penetration resistance (MPa) and soil bulk density (g.cm-3) for two
limits (2.5 MPa) to avoid yield re- experimental year after compaction. C0: No pass, C1: one pass, C2: two passes, (ns):
duces. not significance
The statistical analyses for BD
indicated a significant interaction of
compaction × depth, with the great-
est values (P < 0.01) for all depths
and both year of experiment. Fig.
2 presents BD values 0 to 300 mm
depth at two experimental years and
different compaction levels. Results
indicated that greater compaction
increased the BD. The highest BD
value obser ved at C2 with 1.37
g.cm -3 at 300 mm depth for both
year and the lowest BD observed
at C0 with 1.03 and 1.01 g.cm -3 at
50 mm depth for the first and the
second year of experiment, respec-
tively.
The data for both PEN and BD
shows that compaction was created
for C1 and C2 treatments in 50-300
mm depth. As expected, the soil was
more compacted in C2 than C1 and
C0. Increasing the number of passes
increased both BD and PEN at top-
soil (above 300 mm) depths. These
results agree with obser vations
made by (Servadio et al., 2005).
3.3. Seedlings Emergence

Seedlings emergence parameters
were generally statistically signifi-
cant and were affected by sowing
speeds and compaction levels. Dur-
ing the first year of the experiment, The first year of experiment The second year of experiment
Table 4 Statistical analysis of sowing performance values germination and seedling establish-
Sowing depth
Inter row seed Intra row seed Seed ment. Gemtos and Lellis (1997)
distribution distribution distribution stated that seedling emergence time
Factors (CV %)
uniformity (CV %) uniformity (CV %) area (mm 2)
reduced at 150-200 kPa compaction
2014 2015 2014 2015 2014 2015 2014
levels in 15% and 23% initial volu-
V1 45.36a 46.08a 185.24b 12.40ns 149.57b 13.83b 192.5b
metric soil water content for sandy
V2 40.86b 43.31a 174.44b 11.86ns 184.65ab 13.34b 284.3b
loam and clay loam soil respective-
V3 38.69c 39.34b 218.00a 13.25ns 214.11a 15.56a 560.9a
ly. Altikat et al. (2006) stated that
P 0.001** 0.003** 0.000** 0.140ns 0.780ns 0.033* 0.000**
increase in intra-row compaction
C0 45.19a 39.42b 196.26ns 14.19a 181.02ns 13.42ns 328.7ns
level increased seed germination
C1 39.55c 44.95a 192.15ns 11.67b 183.39ns 14.34ns 306.2ns
of wheat and soil water content but
C2 40.18b 44.36a 189.26ns 11.65b 183.94ns 14.96ns 402.7ns
P 0.002** 0.007** 0.743ns 0.001** 0.986ns 0.190ns 0.416ns
there was not statistically significant
Inter row seed Intra row seed Seed
effect was on the seedbed tempera-
Sowing depth ture. Among the intra-row compac-
distribution distribution distribution
Factors (CV %)
uniformity (CV %) uniformity (CV %) area (mm 2) tion levels (0, 15, 30, 45, 60 kPa),
2014 2015 2014 2015 2014 2015 2015 blocks compacted 60 kPa showed
V1 6.53b* 8.31a 2.93b 2.21b 8.11ns 5.94ns 286.1b higher percentage of emergence and
V2 7.91a√ 2.31b 17.04a 9.7a 6.04ns 3.57ns 292.9b water content of soil.
V3 7.61a 6.48a 16.08a 6.67a 4.78ns 6.74ns 450.2a
P 0.023* 0.000** 0.009** 0.000** 0.289ns 0.326ns 0.021* 3.4. Sowing Performance
C0 7.37ns 8.17a 10ns 7.51ns 6.16ns 5.06ns 374.4ns In order to determine the effects
C1 7.41ns 6.33a 8.7ns 6.39ns 5.59ns 7.48ns 374.1ns of factors on planting performance
C2 7.26ns 2.60b 17.2ns 8.40ns 7.21ns 3.70ns 280.7ns in the study, seed depth variation
P 0.974ns 0.077ns 0.986ns 0.537ns 0.724ns 0.226ns 0.221ns coefficient, inter and intra-row seed
√: Means within the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly distribution area, seed distribution
7.2 km.h-1, V3: 10.8 km.h-1.
area, multiple index, miss index and
quality of feed index were evalu-
second year of the experiment these mined at the C2 (two passes) com- ated. For a homogenous seedlings
values were observed as 86.49%, paction levels. Generally, optimum emergence in sowing, it is desirable
15.13 days and 0.46 seedlings.d -1. seedlings emergence was observed that the coefficient of variation at
m-1. Sowing speed has an important at the treatment with V1 sowing sowing depth is minimum. Vertical
effect on the seedlings emergence in speed and C2 compaction level in fluctuations in the sowing depth of
both 1st and 2nd years of the experi- both 1st and 2nd experimental periods seeds cause different germination
ments. Increasing the sowing speed (Table 3). and harvesting times. This situ-
reduced PE and MET but increased Soil can be compacted at moder- ation directly affects crop yield.
ERI during all of the experiments. ate level with press wheel or roller Increasing forward speed showed a
Similar effects were observed at the in order to reduce soil water content reduction in mean sowing depth but
compaction treatments except per- loss and provide enough soil-seed increased the coefficient of variation
centage of emergence values. In all contact. According to Wilkes and of depth. The actual mean sowing
of the experimental periods the best Hobgood (1969), moderate com- depths were nearly equal to nominal
seedlings emergences were deter- paction could obtain a better seed sowing depth for the forward speed
Fig. 3 Changes in seed distribution area (mm 2) according to sowing speeds
The first year of experiment The second year of experiment
of 5.4 km.h-1 (Ivancan et al., 2004; plant height, ear diameter, 1000 seed 2 and 2.5 MPa compaction level.
Brandelero et al., 2015). In addi- weight and seed number in ear were This compaction level was similar
tion, the increase intra-row compac- determined in order to ascertain the with the highest compaction level in
tion level resulted in a reduction of effects of tractor forward speed and our study. These data of the study
the coefficient variation in sowing compaction levels. It was observed show similar results with the other
depth. However, this effect was only that the compaction levels were studies carried out (Chen and Weil,
observed in the second year of the significantly effective on crop yield 2011, Altikat and Celik, 2011). Ob-
experiment. It is desirable to distrib- in each year of the study. However, tained results showed that no differ-
ute the seeds into a narrow area in this effect could not be determined ences were found between forward
the sowing technique. This rule is at the tractor forward speeds. In speed and crop yields parameters.
important for the optimum growth both research years, the highest In Table 6, the effect of factors on
area of seeds. The increase of the yield values were obtained in the product yield is shown in detail. The
tractor forward speed in the study parcels where the maximum com- intra-row soil compaction increases
caused the seeds to spread over a paction was applied. In addition to the soil-seed contact, causing the
wider area (Fig. 3). However, this this, in the control treatments where seedlings emergence to be homoge-
result was observed only in the first compaction is not applied, the crop neous and early.
year of the study (Table 4). In both yield values reduce considerably.
years of the study, the increase in The observation supports our hy-
the sowing speed led to an increase pothesis that maize yield is affected
Conclusion
in the miss and multiple index. by field traffic. Botta et al. (2013)
Fig. 3 and Table 4 generally sup- examined the effects of field traf- Physical properties of soil, sowing
port our hypothesis that changing in fic on yield of maize. In this study, quality, productivity and yield are
sowing speed affect seed distribu- the highest yield was observed at strongly influenced by compaction
tion. Önal (1987), optimum working
speeds in the intra-row spacing range
of 205.8 and 87.3 mm are 12.5 and Table 5 Statistical analysis of seed uniformity values
5.4 km.h-1, respectively. Raoufat and Quality of feed index Multiple index Miss index
Matbooei (2007) reported that the Factors (%) (%) (%)
most suitable sowing depth, mini- 2014 2015 2014 2015 2014 2015
mum miss index and variation coef- V1 90.15a√ 93.55a 0.00b 1.78b 9.84c 4.66b
ficient among the 4, 7 and 10 km.h- V2 68.21b 84.82b 6.79ab 8.59a 24.99b 6.57b
1
forward speed was obtained the V3 50.33c 71.16c 11.97a 8.61a 37.69a 19.29a
treatments at 7 km.h-1 forward speed. P 0.000** 0.000** 0.042* 0.220 0.785 0.000**
Ivancan (2004), when increase the C0 66.24ns 82.19b 7.45ns 5.14ns 26.31ns 12.65a
forward speed from 1.8 km.h-1 to 5.2 C1 73.39ns 93.68a 4.36ns 4.37ns 22.24ns 1.01b
km.h -1, intra-row spacing increase C2 69.06ns 73.65c 6.94ns 9.47ns 23.99ns 16.87a
from 75 mm to 83 mm, respectively. P 0.451 0.000** 0.752 0.056 0.001** 0.000**
The best intra-row distribution √: Means within the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly
was recorded at the speed of 1.8 7.2 km.h-1, V3: 10.8 km.h-1.
km.h-1. Sowing quality was 80.4%
at this speed. This value was 79.3%, Table 6 Statistical analysis of crop yield values
79.4% and 76.6% at 2.4 km.h-1, 3.6 Green
km.h-1 and 5.2 km.h-1, respectively. Plant Ear 1000 seed Seed
herbage
Years Factors height diameter weight number in
The best quality of feed indexes yield
(mm) (mm) (g) ear (grain)
(kg/ha)
are obtained at low sowing speeds
C0 414.4c√ 2139b 42.43b 200.7b 508.7b
(Karayel and Ozmerzi, 2001). The
C1 562.2b 2395a 44.63ab 209.9b 573.5b
effect of compaction was observed 2014
C2 631.1a 2470a 45.84a 240.9a 661.1a
only in the second year of the study
Compaction P 0.000** 0.000** 0.018* 0.029* 0.000**
quality of feed indexes and miss in- Level C0 445.6 b 2185b 41.8a 211.7c 524.0c
dex (Table 5). The most appropriate
C1 509.0 b 2441a 43.7a 231.1b 582.4b
compaction value on these factors is 2015
C2 650.5 a 2585a 43.2a 251.0a 635.0a
determined as C1 compaction level.
P 0.020* 0.002** 0.166 0.030* 0.000**
√: Means within the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly
3.5. Crop Yield different C0: Control (No pass); C1: One pass; C2: Two passes, V1: 5.4 km.h-1, V2:
In the study, green herbage yield, 7.2 km.h-1, V3: 10.8 km.h-1.
and forward speed of sowing ma- B01). produced by tractor with radial
chine. and bias − ply tyres in two soil
When number of tractor passes conditions: conventional tillage
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Akdeniz. tems. In Proceedings of the IV
Design and Development of a Tractor-Operated
Biomass Incorporator
by
Aseem Verma* Rohinish Khurana
Assistant Research Engineer Professor
Dept. of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering Dept. of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering
Punjab Agricultural University Punjab Agricultural University
Ludhiana (Punjab) INDIA Ludhiana (Punjab) INDIA
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Anoop Kumar Dixit

Senior Research Engineer
Dept. of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering
Punjab Agricultural University
Ludhiana (Punjab) INDIA
ha/h (at forward speed of 3.4 km/h) nating system productivity and di-
Abstract
and 6.66-8.31 l/h, respectively. The minishing economic returns (Ladha
A tractor-operated two-bottom soil pulverization index with the et al., 2009; Humph reys et al.,
biomass incorporator was devel- machine varied from 5.37 to 9.70 2010). Modern farming practices in
oped for efficient incorporation of mm. The bulk density index ranged the region include irrational use of
green manure crop. The machine between 23.31-26.57%. The mixing chemical fertilizers. Excessive and
is a combination of cutting unit, index with soil varied from 97.07 to continuous chemical fertilization
shortened mould board and verti- 98.00%. causes accumulated side effects on
cal rotating clod-crusher. The cut- Keywords: Biomass incorpora- human and animal health, environ-
ting unit cuts the crop mass into tion, Green manuring, Mixing in- ment and increases agricultural pro-
small pieces. The share of mould dex. duction cost (Bahnas and Khater,
board plough cuts the furrow slice, 2015). In monoculture cropping
the shortened mould board lifts it system, overuse of chemical fertil-
and finally the vertically-rotating izers in the long term causes decline
Introduction
auger behind each bottom pulver- in soil organic matter (Reganold et
izes the furrow slice and buries R ice -wheat system ( RWS) is al., 1987), formation and concentra-
the crop biomass efficiently. Field highly productive and important tion of mineral salts of fertilizers
trials were conducted to incorpo- for food security and livelihoods of leading to compaction layer and soil
rate green manure crop (Sesbania millions of people. It is practiced on degradation (Massah and Azadegan,
aculeata) in loamy sand type soil around 13.5 million ha area across 2016). The use of synthetic fertiliz-
at two stages of crop growth, 36 the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains ers not only increase water demand
days after sowing and 50 days after (IGP) of South Asia (Ladha et al., of crops but also reduces water
sowing. The above ground biomass 2009). Sustainability of conven- holding capacity of already light In-
density at crop growth stage I and tional rice-wheat production system dian soils (Faroda et al., 2008). Re-
II was 154 q/ha and 224.63 q/ha, in many parts of South Asia includ- peated application of high fertilizer
respectively. The average depth of ing northwest India has become a nitrogen dose adversely affects soil
operation of biomass incorporator major concern owing to falling wa- microbial life and associated micro-
was 17.47-17.90 cm. The effective ter tables, low input-use efficiency bial transformations. This may also
field capacity and fuel consumption (fertilizers, pesticides), farm-related lead to soil acidity which is a nega-
rate of the machine was 0.25-0.28 pollution, farm labor scarcity, stag- tive soil health trait (Singh, 2018).
Energy crisis, higher fertilizer cost, ing also controls deficiency of iron idea of using two or more dissimilar
sustainability in agriculture produc- in rice crop (Anon., 2018). tools or implements concurrently for
tion system and ecological stability Effective incor poration of the effective work with reduced number
are the important issues which have green manure crop is as important of field operations. The objective of
renewed the interest of farmers and as the growing of the crop. The biomass incorporator was to reduce
research workers to opt for non- signif icance of green manuring the size of the green manure crop,
chemical sources of plant nutrients lies in the fact that organic matter to place it in the field at appropriate
i.e. organic manures, viz. farm yard be incorporated properly into the depth and to provide proper cover
manure, vermi-compost, poultry soil (Dubey et al., 2015). Thorough over it with pulverized soil. For
manure and green manure (Eagan covering of biomass with soil is chopping of crop, a cutting unit was
and Dhandayuthapani, 2018). Green necessary for complete and faster needed covering the entire width of
manuring is an effective and low conversion of crop material to hu- the machine. An adequate amount
cost technology which replenishes mus. For many residue types, the of pulverized soil was needed to
soil health naturally and also helps rate of decomposition have consis- properly cover the chopped biomass.
in minimizing the cost of chemical tently been found to be 2-4 times For digging sufficient quantity of
fertilizers while safeguarding pro- faster in buried condition than in soil mass, soil cutting concept of
ductivity. A fallow period of about surface placed condition (Ghidey conventional mould board plough
60-65 days is available after the and Alberts, 1993; Varco et al., was needed but complete inversion
harvest of wheat, which can be uti- 1993; Beare et al., 2002). Uncovered of lifted soil slice was not desired.
lized for growing of pre-rice green plants lying on the soil surface do As most of the turning and inver-
manure (Singh et al., 2010). The ad- not decompose rapidly; rather they sion of the soil is accomplished by
dition of green manure, having low dry up gradually and interfere in the upper part of the mould board, it
C/N ratio, to lowland rice brings subsequent operation of tillage or was planned to use truncated mould
about many changes in chemical seedbed preparation machinery. board. For this general purpose type
properties of soil and various nu- Further, chopping of biomass before mould board was truncated from the
trient transformations which can incorporation leads to faster decom- upper side. Breaking the soil clods
improve the sustainability of soil position rate (Tarafdar et al., 2001). immediately after ploughing pre-
N fertility in lowland rice. The soil In view of the above, a tractor op- vents development of high strength
compaction due to puddling in rice erated biomass incorporator was in clods due to drying of the soil.
adversely impacts soil structure and developed which chops the biomass Thus, before the inversion of soil
root growth of succeeding wheat and simultaneously incorporates it mass, pulverization and spread-
crop resulting in inefficient use of in the soil. This would help in early ing of the evacuated soil slice was
both water and nutrients (Kirchhof decomposition of biomass, resulting needed with a clod crusher.
and So, 1996; Gathala et al., 2011) in reduced requirement of inorganic
whereas integration of legumes fertilizers. Design Basis for Truncated Mould
in RWS has been demonstrated to Board
improve soil fertility and provides During the translatory motion
nitrogen to rice (Singh et al., 2010; of plough, each bottom cuts a soil
Chauhan et al., 2012). layer of rectangular cross section,
The most commonly grown green Design Concept of Biomass Incor- the dimensions of which depend
manure/legume crops in northwest porator on the operating width and depth
India are Sesbania aculeata, Viqna The design concept of biomass of the bottom (Bosoi et al., 2016).
sinensis and Crotalaria juncea. incorporator was based on broad While studying the process of slice
These crops have rapid grow th
which helps in suppressing the
Fig. 1 Slice turning during working of mould board plough bottom
weeds and ample nodulation activity
by them is also preferable. Due to
succulent nature of its foliage, these
decompose very quickly and fit it in
the prevailing cropping systems. In
RWS, growing and burying of 6-8
weeks old green manuring crop be-
fore transplanting of rice results in
saving of 62.5 kg of nitrogen (137.5
kg urea) per hectare. Green manur-
turning during operation of mould over f low the mould board when no inversion (upside down) of the
board plough, it was assumed that machine is operated up to 24 cm soil slice and soil slice is directly
the falling soil slice does not change depth. For medium tillage, the width subjected to clod cr ushing unit
its dimensions, that is, it is turned of cut of a bottom was taken as 43.2 after lifting by mould board. The
without crumbling (Fig. 1). Further, cm. computer aided design software
the average speed of movement of Design to Protect Overturning of SolidEdge V20 was used to make a
the soil across mould board would Slice Backward into the Furrow model of the design. The computer
be approximately same as the for- From the right-angled triangle aided drawing of truncated mould
ward speed of biomass incorporator. C1D3C3 (Fig. 1) with sides C1C3 = b board is shown in Fig. 2.
Design to Protect Overflowing of and C3D3 = a, the angle of inclina- Arrangement of Bottoms of Mould
Furrow Slice tion φ of the pulled slice to the hori- Board Plough
In Fig. 1, the operating width of zontal is given by: The bottoms on the plough body
plough bottom is denoted by ‘b’ Sin φ = C3D 3 / C1C3 = a/b = 1/k are arranged as shown in Fig. 3. It
and ploughing depth is denoted by (where k = b/a) was assumed that the soil reaction
‘a’. During lifting of the soil slice In slice turning, the position at (R) to cutting, arising during mo-
ABCD, which is cut in the horizon- which the diagonal of its cross section of the bottom, is applied at the
tal plane by the share on the mould tion A 2 C1 is perpendicular to the middle of the share blade length i.e.
board, it is first rotated about the rib furrow bottom will be the limiting L/2 and directed at angle of fric-
D until it occupies the vertical posi- position. A slight deviation of the tion φ to the plane, perpendicular to
tion DA1B1C1. Afterward, the slice is diagonal to the left will result in the the blade. If we draw a straight line
rotated about the rib C1 to the final overturning of the slice backward parallel to the direction of action of
position C1D2A 2B2 until it lies with into the furrow. The limiting ratio k the force R through the front share
the face C1B2 on the previously cut = b/a was found using identity of the tip, then the tip of the next bottom
slice. During the movement of the right-angled triangles C1A 2 B 2 and will be found on it at the point C,
soil slice in single run, soil travels C1D3C3. at a distance √(L12 + L22 and so on.
through the contour BA1B1. So A1 Therefore, from Fig. 1 Here L1 is the distance between tip
represents the highest point during C3D3 / C1C3 = C1B2 / C1A 2 of share of bottom 1 and bottom 2
the movement of soil slice. Similarly a/b = b/√(a2 + b2) in longitudinal direction i.e. in line
during the previous run of the ma- 1/k = 1/√(1 / k)2 + 1 ...(1) of direction of travel of the machine
chine, A 2 is representing the high- Transforming the expression (1) and L 2 is the width of cut of the
est point. In right angled triangle into an equation and by solving that single bottom i.e. ‘b’.
C1A 2B2 , side C1A 2 is the hypotenuse we get The arrangement of bottoms in
while other sides are having length 1/k = Sin φ = 0.787 the longitudinal direction was deter-
‘a’ and ‘b’. i.e. k = 1.27 mined by expression:
Therefore, maximum height of Therefore, the limiting value of k L1/L2 = tan (θ1 + φ)
upper edge of t r uncated mould was 1.27 and value of k > 1.27 was L1 = L2 tan (θ1 + φ),
board, Hmax = √(a2 + b2) + ΔHmax found to be necessary to protect where,
Where, ΔH max = 0-20 mm overturning of slice backward into θ1 is the angle of inclination of the
The height of the upper end of the furrow. The truncation of mould share to the furrow wall
truncated mould board was kept as board on curvature was done keep- φ is the angle of friction of the
H max so that the soil slice does not ing in view that there should be soil with metal
Taking θ1 = 40-45° (say 43°) and
φ = 20° at operating width (L2)
Fig. 2 Computer aided drawing Fig. 3 Arrangement of bottoms of mould board = 43.2 cm
of truncated mould board plough
L1 = 43.2 tan (43 + 20)°
L1 = 84.8 cm
Elevation of position of plough
body above the plane of support of
bottom is given by
H = b + 2a / 3
= 43.2 + (2 × 24) / 3
= 59.2 cm
Design Basis for Cutting Unit

The working of cutting unit was
based on various principles of cut- Speed of Rotation spacing and the stagger pattern was
ting plants i.e. whether the plant is For efficient cutting of unsup- kept symmetrical about the longi-
supported against a counter edge ported stalks, the cutter speed must tudinal centreline. The clod crusher
or the plant remains unsupported. be 18-50 m/s. The cutting speed unit made three cuts per revolu-
During the field working of biomass has a significant inf luence on re- tion at each level of blades. Similar
incor porator, the green manure sistance to cutting. The resistance concept is followed in conventional
plants remained unsupported from decreases with increasing cutting rotary tillers (Kepner et al., 2005).
one side. Its bending was restricted speed (Klenin et al., 1986). Keep- The diameter of top most blade tip
by its own rigidity, inertia and part- ing in view that green manure crop circle was kept same as that in com-
ly by support it received from the was having soft biomass and cutting mercially available rotavators. Dur-
adjacent stalks. An impact cutting along with incorporation of the crop ing operation of the machine, the
mechanism was selected for the ma- was to be done at succulent stage, clod crushing unit and mould board
chine. This mechanism comprised the lower limit of the peripheral were supposed to work at fixed rela-
a high-speed cutting element, rotat- speed was selected for the cutting tive position. Therefore, the blades
ing in horizontal plane, and relied unit. The computer aided drawing were arranged such that top layer of
primarily upon the inertia of the of cutting unit is shown in Fig. 4. blade was below the top most edge
material being cut to furnish the op- of truncated mould board. Keeping
posing force required for shear. Design Basis for Clod Crusher in view the lifting and movement of
Type of Blades and Their Arrange- Design of clod crusher was based soil slice through truncated mould
ment on Rotor on the principle of using small cuts board, the blades of clod crushing
Straight blades with serrated teeth in a consolidated soil to obtain max- unit were given clockwise rotation
were selected for the cutting unit as imum fragmentation and dispersion. (as viewed from top) for better hit-
these are suitable for soft biomass The most efficient method of pro- ting effect and thereby efficient soil
(Liu, 2012). These high carbon ducing a desired clod mean mass di- crumbling and dispersal. The com-
steel blades result in good chop- ameter is to apply the forces in such puter aided drawing of clod crush-
ping quality and low fuel consump- a manner that soil breakup occurs in ing unit has been shown in Fig. 5.
tion. Straight blades with serrated one step. The following design fac- Speed of Rotation
teeth, having length of 120 mm, tors were considered while develop- The clod crushing unit of biomass
were selected for the cutting unit. ment of clod crushing unit: incorporator was not intended for
The arrangement of blades at dif- Type of Blades and Their Arrange- hitting, loosening and lifting of the
ferent levels on the cutting unit was ment soil mass as is done in case of ro-
adopted so that smaller cut size of The clod crushing unit was not tavator. It was intended for hitting
the stalks could be achieved. The intended for loosening and lifting of loosened soil mass for pulveriza-
straight blades were arranged hori- soil. As only cutting action was de- tion. Further, availability of blades
zontally at equal spacing and the sired, flat blades were used to incise at different levels made this work
pattern was kept symmetrical about the soil (Gill and Berg, 1968). The less energy intensive. Therefore,
the longitudinal centreline. The rotating flat blades caused impact depending upon the required soil
diameter of blade tip circle was se- force and soil inertia further assisted dispersion, peripheral speed of
lected keeping in view the working in better fragmentation. The me- top level blades was kept as 8.6 m/
width of the machine. As the work- chanical rigidity of the soil mass was s which was twice the peripheral
ing height of the machine lowers used as the holding body. The com-
when mould board is working in the mercially available L-shaped blades
Fig. 4 Computer aided drawing of
soil, the lowest point on the cutting having trapezium shaped cutting cutting unit
unit was kept more than maximum area with outer and inner width of 75
depth of cut of the machine. There- and 65 mm, respectively and straight
fore, height of the lowest point on cutting length of 110 mm were se-
the cutting unit was kept 240 mm lected for clod crushing unit. These
above the ground level. Keeping in high carbon steel blades are presently
view the safety aspect, an inverted being used in rotavators also.
L-shaped sheet metal safety cov- The staggering of blades at differ-
ers having dimensions as per the ent levels was adopted as small cuts
dimensions of the cutting unit were reduce the total force on the tool due
developed. These covers were fitted to reduced soil confinement or due
on the main frame of the machine to lesser weight of soil on the tool.
with hinged joints. The blades were arranged at equal
speed of blades of commercially N = standard PTO speed i.e. 540 To find Y, formative number of
available rotavators (4.3 m/s). rpm teeth in gear was calculated
Therefore, Zfg = Zg / Cos ϒg = 21 / Cos 45° =
Design of Power Transmission TPTO = (27.97 × 1000 × 60) / 2 × 29.7
The PTO power of the tractor was 3.1416 × 540 Similarly, Zfp = 29.7
used to operate cutting unit and clod = 494.6 N-m = 49.46 kgf-m Therefore,
crushing unit. The power from trac- Selected speed ratio of gear box = Y = π (0.154 − 0.921/29.7) = 0.386
tor PTO was transmitted to gear box 1:1 Therefore, from Lewis equation,
with the help of shaft. The transmis- Let teeth in driving gear, Zp = 21 Fb = 490 × 106 × 0.03 × 0.006 ×
sion ratio of gear box was 1:1. A pair Teeth in driven bevel gear, Zg = 21 0.386 (1 − 0.03/0.089) = 22.57 kN
of straight bevel gears (miter gears) × speed ratio = 21 As Fb > Fd
of equal size, having equal number Therefore, Therefore, design is safe for dy-
of teeth and with shaft angle (θ) 90° speed of driven shaft = 540 × namic loading.
was used in the gear box. V-belt (21/21) = 540 rpm Design of Power Transmitting Shaft
drive can be used for prime mover Torque in driven shaft = 49.46 × The shaft was designed for torque
power capacity up to 200 kW (Shar- (1/1) = 49.46 kgf-m applied by the prime mover.
ma and Aggarwal, 2011). Further, in Pressure angle, φ = 20° TPTO = (π/16) d3τmax
agricultural machines, V-belts can be Let gear tooth module (m) = 6 mm Where,
operated at a speed as high as 33 m/s Diameter of pinion gear, Dp = 6 × TPTO = Maximum torque to be
(Kepner et al., 2005). During opera- 21 = 126 mm transmitted by PTO shaft of
tion of biomass incorporator, the se- Therefore, tractor = 4946 kgf-cm
lected speed for cutting unit and clod Diameter of driven gear, Dg = 126 d = Diameter of shaft, cm
crushing unit was 18 m/s and 8.6 m/ × 1 = 126 mm τmax = Allowable shear stress = 250
s, respectively. Moreover PTO power Pitch cone angle, ϒp = tan-1 (Z p / kgf/cm2 (after factor of safety)
of selected tractor was also consider- Zg) = tan-1 (21 / 21) = 45° Therefore,
ably below 200 kW. Keeping in view, ϒg = 90° − 45° = 45° 4946 = (3.1416/16) × d3 × 250
power from gear box to cutting unit Cone distance, L = √(Rg2 + Rp2) = d3 = 100.76
and clod crushing unit was transmit- √(0.0632 + 0.0632) = 0.089 m d = 4.65 cm or 46.5 mm
ted using V-belt drive. Design load Shaft having outer diameter of 65
Design of Gear Box Pitch line velocity (V) = (π × mm was selected.
Tractor bhp = 50 hp = 37.3 kW 0.126 × 540) / 60 = 3.56 m/s Design of Belt and Pulley Arrange-
The gear box system was designed As power from gear box was to ment
for maximum input PTO power. be transmitted to non-soil engaging PTO power of tractor (P) = 27.97
PTO power of tractor (P) = 0.75 parts, service factor or overload fac- kW
× 37.3 = 27.97 kW (Sharma and tor Co was taken as 1.25. Design power = 27.97 × service fac-
Mukesh, 2013) Design transmitted load, Ft = (P × tor (Sharma and Aggarwal, 2011)
Maximum torque to be transmit- 1000 × Co) / V = (27.97 × 1000 = 27.97 × 1.2 = 33.5 kW
ted by PTO shaft of tractor, × 1.25) / 3.56 = 9.82 kN As the maximum design power
TPTO = (PTO power × 60) / 2πN Velocity factor, Cv = 3/(3+V) (for ranges between 11-75 kW, belt sec-
Where, V up to 7.5 m/s) tion ‘C’ was selected.
Cv = 0.50 Power Transmission from Gear Box
Dynamic load, Fd = Ft / Cv = 9.82 / to Cutting Unit
Fig. 5 Computer aided drawing of clod
crushing unit 0.50 = 19.64 kN Diameters of both the pulleys
Strength were determined on the basis of ve-
Applying Lewis strength equation locity ratio.
for gear Selected speed for cutting unit =
Fb = fb × f × m × Y (1 − f/L) 18 m/s
Where, Taking cylinder outer diameter as
f = active width of pinion gear, m 110 mm and total length of straight
Taking f = L/3 = 0.089/3 = 0.03 m blade as 130 mm.
= 30 mm Diameter of blade tip circle while
fb = 490 MPa for pinion (driving) rotation (Db1) = 370 mm = 0.37 m
and gear (driven) made of steel Therefore, for achieving periph-
having BHN 200 (Sharma and eral speed of 18 m/sec,
Aggarwal, 2011) 18 = (π × Db1 × Nb) / 60
Where, dian Where,
Nb = Number of rotations of cut- Therefore, safe for power trans- Nc = Number of rotations of clod
ting unit per minute, rpm mission. crusher per minute, rpm
Nb = (18 × 60) / (3.1416 × 0.37) = Angle of contact on smaller pulley Nc = (8.6 × 60) / (3.1416 × 0.45) =
929 rpm (say 925 rpm) for belt drive arrangement of cutting 365 rpm
Db / Dg b = (1 − s) N / Nb unit 2 Dc / Dgc = (1 − s) N / Nc
Where, = π − 2Sin-1(Dgb − Db) / 2C2 Where,
Db = Diameter of driven pulley on = 180° − 2Sin-1(305 − 178) / (2 × Dc = Diameter of driven pulley on
cutting unit, mm 705) cutting unit, mm
Dgb = Diameter of driving pulley = 169.6° = 2.96 radian > 2.1 radian Dgc = Diameter of driving pulley
on gear box, mm Therefore, safe for power trans- on gear box, mm
N = Number of rotations of driv- mission. N = Number of rotations of driv-
ing shaft per minute, rpm In case of use of common belt(s) ing shaft per minute, rpm
s = slip factor = 0.01 for power transmission to both of s = slip factor = 0.01
Db / Dgb = (1 − 0.01) × 540/925 the cutting units, angle of contact Dc / Dgc = (1 − 0.01) × 540/365
Let the selected diameter of com- on smaller pulleys would be further Let selected diameter of commer-
mercially available driving pulley, higher than the calculation made for cially available driving pulley, Dgc =
Dgb = 305 mm individual belt drive of each cutting 204 mm
Therefore, unit. Therefore,
D b = (0.99 × 540 × 305) / 925 = Power Transmission from Gear Dc = (0.99 × 540 × 204) / 365 =
176.3 mm Box to Clod Crushing Unit 298.8 mm
Commercially available 178 mm Diameters of both the pulleys Commercially available 305 mm
diameter pulley was selected as were determined on the basis of ve- diameter pulley was selected as
driven pulley for cutting unit. locity ratio. driven pulley for clod crushing unit.
Check for Suitability for Centre Selected peripheral speed of top Check for Suitability for Centre
Distance level blades = 8.6 m/s Distance
As V-belt drive is not recom- Tak ing outer diameter of ro- Centre distance (C) should be <
mended for large distances, check tor blade hub as 230 mm and total 3(Dgc + Dc)
for centre distance was carried out. length of straight blade as 110 mm. Now, 3(Dgc + Dc) = 3(204 + 305) =
Centre distance (C) should be < Diameter of clod crusher blade tip 1527 mm
3(D gb + D b) (Sharma and Ag- circle (top layer) while rotation Centre distance between driving
garwal, 2011) (Dc1) = 450 mm = 0.45 m pulley and driven pulley of clod
Now, 3(Dgb + Db) = 3(305 + 178) = Therefore, for achieving periph- crushing unit 1 (C3) = 510 mm
1449 mm eral speed of 8.6 m/sec, Centre distance between driving
Centre distance between driving 8.6 = (π × Dc1 × Nc) / 60 pulley and driven pulley of clod
pulley and driven pulley of cutting
unit 1 (C1) = 760 mm Fig. 6 Detailed drawing of side view of developed biomass incorporator
Centre distance between driving
pulley and driven pulley of cutting
unit 2 (C2) = 705 mm
As C1 (760 mm) and C2 (705 mm)
< 1449 mm
Therefore, selected V-belt drive
was suitable as far as centre dis-
tance was concerned.
Angle of Contact on Smaller Pul-
ley for Belt Drive Arrangement of
Cutting Units
Angle of contact on smaller pulley
for belt drive arrangement of cutting
unit 1
= π − 2Sin-1(Dgb − Db) / 2C1
= 180° − 2Sin-1(305− 178) / (2 ×
760)
= 170.4° = 2.97 radian > 2.1 ra-
crushing unit 2 (C4) = 785 mm Angle of Contact on Smaller Pul- ponents and integration of various
As C3 (510 mm) and C4 (785 mm) ley for Belt Drive Arrangement of sub-assemblies i.e. cutting unit,
< 1527 mm Clod Crushers truncated mould board plough unit
Therefore, selected V-belt drive Angle of contact on smaller pulley and clod crushing unit was carried
was suitable as far as centre dis- for belt drive arrangement of clod out. A depth adjusting wheel hav-
tance was concerned. crushing unit 1 ing diameter of 510 mm and width
Theoretical Length of Belt = π − 2Sin-1(Dc − Dgc) / 2C3 of 100 mm was provided to control
Length of belt for driving pulley = 180° − 2Sin-1(305 − 204) / (2 × the working depth of the machine.
and driven pulley of clod crushing 510) To reduce the manufacturing cost,
unit 1 = 168.6° = 2.94 radian > 2.1 ra- components such as gears, pulleys,
= 2C3 + (1/2) × π × (Dc + Dgc) + (Dc dian belts, cutting blades, auger blades
− Dgc)2 / 4C3 Therefore, safe for power trans- etc. were selected from the com-
= 2(0.510) + 1.57 (0.305 + 0.204) mission. mercially available components be-
+ (0.305 − 0.204)2 / (4 × 0.510) Angle of contact on smaller pulley ing used in other equipment. Three
= 1.824 m for belt drive arrangement of clod idlers (130 mm diameter), one for
Similarly, length of belt for driv- crushing unit 2 cutting unit and one each for two
ing pulley and driven pulley of clod = π − 2Sin-1(Dc − Dgc) / 2C4 clod crushing units, were provided
crushing unit 2 = 180° − 2Sin-1(305 − 204) / (2 × on the slack side of the drive for
= 2C 4 + (1/2) × π × (Dc + Dgc) + 785) proper tightening of the belts during
(Dc − Dgc)2 / 4C4 = 172.6° = 3.01 radian > 2.1 radian field operation of the machine. The
= 2(0.785) + 1.57 (0.305 + 0.204) Therefore, safe for power trans- detailed drawing of side view of
+ (0.305 − 0.204)2 / (4 × 0.785) mission. developed machine is shown in Fig.
= 2.372 m 6. The detailed drawings of cut-
The nearest belt length (C-section) Fabrication of Biomass Incorpo- ting unit and clod crushing unit are
was selected from standard V-belt rator shown in Fig. 7. A stationary view
length tables. The fabrication of different com- of developed biomass incorporator
is shown in Fig. 8. The brief speci-
fications of the machine are given in
Fig. 7 Detailed drawing of (a) cutting unit (b) clod crushing unit
Table 1.
Field Trial of Biomass Incorpora-

tor
Field experiments were conducted
at research farm of Department
of Far m Machi ner y and Power
Engineering, Punjab Agricultural
University, Ludhiana, India (30°
54' 38" N latitude and 75° 48' 45"
E longitude). The type of the soil
was loamy sand having constituents
as 745.9 g kg-1 sand, 122.1 g kg-1
silt and 132.0 g kg-1 clay. Sesbania
Fig. 8 A stationary view of tractor

operated biomass incorporator
(a) (b)
aculeata of variety ‘Punjab Dhain- Table 1 Specifications of Tractor Operated Biomass Incorporator
cha 1’ was sown as green manure S.
Description of component Specification
crop in the first week of May with No
conventional seed-cum-fertilizer 1 Type of implement Tractor mounted (Three point hitch)
drill, using 50 kg seed per hectare. 2 Recommended tractor power, hp 50 or above
Sesbania aculeata is an indigenous Number of cutting units 2
Height of cutting unit from ground, mm 280
green manure crop having unique Length of cutting unit, mm 300
ability to f lourish in a variety of 3 Diameter of rotor shaft, mm 110
soil and climate conditions and is Number of levels of blades on each unit 5
Number of blades on each level 5
widely cultivated in India. Biomass Type of blade Straight (serrated length 60 mm)
incorporator was operated to in- Mould board type / material General type (truncated from rear)/
corporate the green biomass at two 4
alloy steel
stages of crop growth i.e. 36 days Share Type Slip share
5
after sowing (36 DAS) and 50 days Size, mm 495
after sowing (50 DAS). The various 6 Frame Tubular section frame
crop and field parameters at differ- Hitching type Category II
7 Mast height, mm 1155
ent stages of crop growth are given Mast braces, mm (L × W × H) 970 × 55 × 10
in Table 2. A 55 hp tractor, fitted Depth wheel Diameter × Width, mm 510 × 100
with fuel flow meter, was used to 8
Method of adjustment Hand screw
operate the machine at rated engine Hand screw
speed of 2400 rpm producing PTO Number of rotor units / shape Two / conical
Size of rotor (without blades), mm Top diameter - 260
speed of 540 rpm. A view of the Bottom diameter - 80
field at crop growth stage I (H1) and Length - 390
machine in operation at this stage Number of levels of blades on each rotor 5
has been shown in Figs. 9 and 10, Number of blades on each level 3
9
Shape and size of blade, mm Trapezoidal section
respectively whereas view of the Width b1 - 65
field at crop growth stage II (H2) Width b2 - 75
and operational view of machine at Length - 110
Direction of rotation Clockwise as viewed from top
this stage has been given in Figs. 11 Rotor speed, rpm Variable (as per PTO speed and
and 12, respectively. transmission ratio)
The parameters such as size of cut, Power Transmission
fuel consumption rate, soil pulveri- Propeller shaft 6 splines
10 Drive from gear box to cutting unit and V-belt and pulley
zation index, bulk density index and to clod crusher rotor
mixing index were recorded during Provision for adjustment Three idlers provided (130 mm diameter)
field operation of the machine. The 11 Overall dimension, mm (L × W × H) 1750 × 1160 × 1155
average size of chopped crop mass 12 Weight, kg 465
is referred as size of cut. After op-
eration of machine, a square meter standard core cutter method (Mehta mass incorporated in the soil. A
frame was placed randomly on the et al., 2005). Bulk density index is square metal frame of 1 m side was
operated field at three places. The the percent difference between the used to measure the above-ground
incorporated biomass was exposed soil bulk density before and after crop intensity in terms of weight.
out after carefully removing the lay- the operation of the machine. Mix- Before the machine operation, the
er of soil covering it. The size of cut ing index is the percentage of crop crop standing inside the square
of green mass was measured with
standard measuring tape by taking Fig. 9 A view of field at crop growth Fig. 10 Field operation of biomass
50 samples at each place and its av- stage I incorporator at crop growth stage I
erage was taken. Fuel consumption
rate was measured with the help of
flow meter installed in the fuel line
of the tractor. Pulverization index
was measured by determining the
mean mass diameter (MMD) of soil
clod by using sieve analysis method
(Mehta et al., 2005). Bulk density of
surface soil was measured by using
Table 2 Crop and field parameters crop. No clogging or entanglement
S.
Parameter
Crop Growth Stage I Crop Growth Stage II of biomass was recorded during
No (36 DAS) (50 DAS) operation of the machine at different
1 Soil moisture content, % (db) 9.47 10.04 levels of plant height.
2 Initial dry bulk density, g/cm3 1.313 1.302
3 Average plant height, mm 685.5 1274.0
4 Average above-ground biomass 154 224.63
density, q/ha Conclusions
meter area was cut from the bottom tion at crop growth stage I. Machine Biomass incorporator was found
and weighed (Wt). The machine was was operated at an average depth of to be sucessful for efficient incor-
operated in the standing crop to operation 17.90 cm and evacuated poration of green manure crop. The
mix/incorporate it into the soil. Af- soil mass was sufficient to cover machine handles adequate amount
ter machine operation, square meter the amount of biomass up to crop of soil mass that is sufficient for
was again placed randomly on the growth stage II. No need of further proper coverage of chopped bio-
operated field and the pieces of the increasing the depth of operation mass. The machine results in well
crop which were exposed 1/3rd of was felt as the quantity of soil mass pulverized field and there was no
their length or more were collected excavated up to this depth was suf- reduction in mixing index value at
and weighed (We). The mixing in- ficient to cover the crop mass com- different stages of crop growth.
dex was calculated as: pletely. The average width of cut
Mixing Index (MI), % = [(Wt − of the machine was found to be 90 Acknowledgements
We ) / Wt] × 100 cm. The average size of cut of the The authors acknowledge All In-
green manure crop ranged between dia Coordinated Research Project
17.05-20.20 cm when machine was (AICRP) on Farm Implements and
operated at crop growth stage I, Machinery, ICAR and Punjab Ag-
whereas, average size of cut of the ricultural University, Ludhiana for
Performance of Biomass Incorpo- biomass varied from 26.05 to 32.65 providing financial assistance and
rator cm when machine was operated facilities to carry out the research.
The machine was operated at for- at crop growth stage II. The fuel
ward speed of 2.10 to 3.4 km/h. The consumption rate with the machine
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Optimization of Developed Continuous Type
Pomegranate Juice Extractor
by
Bhukya Jithender* D. M. Vyas
Research Scholar Dept. of Processing and Food Engineering,
ICAR- Indian Agricultural Research Institute, CAET, JAU, Junagadh,
New Delhi, INDIA Gujarat, INDIA
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Nickhil C P. J. Rathod
Assitant Professor College of Agriculture
Tezpur University, Department of Biochemistry, JAU, Junagadh,
Assam, INDIA Gujarat, INDIA
batch conventional mixer (48.2%). (Holland et al., 2009, Al-Said et al.,

Abstract
The physicochemical analysis also 2009, Fawaole and Opera 2013 and
The pomegranate consumption is proved better results in continuous Mphahlele et al., 2016,). India is the
tremendously increasing due to the pomegranate extractor mainly pH largest producer of pomegranate
development of diversified value- (3.23 ± 0.025), TSS (19.13 ± 0.126 fruits at the global level with total
added products and its health benefit 0Brix), total sugar (14.80 ± 0.09 %), production of 2442.39 thousand
among all age groups of consum- titratable acidity (0.70 ± 0.04 %), MT (NHB, 2017). The fresh aril is
ers. For commercial use, there is total phenol (0.209 ± 0.008 %) and the edible part of the fruit, which
no availability of continuous juice total flavonoids (22.1 ± 2.3 CE /100 is consumed or either processed
extraction, which is drudgery-free mL).The sensory evaluation using mainly contains substantial quanti-
at industrial level. To address this the hedonic scale method revealed ties of acids, sugars, polyphenol and
major issue, continuous pomegran- that continuous juice extractor (> important minerals (Al-Maiman and
ate juice extractor was designed 8.75) compared to the mixer. Ahmad, 2002).
and fabricated having major com- Keywords: Pomegranate fruit; Pomegranate are used for the
ponents such as feed chute, carrier Pomegranate juice; Extraction ef- preparation of fresh juice, drinks,
roller, cr ushing roller and juice ficiency; Extraction loss; Machine wines, jam and jelly, also for colour-
collecting platform with filter. The capacity; Total sugar; Total phenol; ing beverage products and flavour-
optimization of the extractor was Sensory evaluation. ing (Fadavi et al., 2006, Mousav-
performed with carrier roller speed inejad et al., 2009 and Holland et al.,
(5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15 rpm) having 2009).
highest machine capacity (357 kg/ From past 15 years Pomegranate
Introduction
h), extraction efficiency (88%,) with has gained rich source of polyphe-
low extraction losses (< 12%) and Pomegranate (Punica granatum nols compared to wine and green
having a significant effect (P < 0.05) L.) fruits are popular worldwide, tea beverages (Gil et al., 2000,
with good coefficient of determina- which belongs to the Punicaceae Fischer et al., 2013 and Mphahlele
tion analysed using response sur- family. Pomogranate is extensively et al., 2016). The consumption of
face methodology. The comparison cultivated in countries like India, pomegranates has much benefit in
performance studies revealed that Iran, Turkey, Morocco, Afghani- health contributing more antioxidant
high juice efficiency in continuous stan, China, Greece, Cyprus, Israel, capacity that strongly correlates
juice extractor (98.3%) compared to Chile, Portugal and South Africa with more concentration and phe-
nolic compounds compositions (Gil Table 1 List of techniques used for pomegranate juice extraction
et al., 2000, Borochov-Neori et al., Sl Juice extraction Pomegranate Fruit
Description
2011, Fischer et al., 2011, He et al., No techniques modicum
2011 and Fawole et al., 2013). How- Newly developed Whole fruit The fruit was fed continuously in the
1 continuous juice roller grooves were in crushed fruit
ever, the phytochemicals differ in extractor juice were obtained.
concentration and are dependent on Electronic mixer Arils and seed In this technique manually peeling
cultivar types (Shwartz et al., 2009, the fruits, separating the arils from
Tezcan et al., 2009, Gil et al., 2000, 2 peel. The arils and seeds were
blended at a maximum speed using
Elfalleh et al., 2011 and Fawole et electrical mixer.
al., 2013).
Recently, juice extraction is been terioration reactions due to the high 0.5 °C) and Relative humidity (92 ±
followed by different methods either enzymatic and microbial activities 3%) before juice extraction from the
whole fruit or the separated arils in in water. Thus, extracted juice is developed continuous juice extrac-
juice preparation at industrial level concentrated for long-term storage tor (Mphahlele, 2016). Initially, the
(Miguel et al., 2004, Muhacir-Guzel and easier transportation (Kumar, surface of the fruits was thoroughly
et al., 2014 and Mphahlele et al., 2015). washed under tap water and the
2016). The consumption of pome- In recent decades, many institu- surface sterilized with 100 ppm
granate juice has shown several tions have developed diversified chlorine for 5 minutes (Rich, 2003
health benefits reduction of systolic pomegranate value-added products and Dhumal et al., 2012). The fruits
blood pressure in hy per tensive for consumption among all age of uniform size, colour and maturity
patients, decrease of common ca- groups of consumers. The foremost were selected by visual observation
rotid artery intima-media thickness challenge in pomegranate juice ex- for conducting optimized experi-
(Aviram et al., 2004), attenuation of traction is the mechanical peeling mental trials.
myocardial ischemia and the lipid of the fruit., as it is time consum-
profile improvement of diabetic pa- ing and irritating as the hands get 2.2 Newly Developed Continuous
tients (Rosenblat et al., 2006). In ad- stained due to polyphenols and Pomegranate Fruit Extractor
dition, it is also helpful in curing of oxidative enzymes contain in peel T he ext ractor was developed
atherosclerosis and cardiovascular (Dhinesh et al., 2016).For commer- based on the engineering proper-
dis-eases (Al-Jarallah et al., 2013, cial use, there is no mechanized ma- ties of the cv. Bhagwa pomegran-
Aviram et al., 2008 and Hamoud et chine available which is free from ate (Jithender et al., 2017a and
al., 2014). drudgery, faster and continuous Jithender, 2017b). Fig. 1 shows the
During processing of juice, sig- juice extraction.
nif icant effects in safeguarding Hence, the present investigation Fig. 1 Continuous type pomegranate
of color, aroma, and flavor on the focuses on development and evalu- juice extractor
quality of the final products is at- ation of the novel continuous pome-
tempted, were as the concentration granate juice extraction, which is
of fruit juices is an important opera- prime requirement to the growers
tions unit in fruit processing. The and entrepreneur. Further efforts
commercial pressing of pomegran- are also made to evaluate the qual-
ate into juice and its concentration ity of extracted pomegranate juice.
facilitate its handling and storage, Techno-economic feasibility of the
enabling its application in the food pomegranate juice is also assessed.
industry (Maskan, 2006).
Pomegranate is a tropical and sea-
sonal fruit, and its production oc- Material and Methods
curs during August and September.
Therefore, many processes such as 2.1 Raw Material
cold storage, concentration, reduc- The freshly matured Pomegran-
ing to paste, or drying are used to ate fruits (cv. Bhagwa) are sourced
conserve pomegranates or their from Gujarat, India, grown during
juice (Ashoush et al., 2012). Pome- kharif season (June 2015 - October
granate fruits and related juices 2015) was procured from nearby
contain high amounts of water (75- pr ivat e or ch a rd s (21.5222° N,
90%), which makes them suscep- 70.4579° E). The Pomegranate fruits
tible to enzymatic and microbial de- were stored at temperature (7.5 ±
Table 2 Parameters considered for performance evaluation of extractor (Olaoye, 2011) 2.4 Performance Evaluation of the
Sl
Parameters Formulas
Juice Extractor
No The carrier roller speed was con-
Machine capacity Co = Wj / T sidered for optimizing the perfor-
1 (kg/h) Wj: Weight of juice extracted (kg), T: Total time taken for
extraction (h) mance of the newly developed juice
Extraction E ef = (Wj / Jp) × 100 extractor (Olaoye, 2011). Table 2
2 shows the equation considered for
efficiency (%) Wj: Weight of juice extracted (kg), Jp : Juice present (kg)
3
Extraction losses EEL = [(Jp − Je) / Jp] × 100 evaluating extraction efficiency, ex-
(%) Jp: Juice present (kg), Je: Juice extracted (kg) traction loss and machine capacity
of the extractor.
major components in the extractor from where the fruits fell by grav-
were feeding chute, carrier roller, ity into the grooves of carrier roller, 2.5 Chemicals
surgical doctors’ blade, crushing where conveying to the cutting All the chemicals used in the as-
roller, waste outlet, juice collection blades and are cut into two halves. say were of analytical grade. The re-
platform, juice filter, driving mecha- After cutting the fruits are further agents used in the experimentation
nism, motor and speed controller. conveyed to the crushing rollers were purchased from Sigma Chemi-
The feeding chute is essential part, which rotate in such a way that the cal Co. (USA) and H.B. Chemicals -
where the fruit is fed into the car- head of crushing roller pierces into Offering Microbiology Culture Me-
rier roller groove through gravity the grooves made over the carrier dia (HiMedia) Pvt. Ltd. in Gujarat,
(Catalano, 2016 & Wettlaufer, 2017). rollers. The arils are this crushed India.
The thickness and length of the to juice while the peels fall into the
surgical doctors’ blade was 0.4 cm wastebasket outlet. The extracted 2.6 Physicochemical Analysis of
and 17.5 cm were fixed based on juice is collected and filtered (Fig. Pomegranate Extracted Juice
the initial physical properties stud- 2). 2.6.1 pH
ies (Jithender et al., 2017a). The two pH of the pomegranate juice was
identical rollers carrier rollers and 2.3 Comparative Juice Extraction measured using digital pH meter
crushing rolls were made of Teflon Techniques Model: Adwa AD8000) in tripli-
(Poly tetra fluoro ethylene (PTFE). The experiment was conducted cates. The probe of pH meter was
The juice collecting platform with using the newly developed continu- inserted into extracted juice and the
filter was made of SS material at the ous pomegranate juice extractor stable reading obtained was consid-
centre of platform (Eyeowa et al., and study was compared with the ered as the final pH value.
2017). conventional methods was electronic 2.6.2 Total Soluble Solids (TSS)
2.2.1 Principle Operation of the mixer juice extraction. The sorted The digital hand held refractom-
Fruit Extractor fresh pomegranate was subjected eter (Model: PAL-1; Make: Atago,
The fresh Pomegranates fr uit juice extraction as shown in Table 1. Japan) was used for measuring TSS
were passed through feed chute content. The distilled water was
used for calibration of the instru-
Fig. 2 Isometric view of continuous juice extractor
ment. A drop of the extracted juice
was placed on the sample slot re-
fractometer and data was noted in
terms of °Brix (Ranganna, 1991).
2.6.3 Total Sugar
Total sugar content was estimated
following the phenol-sulphuric acid
method described by Sadasivam and
Manickam (1996).
2.6.4 Glucose and Fructose
The glucose and fructose content
were determined in pomegranate
juice by phenol sulfuric acid method
(Nielsen, 2010 and Ismail et al.,
2014).
2.6.5 Titrable Acidity
10 ml of pomegranate juice was
diluted to 30 ml with distilled water.
Further, 10 mL diluted extracted et al., 2009). During the test, sam- Fig. 3 Electrical mixer
juice was taken for titration and add ples were presented at room tem-
2-4 drops of 1% phenolphthalein perature in standard juice-testing
indicator. The obtained solution is glasses. Panelists were placed sepa-
titrated against 0.1 N NaOH solution rately in rooms for unbiased evalu-
(Ranganna, 1991). ation of sensory attributes. Pome-
2.6.6 Total Phenols granate juice was obtained from the
This was determined using the developed extractor and electrical
Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (CR) as- mixer were scored from 1 (lowest)
say according to the method of to 9 (highest) for color, odor, sweet-
Singleton et al. (1978). Initially, 5ml ness, flavor, acidity and overall ac-
of juice was added to 25 ml, 80% ceptability.
methanol in distilled water and was
stored at temperature (27 ± 1 °C) for 2.8 Statistical Analysis
3h. The blue color was developed Statistical analysis was carried
using a Folin-Ciocalteu reagent out by using response surface meth-
(FCR) in an alkaline medium (20% odology was used to optimize the
sodium carbonate) over 90 minutes. operating conditions of the devel- 3.1 Optimization of the Developed
The UV-visible spectrophotometer oped juice extractor. The indepen- Pomegranate Juice Extractor
(Model: UV1700; Make: Shimadzu, dent variable in this experiment was The optimization of the developed
Japan) was used to measure phenols the carrier roller speed. Five levels pomegranate juice was selected
at absorbance (750 nm). which are the order of 5, 7.5, 10, based on the variation of the carrier
2.6.7. Determination of Total Fla- 12.5 and 15 rpm of an independent roll speed with maximum machine
vonoid Content variable were chosen for this study. capacity and extraction efficiency
Total flavonoid content was mea- Data analysis was carried out by us- with minimum extraction loss. The
sured as described by Yang et al. ing Design Expert Version 11.0. Fig. 3 shows the average calculated
(2009). Catechin (0.025-0.100 mg/ parameters such as machine capac-
m L) was used for the standard ity, extraction efficiency and extrac-
curve. The results were expressed
as catechin equivalent per 100 mL
pomegranate juice (mg CE/100 mL Table 3 ANOVA table for evaluating the effect of carrier roller on the performance
of the pomegranate extractor
pomegranate juice).
Type III Sum
2.6.8. Total Anthocyanins Source
of Squares
df Mean Square F Sig.
The total anthocyanins content in
the extract from fruits. The samples Machine capacity (kg/h)
were diluted by a potassium chlo- Corrected Model 342877.482a 4 85719.371 3643.643*** .000
Intercept 1514782.694 1 1514782.694 64388.330*** .000
ride buffer until the absorbance of
Speed 342877.482 4 85719.371 3643.643*** .000
the sample at 510nm wavelength
Error 588.143 25 23.526
was within the linear range of the
Total 1858248.320 30
spectrophotometer (Cecil 2010 UV-
Corrected Total 343465.625 29
visible). This dilution factor was
later used to dilute the sample with Extraction efficiency (%)
the sodium acetate buffer. The Corrected Model 542.763a 4 135.691 29.114*** .000
wavelength reading was performed Intercept 206681.288 1 206681.288 44345.691*** .000
in two halves and the juice was im- Speed 542.763 4 135.691 29.114*** .000
mediately extracted after 15 min of Error 116.517 25 4.661
incubation, four times per sample, Total 207340.568 30
diluted in the two different buffers Corrected Total 659.280 29
and at two wavelengths of 510 nm Extraction losses: (%)
and 700 nm (Ismail et al., 2014). Corrected Model 510.996a 4 127.749 571.078*** .000
Intercept 8742.640 1 8742.640 39082.309*** .000
2.7 Sensory Analysis Speed 510.996 4 127.749 571.078*** .000
Sensory analysis was carried out Error 5.592 25 .224
by ten panelists, according to the Total 9259.228 30
previous methods (Castro-Vázquez Corrected Total 516.588 29
Fig. 4 Parameters for continuous type pomegranate juice extractor performance the lesser extraction efficiency. The
type of fruit also is effect on the ma-
chine’s extraction efficiency which
seems to indicate that extraction
efficiency is not only dependent on
the potential juice content of fruits
and vegetables but it could also de-
pend on their texture/hardness. The
results obtained were very compa-
rable to the study of Oyeleke, 2007
and Agidi et al., 2013 extraction effi-
ciency showed extraction efficiency
of 81-98% and 66%, respectively.
tion losses with varied carrier speed. the experiments conducted by Avi-
Tables 3 and 4 shows the ANOVA ara et al. (2013) for multi-fruits. 3.4 Extraction Losses (%)
table and empirical model with The evaluation resulted that at car-
coded factors. Based on the highest 3.3 Extraction Efficiency (%) rier speed (5 and 10 rpm), maximum
and lowest capacity of machine, the The extraction eff iciency was and minimum loss were 88 % and 12
carrier roller speed (10 rpm) was found to be highest (88 %) and low- % respectively. The Table 3 shows
optimized for further evaluation of est (55%) at the carrier speed (10 and the effect of varied carrier roll speed
the physicochemical analysis of the 5 rpm) (Fig. 4). The obtained results on extraction losses was statistically
fruit juice. were analyzed and the results found analyzed and the result obtained to
to be similar in case of extractors be significant (P < 0.05) with a R 2
3.2 Machine Capacity (kg/h) developed by Olabisi and Adelegan = 0.99. The model represented that
The carrier roller speed (15 and (2015) for citrus fruit juice. Howev- the extraction losses increase with
5 rpm) resulted the maximum (357 er, from the below ANOVA table the increasing the carrier roller speed
kg/h) and minimum machine capac- speed was statistically significant (Table 4). This result is similar to
ity (68 kg/h) in extracting of pome- (P < 0.05). The empirical model the extraction loss obtained from the
granate juice (Fig. 4). The Table implies that extraction efficiency evaluation of multi-juice extractor
3 shows the effect of varied carrier increases with increases the carrier with extraction loss of 2-20% in case
roll speed on machine capacity was roller speed up to 10 rpm to get high of, Olaniyan, 2007, Aviara, 2013 and
statistically analyzed and the result extraction efficiency and thereafter Adanu et al. (2015).
obtained to be significant (P < 0.05) with the increment in carrier roller
with a R 2 =0.998. In Table 4, the speed extraction efficiency decrease. 3.5 Comparative Pomegranate
coded variables indicated that ma- The higher speed (10 rpm) resulted Juice Extraction Techniques
chine capacity increases with the that extraction time is shortened The conventional fruit batch type
increases carrier roller speed. The resulting in the inadequate crush- juice extractor (domestic mixer) and
obtained results should similar to ing pressure on the fruit resulting in the continuous juice extractor was
evaluated for the best techniques in
maximum juice extraction. It was
Table 4 Development of empirical model first order equation of the performance found that the conventional batch
characteristics of pomegranate juice extraction
type juice extraction and the con-
Sl tinuous juice extraction yield were
Parameters Empirical model equation
No
1 Machine capacity (kg/h) −127.48 + 39.86 * A − 0.47 * A 2
around, 48.2 % and 98.3% respec-
2 Extraction efficiency (%) −10.55 + 16.70 * A − 0.73 * A2
tively (Table 5). It was noticed that
3 Extraction losses (%) 110.55 − 16.70 * A + 0.73 * A2 the high juice yield was obtained in
continuous juice extractor compared
Where,
A is the for-carrier roller speed (RPM), negative sign indicates the antagonistic to the batch type of juice extraction.
effects and whereas the positive sign indicates the synergistic effects. The juice obtained was having high
turbidity and clarified juice was ob-
Table 5 Comparative pomegranate juice extraction techniques tained.
Juice Extraction Juice extraction Juice extraction Machine
techniques yield (%) cost (Rs/kg) capacity(kg/h) 3.6 Physicochemical Analysis of
Continuous juice extractor 98.3 ± 0.2 0.2 ± 0.01 357 ± 0.2 Extracted Juice
Electrical mixer 48.2 ± 0.5 16 ± 0.4 4 ± 0.1 The quality of the juice extracted
from the optimized continuous juice 0.09 and 9.81 ± 0.04, respectively, large amount of fructose than the
machine and the mixer is shown in Similar to the TSS, the total sugar glucose which is reported by Ekþi
the Table 6. content of the juice extracted by and Özhamamcý, 2009 and Thakur,
The pH of continuous extrac- developed extractor juice was found 2016. Both the glucose and fructose
tor juice and electrical mixer juice more than that of conventionally content were significantly higher in
were 3.33 ± 0.025 and 3.94 ± 0.046, extracted juice, Here also the lower pomegranate juice extracted by de-
respectively with both juices being value of total sugar in convention- veloped juice extractor (6.8 ± 0.01%)
acidic in nature. The pH of pome- ally extracted juice might be due as that of obtained by electrical
granate juice characterizes its acidic to a slight amount of seed, crushed mixer (5.4 ± 0.01%). These results
taste (Zarei et al., 2011). during extraction. are agreed with those obtained by
The average TSS obtained were Total flavonoid content is in pome- Miguel et al., 2004 and Ismail et al.,
10.50 ± 0.25 and 15.13 ± 0.13 and granate juice extracted the order of 2014.
°Brix, respectively in developed electrical mixer (42 ± 2 mg GAE/100 As shown in the Table 6 that the
juice ext ractor and mixer. The ml 52 ± 1 mg GAE/100 ml) less than lowest signif icant non-reducing
sweetness and flavor in the fruit as continuous juice extractor (52 ± 1 sugar percentage was fou nd in
well as due to decrease in juice acid- mg GAE/100 ml). juice extracted by developed ex-
ity and tannin concentration causes The average total phenolic of tractor juice while other contained
the increase in the TSS content developed extractor juice and juice significant highest amount of non-
(Shwartz et al., 2009; Zarei et al., extracted with mixture was found reducing sugars. These results are in
2011). The value of TSS in the case to be 270 ± 7 mg/100ml and 230 agreement with Ismail et al. (2014)
of continuous extractor juice was ± 6 mg/100ml, respectively. In the which is found that total sugars and
found more than that of electrical pomegranate juice, the phenolic reducing sugars were highest in the
mixer juice, indicating that the bet- content was significantly higher juice obtained by blending of seeds
ter quality of juice from continuous than that of mixer extracted juice. while non-reducing sugars was
extractor juice than the electrical Such variation due to the effect of highest in whole fruit juice. These
mixer. The lower value of TSS in extraction method on the whole results are similar to those resulted
electrical mixer juice might be due fr uits. The r pm of rotating and by Thankur, 2016, Ghadge and Jad-
to chances of crushing the seed dur- crushing rollers are might extract hav, 2015 and Ismail et al., 2014.
ing grinding in mixer/grinder in the phenolic compounds from the rind,
conventional method. which is mixed with juice because 3.7 Sensory Evaluation
As shown in the Table 6 that the pomegranate peel is rich source of The results in Fig.5 shows the
titratable acidity content which is phenolic compounds. Several re- average consumer acceptability
responsible for the extremely bitter searchers have reported that pome- studies significant differences were
or sour taste of pomegranate juice. granate fruit is a rich source of phe- detected by the panellists between
This observation was in agreement nolic contents (Artes et al., 2000; continuous extractor and mixer ex-
with those reported in the literature Opara et al., 2009; Al Said et al., tracted juice in terms of colour (8
(Mena et al., 2011; Rajasekar et 2009). vs. 6.5), odour (8.5 vs. 7), acidity (8
al., 2012; Vardin and Fenercioglu, The pomegranate juice content vs. 5), sweetness (8 vs. 6.5), flavour
2009). As in previous cases here
also due to the crushing of seed dur-
Table 6 Physicochemical analysis of extracted juice with continuous type and
ing extraction in the conventional electrical mixer
method, the value of titratable acid- Sl
ity in the juice of conventionally Chemical analysis Continuous extractor Electrical mixer
No
extracted was found less. 1 pH 3.33 ± 0.05 b
3.94 ± 0.04a
The pomegranate juice extracted 2 TSS (°Brix) 10.50 ± 0.25 b
15.13 ± 0.13a
by developed juice extractor has sig- 3 Total sugar (%) 14.80 ± 0.09 a
9.81± 0.04b
nificantly higher ascorbic acid (11.2 4 Titratable acidity (%) 0.7 ± 0.04 a
0.58 ± 0.03b
± 0.3 mg/100g) than in juice extrac- 5 Ascorbic acid mg/100g 11.2 ± 0.3 a
9.1 ± 0.4b
tor by electrical mixer extractor (9.1 6 Non reducing sugars (%) 0.94 ± 0.01 a
0.92 ± 0.03a
± 0.4 mg/100g). The above results 7 Fructose (%) 6.8 ± 0.01 a
5.4 ± 0.01b
are similar with Ismail et al., 2014 8 Glucose (%) 6.4 ± 0.1 a
5.8 ± 0.5b
and Thankur, 2016. 9 Total anthocyanins (mg/100 ml) 13.1 ± 0.5 a
8.2 ± 0.7b
The average total sugar of con- 10 Total flavonoids (mg GAE/100 ml) 52 ± 1 a
42 ± 2b
tinuous extractor juice and electrical 11 Total phenol (mg/100ml) 270 ± 7a 230 ± 6b
mixer juice was found to be 14.80 ± *Means with the same letter are not signiﬁcantly different (a = 0.05)
(7.8 vs. 6.3) and overall acceptabil- ate juice extractor would be help- Al-Said, F. A., L. A. Opara and
ity (8.1 vs. 6.2), respectively (Fig. ful for farmers as well as small R. A. Al-Yahyai. 2009. Physico-
5). The number of panellists found entrepreneurs including roadside chemical and textural quality at-
the continuous extracted juice good marketers, can start up small val- tributes of pomegranate cultivars
flavour twice than juice extracted ue addition centre and get more (Punica granatum L.) grown in
with electrical mixer juice. The remuneration. the Sultanate of Oman. Journal of
overall acceptability more in case of • This developed continuous pome- Food Engineering, 90(1), 129-134.
continuous type extractor than elec- granate juice extractor can be Artes, F. and F. A. Tomas-Barberan.
trical mixer. used for commercial use. 2000. Post-harvest technological
• In future this juice extractor can treatments of pomegranate and
also be used for extraction of juice preparation of derived products.
from other fruits such as orange, CIHEAM-Options Mediterr, 42,
Conclusions
mandarin and lemon. 199-204.
T he diversif ied pomeg ranate Ashoush, I. S. and M. G. E. Gadal-
value added products and its health Acknowledgement lah. 2012. Effects of different
benefit to the consumers attracted We are grateful for the financial heating methods on the quality
all the g rowers and the i ndus- supports from the Junagadh Agri- characteristics of pomegranate
trial people entering in the field of cultural University and College of juice concentrates. Egyptian J. of
pomegranate processing. Hence, Agricultural Engineering and Tech- Food Science, 40.
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Analysing Failure of the Government-backed
Free Tractor Distribution to Farmers in the Five
Agro Ecological Zones in Cameroon: the Case of
SONALIKA Tractors
by
Julius K. Tangka* Njueze Rodolphe
Renewable Energy Laboratory, Renewable Energy Laboratory,
Dept. of Agricultural Engineering, Dept. of Agricultural Engineering,
Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences,
University of Dschang, University of Dschang,
P.O Box 373, Dschang, CAMEROON P.O Box 373, Dschang, CAMEROON
Djousse K. Merlain
Renewable Energy Laboratory,
Dept. of Agricultural Engineering,
Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences,
University of Dschang,
P.O Box 373, Dschang, CAMEROON
using ISHIKAWA diagram and a proficient. There was low affordabil-

Abstract
Gantt chart used to make a pre- ity (30%) of spare parts in all the
The study aimed at evaluating the ventive maintenance plan. Results zones. Internal causes showed that
main causes of the failure of an ag- show five primary causes (Material, tractor breakdown was mostly due
ricultural mechanization program in Machine, Manpower, Method and to broken parts (75%).
Cameroon despite attempts by the Environment) of operational weak- Keywords: SONALIKA tractor,
government to improve on the sec- nesses of SONALIKA tractors and maintenance plan, mechanisation,
tor with the introduction over 1000 after prioritizing, three vital few tractor breakdown
free SONALIKA tractors to farm- causes were identified; (Manpower,
ers in five Agro-ecological zones Machine and Environment) that if
of Cameroon. Specifically, it was to solved, 90% of the effects will be
Introduction
identify and prioritize the primary avoided. Data for external causes
causes of breakdowns and propose showed that the decision to provide Agriculture exists as one of the
sustainable management plan. Ques- tractors and implements was 48% ch ief sectors i n ever y Af r ica n
tionnaires were administered to by the Ministry of Agriculture and economy and plays a central role in
respondents (tractor operators and Rural Development, 30% based on achieving development. Farming
mechanics) and data collected was availability. About 54% of opera- represents 32% of continental Afri-
analyzed using SPSS and Microsoft tors had access to operator’s manual can gross domestic product (GDP)
excel. Interviews were carried out to but only 18% used it. Twenty-three and subsistence far m i ng alone
get root causes of breakdown then percent (23%) of tractor mechanics employs over half the population
prioritized using Pareto chart. Or- were available to all tractor opera- of Sub-Saharan Africa (FAO and
ganization of root causes was done tors with most of them being less UNIDO, 2008)
In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) spe- expenditures spent on agriculture general (Fonteh, 2007).
cifically, 65% of farm power is hand has been attained by 9 of 54 African The low level of mechanization
power, 25% is animal power, and countries (Sheru et al., 2013) in Cameroon is still a thorny prob-
10% is engine power meanwhile, Most African countries have an lem to be solved. Hand tools are
in Asia, Latin America, North Af- economy strongly dominated by the highly dominating in most farming
rica and the Middle East, the farm agricultural sector. In some coun- systems with approximately 92% in
power is 25% hand power, 25% ani- tries, agriculture generates up to 50 small-scale farming and 72% in the
mal power, and 50% engine power. percent of the gross domestic prod- exploitations of great importance
The reason behind this low level of uct (GDP), and contributes over 80 and agricultural processing indus-
agricultural mechanization in sub- percent of trade in value and more tries (FAO, 2011). The Animal haul-
Saharan Africa (SSA) include popu- than 50 percent of raw materials to age is employed mainly in certain
lation growth, land scarcity, climate industries. It provides employment areas, about 13% in the Extreme
change degrading ecosystems, and for the majority of Africa’s people. North, North, Adamaoua and 2%
under investment in agricultural re- Despite this domination, investment in the North-West (FAO, 2011). In
search, infrastructure, and technol- in the sector is still grossly low in large farms, the majority of the
ogy (Mrema et al., 2015) most African countries FAO, (2011). mechanized operations are depen-
Sheru et al. (2013) reported that The low level of engineer ing dent on the activities of postharvest
no country has ever successfully technology inputs in agriculture is (42%), and in a less proportion with
made the transition to industrializa- one of the main constraints hinder- plowing (15%).
tion without first developing its ag- ing the modernization of agriculture In Cameroun, the actions towards
ricultural sector, yet the agricultural and food production systems in the development of agricultural
sector in Africa remains stagnantly Africa FAO and UNIDO, (2008),. mechanization are specific and do
u nderdeveloped. T he FAO a nd Farm power in African agriculture, not lie within the scope of a total
UNIDO, (2008) stated that countries especially sub-Saharan Af r ica, reflection. This led the authorities
that have achieved development and relies to an overwhelming extent to ref lect thoroughly on the way
industrialization have invested in on human muscle power, based on of leading the development of ag-
technology. A similar investment in operations that depend on the hoe ricultural mechanization vis-a-vis
the mechanization of agriculture in and other hand tools. Such tools the national challenges as regards
Africa would have an exponential have implicit limitations in terms of improvement of production and ag-
effect on output and continental energy and operational output in a ricultural productivity (FAO, 2011).
economic prosperity, as rates of tropical environment. It is within this framework that
economic return to agricultural Past efforts to mechanize African the project TCP/CMR/3204 “For-
research are proven very high. Tak- agriculture such as sharing of trac- mulation of agricultural mechaniza-
ing the case of Rwanda, from 2004 tors and their implements have pro- tion strategy (AMS) in Cameroun”
to 2014, the government increased duced mixed results. Compared with was born. Coordinated by the Na-
investment in the agricultural sector other regions, Africa has not had the tional Centre for Experimentation
from 3.5% to 7.2%, and as a result, large-scale investment in agricul- on Agricultural machiner y CE-
crop production more than doubled tural infrastructure, such as irriga- NEEMA, and with the support of
(Sheru et al., 2013). tion or other inputs needed to inten- FAO, this project aimed at assisting
In 2003, the African Union pro- sify crop production. This is partly the Government of the Republic of
posed the Comprehensive Africa because Africa is fragmented into Cameroun in the formulation of an
Agriculture Development Program relatively small countries, unlike Agricultural Mechanization Strat-
(CAADP) guide which is used today countries such as Brazil, India, or egy (AMS) by taking into account
by the African continent to develop China. Investment in mechanization all the factors which contribute to
her agricultural sector. The CAADP has been limited to large commer- its development (FAO, 2011).
rests on four pillars: increasing land cial farms or government schemes. Despite all the efforts put in place
under cultivation, as about 60% In many cases where governments to improve mechanization, it is still
of cultivable land in Africa is not established tractor hire schemes to at its floor level in SSA and Camer-
being farmed; linking farmers to serve small-scale farmers, planning oon in particular. It can be seen that
markets through innovation in the was very short term, and manage- the reasons for the disappointing
value chain; increasing the yields of ment was poorly trained and poorly performance and low contribution
staple foods; and investing more in supported. Such schemes, though of mechanization to agricultural
research and technology to the order relatively few across the continent, development have been the frag-
of 10% of national public expendi- failed miserably, denting the image mented approach to mechanization
tures. Presently, the target for public of agricultural mechanization in issues. This can be attributed to
poor planning by government agen- Table 1 Recapitulation of the frequency of primary causes of SONALIKA tractor
cies, over-reliance on unpredictable weaknesses
or unsuitable, one-off, aid-in-kind or Frequency of
Primary cause Designation breakdown
other external mechanization inputs. occurrence
Lacks of teamwork or coordination Environment Problem link to climatic conditions 25
within and between government Machine Problems link to machine make up 35
departments and inherent competi- Material (product) Problem linked to product handled by machine 5
tion with private sector business Method Problem link to technology used 15
initiatives in mechanization services Manpower Problem link to users 40
have not helped the situation (FAO,
2008). tor beneficiaries that the Cameroon of breakdown, brainstorming with
In order to boast agricultural government in collaboration with respondents was done to come out
mechanization in Cameroon, a con- the Indian government gave as sub- with the root causes of breakdown.
tract that led to the introduction of sidies in the form of tractors and Data was collected between 2nd
1000 tractors with adequate equip- their accessories. The tractor benefi- March to 23th May 2018 and respon-
ment was signed between the Cam- ciaries in total were 80 in number. dents of the required data were trac-
eroon and the Indian government. tor operators and tractor mechanics.
However, due to failures in the 2.3 Sampling Technique and Sam-
proper management of these tractors pling Size 2.5 Data Analysis
in the field, most of the tractors have Since tractor beneficiaries are The data gotten from the field was
been abandoned on the field. sparsely distributed all over the analyzed using SPSS (Statistical
The main objective of this work country, the sample size was gotten Package of Social Sciences) version
was to investigate the reasons for based on a significant representation 20 and Excel spread sheet software.
the failure of the agricultural mech- in order to ease the work. To do this Both spread sheets were used to
anization program in Cameroon in a simple random sampling technique clean for irregularities. The cleaned
spite of heavy financial and material was used. It was calculated using data was then summarized into de-
input from the government. the formulae proposed by Amin and scriptive statistics in the form of fre-
Martin, (2005). The formula holds quencies and percentages. A quali-
only when the total beneficiaries in tative analysis was then done for the
all the zones are known. different parameters obtained.
n = [(z2 × p × q) + ME2] / [(ME2 +
2.1 Study Site z2 × p × q) / N] (1)
This study was carried out in the Where:
five agro-ecological zones of Cam- n = sample size,
eroon. Cameroon is characterized α = confidence level (95%), 3.1 Identification and Prioritization
by diverse and distinct ecosystems z = critical standard score (1- α/2), of Primary Causes of Breakdown
with their respective climates. The P = probability of success (0.5), Data obtained from survey show
country has been organized into q = probability of failure (0.5), five primary causes presented in 4M
five major agro-ecological or agro- ME = marginal error (5%), and E (Machines, Methods, Materi-
climatic zones distinguished by N = total population size of trac- als, Manpower, and Environment)
dominant physical, climatic and tor beneficiaries (80). responsible for the operational
vegetative features. Cameroon is lo- From the equation, we had a sam- weaknesses of SONALIKA tractors
cated in the continent of Africa and ple size of 60 beneficiaries for all and time spent on maintenance.
covers 472710 square kilometers of the five zones. Since the tractor ben- As seen on Table 1, the high-
land and 2730 square kilometers of eficiaries had different densities in est frequency of breakdowns came
water making it the 54th largest na- the different zones, in order to have from user related causes followed by
tion in the world with a total area the sample size in each zone without those associated with machine tech-
of 475440 square kilometers. It is bias, a stratified sampling technique nology. Though all these aspects are
located between latitude 1° 650' and was used to have the sample size of highly influential as primary causes
13° 070' North and between longi- each zone. of operational weaknesses of tractor
tude 8° 490' and 16° 190' East. breakdown, there was the need to
2.4 Data Collection use a maintenance tool to prioritize
2.2 Target Population Both open and close question- the causes in order to ease main-
The study population involved in naires were given to respondents tainability of these tractors with an
this project were SONALIKA trac- to give their views on the causes objective of increasing the shelf life
Table 2 Categorization of primary causes of tractor breakdown in order of importance manual and understand all the in-
Symbol Causes
Frequency of Percentage Cumulative structions. Also, though 20% and
occurrence (%) frequency 23% respectively have secondary
A Manpower (users) 40 33.33 33.33 and tertiary level of education, they
B Machine make up 35 29.17 62.5 do not have the knowledge of how
C Environmental conditions 25 20.83 83.33 to better manage the tractors.
D Methods used 15 12.5 95.83 3.3.2 Training Background of Trac-
E Material (product) 5 4.17 100 tor Operators in the Five AEZ of
Total 120 100 Cameroon
Fig. 3 shows that majority of op-
thus improving its productivity and categorized into internal (Machine erators (46%) learnt how to operate
reducing the time spent on mainte- make up) and external (Manpower tractors from other tractor operators
nance. and environment) causes of tractor rather than through a formal tractor
breakdown. operating training school such as
3.2 Prioritization of Primary CENEEMA. This means that dif-
Causes of Breakdown 3.3 Analysis of the External ferent tractor operators would train
Table 2 quantifies the frequency Causes of Tractor Breakdown their subordinates based on their
of occurrence to come out with the These are causes responsible for own limited experience producing
most influential primary causes of the operational weaknesses of SON- gaps or lapses in their subordinates
breakdown ALIKA tractors but which are not
From the Table 2, if the cause due to the tractor make up. Fig. 2 Educational background of
‘A’ is solved, the problem of tractor 3.3.1 Educational Background of tractor operators and mechanics in the
breakdown will be avoided at 33.3%. Tractor Operators and Mechanics five AEZs of Cameroon
If causes ‘A and B’ are solved, we in the Five Agro Ecological Zones
will solve the problem of breakdown of Cameroon
①
at 62.5%. Finally, if cause ‘A, B and Education is the knowledge of ④
C’ are solved, the problem of break- putting one’s potentials to maximum
down would be avoided at 83.33%. use (Crowder, 2007). From Fig.
Fig. 1, identifies what is called 2, 44% of operators have primary
the “law of the vital few,” or more school level, against 13% who have
often, the “80:20 rule.” Here we no formal education. These results ③
②
are interested in isolating the few can be attributed to the frequent
important causes that lead to a high breakdown of tractors as tractor
effect of breakdown (prioritization). operators can hardly read and un-
So solving the problem of the vi- derstand the manual. It ties with the
① No formal education 13％
tal few causes (Machine make up, results of Bhutta, (1997) who says, ② Primary 44％
Manpower and Environment), we the literacy status of tractor opera- ③ Secondary 20％
will tackle more than 90% of the ef- tors and mechanics may influence ④ Tertiary 23％
fects of breakdown. understanding about the use of trac-
In order to better tackle these vital tors and its associated implements Fig. 3 Training background of tractor
few causes of breakdown, they were operators in the five AEZ of Cameroon
because he can study the operation
Fig. 1 Pareto diagram prioritizing the primary causes of breakdown
① From other operators 46％

② Experience from vehicles 23％
③ From a formation school 31％
training which is in accordance to such they hardly detect a fault when of each beneficiary, most beneficia-
(Wehrspann and Jodie, 2003). Also, it indicates. When the machines ries had implements that were not
23% of operators got their training have strange sound or is indicating compatible with the tractor horse
from other vehicles such as heavy a fault, they cannot easily identify power and their needs. Also, most
duty trucks. All these high infor- which later generates into a bigger beneficiaries did not have an insight
mal training of operators influence cause of tractor failure. into the need of tractors for farming
greatly on the breakdown of tractors 3.3.4 Choice of Material to Be as such requested for tractors only
as they do not have a good mastery Given to Beneficiaries in the Five without implements. At the end they
of the machine AEZ of Cameroon abandoned the tractors
3.3.3 Experience Background of Fig. 5 shows that 48% of the 3.3.5 Issuance of Tractor Opera-
Tractor Operators in the Five decision to give tractors and their tion Guide in the Five AEZs of
AEZ of Cameroon implements came from the ministry Cameroon
Fig. 4, shows that 48% of opera- of Agriculture and Rural develop- Tractors operator’s manuals are
tors have experience of less than 5 ment (MINADER), 30% based on the ‘oracle’ on proper tractor op-
years, 22% have experience of 5 to the availability and 22% decision of eration and maintenance. Reading
10 years and 30% have experience experts. Since the decision of choice the operator’s manual is important
of more than 10 years. This shows was mostly done by MINADER and because it tells the owner or opera-
that a good number of operators the available equipment, without tor how to set the machine and what
are not familiar with the tractors as taking into consideration the need part to check before one takes it to
Fig. 4 Experience of tractor operators in Fig. 6 Issuance of tractor operation guide in the five AEZ of Cameroon
the five AEZ of Cameroon Access to maintenance guide Changing of engine oil and filters
④
①
③
② ④ ②
① ①
③
②
① < 5 years 48％ ① No 54％ ① < 1 mouth 18％

② 5-10 years 22％ ② Yes 46％ ② Every mouth 11％
③ 10-15 years 15％ ③ 1-2 mouth 19％
④ > 15 years 15％ ④ Depend on work availablility 52％
Fig. 5 Choice of material to be given Fig. 7 Availability and proficiency of tractor mechanics in the five AEZs of Cameroon
to beneficiaries in the five AEZ of
Cameroon
③ ③
① ①
② ②
① MINADER 48％ ① Open air 44％

② Expert 22％ ② Shed / garage 28％
③ Based on what was available 30％ ③ Open air and garage 30％
the field and what type of mainte- chart ‘A’ but it was realized that drops. Thus the comfort of opera-
nance to carry out and when to do it only 18% chart ‘B’ actually make tors is not guaranteed.
(Wehrspann and Jodie, 2003). From use of the guide. This shows the 3.3.7 Availability and Proficiency
survey, operators that have access impact of illiteracy level of opera- of Tractor Mechanics in the Five
to operator’s guide were 54% from tors. This cause of failure is also AEZs of Cameroon
justified in ‘B’ as 52% of operators’ Fig. 8 shows that 73% of opera-
Fig. 8 Availability and proficiency of
only change engine oils and filters tors do not have readily available
tractor mechanics in the five AEZs of depending on work availability. tractor mechanics. Thus services
Cameroon 3.3.6 Tractor Housing After Usage too expensive for few available
in the Five AEZ of Cameroon mechanics that discourages opera-
Fig. 7 shows that 44% of the tors form continuously using the
④
beneficiaries park their tractors in tractors once they breakdown. Also,
open air, 28% beneficiaries store in out of the few available 27% tractor
both garage and open air and 28% mechanics, some are less proficient
③ store in sheds. These results explain as they are recycled truck mechan-
① why most parts get weakened due ics adapted to handle tractors. This
to excess adverse conditions on makes them to be limited in their
tractor parts leading to rusting of expertise as some breakdowns are
② parts which is in line with (Wehrs- usually beyond their know-how
pann and Jodie, 2003). The impact leading to abandonment of tractors.
is great with these SONALIK A 3.3.8 Availability of Tractor Spare
① < 5 years 48％ tractors when working or parked in Parts in the fFive Agro-ecological
② 5-10 years 22％
③ 10-15 years 15％ open air as it does not have FOPs Zones
④ > 15 years 15％ to prevent direct sunrays and rain From Fig. 9 five, we see that the
Fig. 9 Availability of tractor spare parts in the five AEZ

a. Spare parts availability b. Spare parts availability c. Spare parts availability
in the high plateau zone in the Sudano-sahelien zone in the Monomodal rain forest zone
②
22% ② ①
33% 33%
① ① ②
78% 67% 67%
d. Spare parts availability e. Spare parts availability

in the bi-modal rain forest zone in the Savannah zone
①
① 30%
② 40% ②
60% 70%
① Absence of spare parts

② Readily available spare parts
availability of spare parts in the portunity to have a good mastery second option which is Chad and
High plateau zone is 22%, Sudano- of how and where to get spare parts Nigeria. It is followed by High
sahelian zone (33%), Savannah zone easily plateau zone (Fig. 10a) which also
(30%), Bi-modal zone (60%) and The effects that the absence of has a low ability to buy spare parts
finally Mono-modal zone (67%). spare parts impact on breakdown of since there is only one supplier who
High plateau zone (Fig. 9a) has tractors in Cameroon is enormous imposes prices on the spare parts.
the least oppor tunity of having as it forces most operators to aban- The Bi-modal zone (Fig. 10d) and
spare parts compared to Sudano- don tractors getting back into hand Mono-modal zone (Fig. 10c) have a
sahelien (Fig. 9b) and Savanah zone tools which though tedious but read- relatively high ability to buy spare
(Fig. 9e) despite the fact that it is ily available. parts as they do not incur any extra
closer to the only source of spare 3.3.9 Affordability of Tractor Spare cost of travelling to the sole supplier
parts (EMEIL DIESEL). This is be- Parts in the Five AEZs for the acquisition of spare parts.
cause the latter is closer to Chad and Fig. 10 shows that the ability to From findings, we realized that
Nigeria where they can easily have buy spare parts in the High plateau there is generally a low ability to
spare parts. zone is 25%, Sudano-sahelian zone buy spare parts in the five zones
The highest availability of spare is 20%, in the Savannah zone (SZ) reasons being that since there is
parts is found in the Mono-modal is 23%, Bi-modal zone (BMZ) is only one supplier of spare parts,
zone (Fig. 9c) and Bi-modal zone 40% and finally the Mono-modal they turn to be very expensive and
(Fig. 9d) respectively. This is be- zone is 43%. tend on the prices. This scare away
cause the only source of spare part The Sudano-sahelien zone (Fig. most tractor owners and scares from
is located in this zone and also the 10b) and Savanah zone (Fig. 10e) buying spare parts as such look for
assembly park is located there re- have the least ability to buy spare other alternatives like locally made
spectively. This gives them the op- parts in Cameroon as they have a parts, adapted parts and to a greater
Fig. 10 Availability of tractor spare parts in the five AEZ

②
② 20%
25%
② ①
① ① 57%
43%
75% 80%

②
23%
②
40%
①
①
60%
77%
① Spare parts unaordable

② Aﬀordability of spare parts
extend prefer to go back into their various charts in Fig. 11 give us the will prefer to make use of locally
hand tools thus abandoning tractors. discrepancy on the accessibility of made spare parts. Also in the high
3.3.10 Accessibility of Tractor spare parts in the different zones; plateau zone, there is little access to
Spare Parts in the Five AEZs From the pie charts, those in the spare parts as Douala is far from the
Accessibility means having access sudano-sahelian zone and those in zone thus they make use of locally
to something. It refers to the ability the savannah zone do not have easy made materials and where they do
for everyone, regardless of disabil- access to spare parts in Cameroon not have locally made spare parts,
ity to access, use and benefit every- thus prefer Chad and Nigeria who they are compelled to abandon the
thing within their environment. The are closer to get their spare parts or tractors thus not serving the intend-
ed purpose. Lastly the bi-modal and
mono-modal rain forest are closer
Fig. 12 Breakdown frequency of various tractor systems
and easily accessible to the source
of spare parts.
3.4 Identification and Analysis of

the Internal Causes of Tractor
Breakdown
Out of the three vital few causes
of operational weaknesses of trac-
tors obtained from Fig. 12, Machine
make up is categorized as an inter-
nal cause responsible for the opera-
tional weakness of these tractors.
3.4.1 Identification of Various
Fig. 11 Accessibility of tractor spare parts in the five AEZs

①
② 17%
25%
②
39% ① ②
①
61% 75% 83%

②
27%
①
40%
②
60% ①
73%
① Inaccessibilty of spare parts

② Accessibilty of spare parts
Tractor Systems That Breakdown erations. hoses to prevent leakages respec-
Frequently in All the Five Zones Oil Leakages: it is also another tively are of low quality and have a
From results obtained in the dif- issue that causes tractor breakdown. high tendency of failing frequently
ferent zones it was seen that all the As oils leak, there is shortage of thus excessive leaks are seen on the
zones have almost the same reasons required amount in the various sys- tractors (Fig. 14).
for breakdown with slight differ- tems that lead to wears and broken Gearbox and Clutch: from survey
ences due to the pedological nature parts due to insufficient lubrication. it was seen that the gears skip at ev-
of soils and the types of crops cul- This is realized from survey that the ery instance and this is because the
tivated. Fig. 12 shows the percent- hoses and clips used in transporting spring that blocks the various gears
ages of breakdown of the different oil to a destination and holding the weakens easily and also because
systems of tractors in all the zones
of Cameroon. Fig. 13 Showing broken parts of tractors due to poor quality of material: a) Adapted
Fig. 12 shows that most causes washer, b) Engine support, c) Adapted bolt, d) Engine block support, e) Transmission
of breakdow n are broken par ts bar guard, f) Welded mold board plow, g) Broken PTO
that account for 75%, followed by
oil leakages 62%, gear box failure
54%, clutch failure 38%, axle fail-
ure 30%, hydraulic failure 17% and
other minor causes. c
Broken Parts: this is the major b
cause of breakdown in tractors due
a
to poor quality materials used in
the fabrication of parts. These parts
mostly do not possess adequate
properties that are attributed to
materials used in the manufactur-
ing of machine elements. This can
be justified with the fact that bolts,
nuts, chassis, implements, three-
point linkage get broken (Fig. 13)
when high force is applied which e
d f g
is an indication that the compres-
sive strength and ultimate tensile
Fig. 14 Oil leakages on tractor and clips holding hoses to prevent oil leaks: a) Hose
strength of the material is relatively covered with leaked oil, b) Oil leakage, c) Weakened clips
lower than normal. As such we can
say the materials used are mostly
made of cast iron since it has a high
amount of graphite 2 to 4% that
makes it less ductile and very brit-
tle, it compressive strength ranges b c
from 6.3 to 7.1 tons/cm 2 and ulti- a
mate tensile strength between 1.26
to 1.57 tons/cm 2 which is far less
than that of mild steel which is 4.75
to 25.2 tons/cm2 and ultimate tensile Fig. 15 Illustration of gear box breakdown: a) Broken gears, b) Separation of engine
strength is 5.51 to 11.02 tons/cm 2. from gearbox to change disc clutch and plates
This clearly shows that machine ele-
ments made of cast iron have a very
low ultimate tensile strength thus
cannot resist for a long time without
breaking which is the reason for fre-
quent broken parts of tractors (Ap-
pendix 3) especially the implements a
that are in contact with the soil and
requires much strength for farm op- b
of misalignment of the transmis- is very robust and does not easily Ideas collected after interviews,
sion shaft. It was also realized that fail the only problem that these en- were grouped based on the differ-
breakdown of gear box is due to the gines may fail is shortage of oil due ent tractor systems as main causes
usage of unsuitable gears where not to poor maintenance and root causes of breakdown where
necessary thus leading to failures. The other systems fail due to poor easily visualized using ISHIKAWA
There is also frequent breaking of maintenance and operator’s knowl- diagram. Fig. 16;
clutch disc and plates that calls the edge on how to better handle the b) Pareto Chart and Graph
attention of mechanic most often tractors that lead to their frequent Root cau ses got ten f rom t he
and since they are not readily avail- breakdown. cause-effect diagram can be cat-
able and spare parts are scarce it 3.4.2 Analysis of the Root Causes egorized using Pareto chart starting
forces most tractor owners to aban- of Breakdown of Various Tractor from the most frequent as seen on
don tractors after a short time of us- Systems Table 3 below;
age. a) Cause-effect (ISHIKAWA) Dia- Interpretation of chart:
Engine: the engine of the tractor gram for Tractor Breakdown The Pareto chart makes it possible
to prioritize causes of breakdown.
This principle highlight that some
Fig. 16 ISHIKAWA (cause-effect) diagram tractor breakdown
causes are more important than oth-
ers (Latino, 2006). From the data
Fig. 17, it is seen that by solving
the causes in zone ‘A’, we would
have solved 80% of the problems
of tractor breakdown which are the
vital few causes of breakdown. The
chart also shows the sequence of
prioritizing causes to remedy first.
If solving the cause of broken parts,
we would have solved 33.39% of
the effects and if the second, third
and fourth causes are solved 80%
of the effects will be solve and this
will remedy the problem of tractor
breakdown.
Since cause-effect (ISHIKAWA)
diagram and Pareto (ABC) analysis
are maintenance tools that are used
to identify root causes of breakdown
and prioritization of these causes on
Fig. 17 Pareto chart prioritizing the root causes of tractor breakdown
what to remedy first respectively. It
does not bring out a way to remedy
these causes as such management
tool is necessary to solve the prob-
lems.
3.5 Proposition of a Maintenance

Plan for Remedying the Causes
of Breakdown
Planning is all about making sure
the future happens exactly as you
want it to happen. In a nut shell, a
maintenance plan is to guide the
future actions of the maintenance
person in charge so that things are
done right on purpose and not by ac-
cident. In order to execute a mainte-
nance planning, there are sequences
to follow which are; Table 3 Hierarchization of the internal causes of tractor breakdown
3.5.1 Maintenance Information Frequency of
Percentage Percentage
Loop Root causes frequency cumulative
occurrence
(%) frequency (%)
The maintenance infor mation
Broken bolts and other parts 30 13.39 13.39
loop describes the flow of mainte-
Gears failing 29 12.95 26.95
nance information from the operator
Clutch disc, plates and clutch fingers fail 28 12.50 38.84
to the mechanic and back to the op-
Oil leakages 25 11.18 50.02
erator and how the various aspects
Axle 22 9.82 59.84
fit together. It is said to be a close
Oil pump failing 20 8.93 68.93
loop. The Fig. 18 illustrates the
Filters failing 18 8.04 76.81
maintenance information loop as
Primary and secondary shaft failing 15 6.70 83.51
follow; Cardiant joint 11 4.91 88.42
Explanation of information flow Water pump failing 10 4.46 92.88
loop: Blockage of radiator 8 3.57 96.45
Fig. 18 shows that as the operator Others 8 3.57 100
comes back from the field, he tells Total 224 100
the maintenance team (mechanic)
what signs he has noticed in the other parts of the tractor unknow- schedule, proper implementation
field. The maintenance team does ingly. and adaptation is crucial. It is im-
a diagnostic to detect the problem 3.5.3 Gantt Chart (Scheduling) for portant that those in charge of the
by visiting the checklist (a list that Proper Maintenance tractors be well familier with the
carries all the parts of the tractor The purpose of this chart is to maintenance schedule as they are
that are liable to failure). It gives map out what task to be done in the core users of the system. Having
an assurance that all the parts have parallel and which need to be done tractor operators, tractor mechanics
been diagnose. From here, the list sequentially. Scheduling or preven- and others who are in the entourage
shows whether it is short term main- tive maintenance (PM) plays a key of the tractor trained to use the
tenance or long term maintenance role in every operation since these schedule increases the chances of
to be executed. After the execution will regularly occur and will involve proper functioning of the tractor and
of the task, the tractor is tested and time, energy and workforce to com- reduces time spend on maintenance.
feedback sent with details of equip- plete (Naybour, 2014). A sample of Since there are a lot of dynamics
ment failure to be recorded in the the schedule is seen on Table 5. in equipment assets, it is important
log book for historical reporting After developing a maintenance to always analyze the results of the
purposes. This feedback helps in re-
fining the content of checklist to im-
Fig. 18 Maintenance information loop
prove the quality of the preventive
maintenance specially to prevent
reoccurrence of failures. All infor-
mation gotten from feedback are put
into good use otherwise it is waste
of time as it is with this that man-
agement report can be created from
maintenance report (Dave, 2017).
3.5.2 Propose Maintenance Check-
list for Tractors
Interviews and documentaries
on the causes and effects that led to
failure of tractor parts and identifi-
cation of the parts is the most time
consuming aspect of setting up a
PMP. The list of inventory is as seen
in Table 4;
This list help assures the main-
tenance teams whether or not they
have touched all parts of the tractor
thus prevent accumulated failures in
Table 4 Maintenance control checklist for SONALIKA tractors down are broken parts of tractors
Name of respondents: .............................. Tractor No.............................................. accounting for 75%, oil leakages
Year......................................................... account for 62% and gear box ac-
Inspection initial date counting for 54%.
Repair date g. Operators and tractor mechanics
Items inspected OK NR OK NR OK NR OK NR follow a detailed checklist that
Are there any signs of leaks from help to visually inspect all parts of
hydraulics or transmission?
the machine to ensure that there
NR= Need Repairs
is no accumulation of breakdown
Table 5 Proposed preventive maintenance schedule for SONALIKA tractors
unknowingly.
h. The proposed preventive main-
Frequency of operations to be carried out daily and weekly
Components Operation tenance schedule if well followed
1st
Daily week 2nd 4th 6th 8th 10th
week week week week week up will greatly reduce time spent
Oil Level on maintenance, extend the shelf
Oil and filters Change life of the machine and increase
Belts Check working time of the tractors thus
Air cleaner oil Check increasing productivity.
Water pump body Tighten
Pre cleaner Clean 4.2 Recommendations
Fuel tank Check 4.2.1 Recommendation for Im-
Fuel tank Clean provement
Primary filter Change a) To the government:
2dary injector Change 1. Encourage and make it possible
Where indicators represent: = Adjust/ Tighten, = Change, =Check, for the involvement of private
= Clean, = Level individuals in the importation of
SONALIKA tractor spare parts
feedback so as to adjust or improve Manpower, Materials (product) 2. Organise frequent workshops to
the schedule when need be. If this and Environment). train and receive feedbacks of
routing maintenance is followed b. Out of the five primary causes of tractor’s performance
properly; breakdown, there are three vital 3. Share tractor manuals to most op-
a) It eliminates unexpected replace- few causes which are prioritized erators and in the language they
ment and breakdown, and if they are avoided, the prob- best master
b) It keeps costs down because re- lem of operational weaknesses 4. When next tractors are imported
pairs are not made on emergency of SONALIKA tractors will be emphasis be put on ROPs and
basis, solved by 90%. FOPs to assure safety and comfort
c) It extends the lives of expensive c. We see that 54% have access to 5. Ameliorate the formation of train-
common elements and reduces the operator’s manual but out of ing schools and programs in the
reserve funds, the 54%, only 18% make use of intensive training of tractor opera-
d) It stops problems before they oc- it and the remaining 79% do not tors, maintenance and repairs of
cur. make use of the operator’s manu- tractor
al. 6. Let tractor beneficiaries be aware
d. There is 23% of tractor mechan- that only tractors are subsidized
ics who are readily available to and not spare parts so that they
Conclusions and Recom-
t ractor operators and 77% of can prepare their minds before us-
mendations
operators who do not have reading the tractors.
4.1 Conclusions ily available tractor mechanics. b) To SONALIKA tractor providers
Based on the methodology used in Also the proficiency of the readily (international tractor limited)
this study and the results obtained, available tractor operators in rela- 1. Improvement on the Metallurgy
it can be concluded that: tively very low. of SONALIKA tractor parts
a. There are five primary causes e. There is a general low availability 2. Improve on the availability of
responsible for the operational of spare parts in all the five zones spare parts
weaknesses of SONALIKA trac- accounting for 40%, low afford- 3. Follow up of their tractors in the
tors in Cameroon which are cat- ability of 30% and also a low ac- field to know their state
egorized in 4M and E (Machine cessibility of spare parts of 42%. c) To beneficiaries /Operators and
make up, Method of handling, f. Internal causes of tractor break- Mechanics
1. Follow the maintenance manual Cheru, F. and M. Renu. 2013. Ag- Document De travail sur le génie
2. Provide sheds for the tractors af- ricultural Development and Food rural et alimentaire, pp. 62.
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■■
The ABSTRACTS pages is to introduce the abstracts of the article which cannot be published in
ABSTRACTS whole contents owing to the limited publication space and so many contributions to AMA. The readers
who wish to know the contents of the article more in detail are kindly requested to contact the authors.
2046
Design Parameters of the Spacer Organs for the Pigeon Pea Sheller (Cajanus Cajan L.) GREEN: Ernesto Ramos Car-
bajal (e-mail: [email protected]), Geisy Hernández Cuello, Arturo Martínez Rodríguez, Leidy Burón Mederos, Jeny
Pérez Petitón, Omar González Mejía
The objective of this research is to calculate the design parameters of the separating organ of a green pigeon peeling sheller for
the production of canned peas. A software and data on the physical-mechanical properties of the pods and grains of green pigeon
pea were used for the calculation. As a result, it was obtained that the separator rollers with a diameter of 40 mm will have 2.26
mm of play between them, with an angular speed of the drive roller of 2.01 rad/s and thus achieve a total flow of 14.54 sheaths/s for
a productivity of 67.81 kg/h of processed green pigeon peas.
SDGs and Waste Management of Agricultural
Production in Egypt
by
Said Elshahat Abdallah Wael Mohamed Elmessery
Professor Associate Professor
Dept. of Agricultural Engineering Dept. of Agricultural Engineering
Faculty of Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture,
Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh University,
Kafr Elsheikh 33516, EGYPT Kafr Elsheikh 33516, EGYPT
[email protected]
ings whereas rice accounted for 1. Biogas production (Waste to en-

Abstract
around 19%. The farming areas of ergy) (EOG, 2020)
Egypt depends on grain in partic- Maize are like to those of wheat, and 2. Non-convolutional forage as silage
ular for food security achievement. the wheat-maize farming cycle is 3. Organic fertilizers as compost
Wheat grains account for the bulk common in Egypt. In contrast, rice 4. Microbial and bioproduction
of these grains. The amount of ag- farming is constrained to the Delta So, In September 2019, The Egyp-
ricultural waste in Egypt ranges be- region in the Lower Egypt (Fig. 1) tian government approved a law
tween 49.5 to 52 million tons, which (Abdelaal and Thilmany, 2019). regulating waste management, which
can be recycled. The Egyptian gov- stipulates that a public agency called
ernment approves a law regulating Agricultural Waste Management Waste Management Reg ulator y
waste management, which stipulates and Sustainable Agriculture Authority (WMRA) should be estab-
that a public agency called Waste The amount of agricultural wastes lished, with public character. The new
Management Regulatory Authority delivered annually in Egypt is from agency is responsible for organizing,
(WMRA). The new agency is re- 49.5 to 52 million tons Table 1, following up, monitoring and develop-
sponsible for organizing, following (MoE, 2020a). This could be able to ing everything related to the activities
up, monitoring, and developing ev- recycle in different fields as follow: of integrated waste management, and
erything related to the activities of
integrated waste management, and Fig. 1 Grains area by region, 2017
attracting and encouraging invest-
ments in this field to ensure sustain-
able development.
Keywords: Food security, En-
vironmental pollution, Recycling,
Investment
Food Security for SDGs

Among all crops cultivated in
Egypt, grains are the overwhelming
staple, particularly for human con-
sumption. Wheat grain is the most
important crop, constituting for 43%
of the total cultivated region in 2017
in winter season. Maize and rice
are the foremost grown grains in
the summer season: in 2017, maize
accounted for 38% of summer plant-
attracting and encouraging invest- Egyptian people suffered from the 42% out of the whole emissions
ments in this field to ensure sustain- black cloud phenomenon that annu- during the season. Small holders
able development (WMRA, 2020). ally appears on autumn synchronizes are used to burn theses wastes after
The amount (Table 1), types (Fig. with the harvest season of rice crop harvesting to evacuate the land and
2) and geographical distribution from the beginning of September to receive new culturing season, Fig. 4.
(Fig. 3) of agricultural residues de- the middle of November. The black In an effort against air pollution
livered from different crops in Egypt cloud appearance are
show the importance of establishing due to the increasing
Fig. 3 Agricultural residues locations in Egypt (MALR,
a potential agricultural waste man- of the emissions to the 2017)
agement system for agricultural sus- air during the autumn
tainable development (MoE, 2020a). season as a result of
agricultural wastes
burning, Fig. 4 and
industrial activities
Rice Straw Burning Prob-
emissions synchro-
lem and Black Cloud
nized with the changes
Phenomena
of the weather condi-
Rice straw waste management tions associated with
system created by Ministry of the autumn season.
Environment Rice straw burning
During the previous 20 years, cont r ibutes around
Fig. 2 Classification of crop residue
Table 1 Agricultural wastes delivered from different crops in Egypt

Wastes Wastes Wastes
No. Crop type No. Crop type No. Crop type
amount, ton amount, ton amount, ton
1 Rice 5,236,738 18 Dried black-eye pea 0.087 35 Cantaloupe 8,372
2 Corn 20,138,667 19 Green black-eye pea 0.063 36 Pumpkin 44
3 Cotton 1,600,128 20 Dried peas 0.060 37 Potatoes 718,756
4 Wheat 7,901,650 21 Green peas 0.63 38 Citrus 4,098,590
5 Broad Bean 146,859 22 Cabbage 13,135 39 Grape 1,434,666
6 Lentils 381 23 Cauliflower 17,796 40 Banana 1,158,224
7 Chickpeas 5,269 24 Eggplant 114,501 41 Mango 712,537
8 fenugreek 5,622 25 Okra 783 42 Guava 315,281
9 Sugar beet 3,390,048 26 Artichoke 50,862 43 European pear 58,852
10 Linen 153,024 27 Peppers 71,468 44 Apple 629,613
11 linseed 15,066 28 Taro 9,330 45 Pomegranate 106,260
12 Onion 21,772 29 Carrot 26,084 46 Plum 13,616
13 Garlic 5,876 30 Sweet Potato 486 47 Peach 281,119
14 Tomatoes 191,914 31 Strawberry 28,353 48 Fig 176,595
15 Zucchini 6,198 32 Cucumber 18,122 49 Armenian plum 92,444
16 Dried been 2,065 33 Watermelon 32,685 50 Olive 541,790
17 Green been 15.984 34 Armenian cucumber 1 Total 49,551,659
the Ministry of Environment designs vision of the ministry (by providing Fig. 4 On-field rice straw burning to get
rid rice wastes after harvesting
a waste management system to pre- financial support and equipment sup-
vent rice straw burning to collect rice port) (MoE, 2020b).
straw from farmers recycling and be The new system takes into ac-
used for animal fodder and furniture count the environmental, economic
manufacturing instead of burning, and social dimensions, so as to ad-
Fig. 5. To ensure the sustainability dress the problem. With the time,
of the waste management system, the ministry role changes from the
the farmers who produce the rice director to supervisor.
straw crop and the collectors will be The use of the modern techno- the ministry of environment has pro-
the contractors for economic incen- logical techniques and the satellite vided 127 agricultural shredders (Fig.
tive. The real challenge appears in images to follow and control the 7) for supporting the waste manage-
the vast cultivated spaces with rice system on the field, Fig. 6. The min- ment system in different districts as
which reached to 1.8 million fed- istry has also formed a large num- Aswan, Luxor, Qena, Beni Suef,
dans. These cultivated areas produce ber of agricultural waste inspection Minya, Assuit, Sohag and Sharqiya.
3.6 million tons of rice straw in six patrols that covers all main axes These shredders were manufactured
delta-governorates region. Accord- in delta districts by cars with GPS by Arab Organization for Industrial-
ing to the final report of the Ministry tracking devices to guide the near- ization (Qader factory) (AOI, 2020).
of Environment in Egypt on the ef- est inspection patrol quickly to the Egypt interests toward agro waste
forts to develop an agricultural waste burning site for immediate handling management system which can
management system during 2019 by and control and record penalties for progress the economic and social
collecting and compressing 2.6 mil- violators, (MoE, 2020b). issues. The first step is to provide
lion tons of rice straw Fig. 5, which The amount of sugar-cane residues the small owners with shredder
was collected by the people and is 6.8 million tons (Elfeki et al., 2017). machines to recycle these wastes
contractors working under the super- In October 2018 (Egypt today, 2018), instead of burning.
Fig. 5 Rice straw collection process as raw material (for Fig. 6 Rice straw waste management monitoring by satellite
chopping) or after pressing in bales for recycling processes
Fig. 7 On-farm shredding the residues of cotton and sugar-cane
Fig. 8 Waste recycling companies locations in Egypt (part 1) Fig. 9 Waste recycling companies locations in Egypt (part 2)
Fig. 10 Compost production from agricultural wastes biomass from agricultural waste,
Fig. 12. About 40% of 50 million
tonnes of agricultural wastes pro-
duced annually for animal forage,
the rest amount being available for
energy purposes (equivalent to 5
Mtoe/year). Different biomass tech-
nologies have been demonstrated in
Egypt as biogas production from ag-
ricultural wastes in rural areas. The
The overall societal effects of fertilizers (compost, Fig. 10), bio-fu- Bioenergy for Sustainable Rural De-
agricultural waste management sys- el (Fig. 13) and animal feed (silage). velopment Project (BSRD) (EEAA
tem are increasing overall income, The famous companies in Egypt are et al., 2013), led by the Egyptian
improving food security, reducing Egyptian Company for Solid Waste Environ mental Affairs Agency
green house gaseous emissions, Recycling (Ecaru). Ecaru collects (EEAA), was initiated in 2009 and
government efforts (enforcement, and treats about 500 000 tons/year funded by the United Nations De-
monitoring, and legalization), and of agricultural wastes in four gover- velopment Program and the Global
infrastructure building (investment) norates, the most famous companies Environmental Facility. The project
(MoE, 2020b). are shown at Figs 8 and 9. The ag- develops and operates 960 biogas
ricultural wastes are converted into units of different sizes in 18 Egyp-
compost, Fig. 10, pellets, animal tian governorates. The Bioenergy
feed and alternative fuel for cement for Sustainable Rural Development
Agricultural Wastes Re-
plants, Fig. 11 (Ecaru, 2016). is considering a selling prices regu-
cycling Products
lation for biomass systems similar
Nowadays Egyptian awareness to that for wind and solar issued by
upsurges about agricultural wastes the Prime Minister in October 2014
Bioenergy from Agricul-
uses. There are a lot of emerging (EEHC, 2016).
tural Wastes (Biomass)
companies which conver t these
wastes into a value produce as bio- Eg y pt has huge resou rces of
Conclusions
Fig. 11 Alternative fuel to cement plants Chronic environmental problems
resulting from agricultural waste
have been aff licting successive
Egyptian gover nments over the
past twenty years until the Waste
Management Regulatory Authority
developed a protocol or strategic
plan to eliminate these problems,
such as rice straw and sugar cane
waste burning. Sustainability has
Fig. 12 Biomass resources percentages been achieved by recycling rice
straw and sugar cane waste to pro-
duce other products that have eco-
Fig. 13 Klapsho biofuel processing unit
nomic returns, as well as achieving EOG. 2020. Waste-to-Energy for
food security. Under the awareness a Sustainable Future in Egypt.
campaigns about the importance of Egypt oil and gas newspaper.
recycling agricultural waste that the https://egyptoil-gas.com/features/
government carried out, this led to waste-to-energy-for-a-sustain-
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( Eg y pt) n.d. ht t p://w w w.ag r-
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Co-operating Editors
B Kayombo M F Fonteh SA SE AAK Ahmad R J Bani I K Djokoto A N GITAU D K Some

Ndindeng Abdallah El Behery Addo
K Houmy A F Alonge OA Umar B J C Igbeka E U- K C Oni U L Opara NG AH

Oyelade Bindir Odigboh Kuyembeh Abdoun
-AFRICA- mental and Biosystems Engineering, University Umezuruike L. Opara

of Nairobi, P.O Box 30197, Nairobi, KENYA, ayub. Research Prof., S. Africa Research Chair in Post-
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Assoc. Prof. of Soil and Water Eng., Dept. of Agric. lenbosch Univ., Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch 7602,
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BOTSWANA. TEL+267-3650125, bkayombo@bca. School of Engg Chepkoilel University College of
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[email protected] Assoc. Prof., Njala Univ. Colle, Univ. of Sierra Le-
Mathias Fru Fonteh one, Private Mail Bag, Free Town, SIERRA LEONE.
Director, The College of Technology, The Uni- Karim Houmy TEL+249-11-778620/780045
versity of Bamenda, P.O. Box 811, Mankon Bam- Dr., International Consultant on Agricultural Mech-
enda, Mezam Division, NW Region, CAMEROON. anization, 2 Rue Ali Al Haddani, Route Akrach, Sou- Abdien Hassan Abdoun
[email protected] issi, Rabat, MOROCCO. TEL+212-7-680512, houmy@ Member of Board, Amin Enterprises Ltd., P.O. Box
maghrebnet.net.ma 1333, Khartoum, SUDAN. TEL+249-77860-780045
Sali Atanga Ndindeng
Dr., Rice Processing and Value-Addition Specialist, Akindele Folarin Alonge Amir Bakheit Saeed
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cgiar.org ing, University of Uyo, P. M. B 1017, Uyo, Akwa-
Ibom State, 52003, NIGERIA. Tel+2348033603462, Abdisalam I. Khatibu
Said Elshahat Abdallah [email protected] P. O. Box 2138, Zanzibar, TANZANIA. khatibu@
Dr., Prof. of Agricultural Process Engineering De- zansec.com
partment of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of O. A. Oyelade
Agriculture Kafrelsheikh University, Kafr Elsheikh Assitant Director (Engineering), Farm Power and Solomon Tembo
33516, EGYPT. TEL+20473148949, saidelshahat@ Machinery Dept., National Centre for Agril. Mecha- 52 Goodrington Drive, PO Mabelreign, Sunridge,
agr.kfs.edu.eg; [email protected] nization (NCAM), P.M.B. 1525, Ilorin, Kwara State, Harare, ZIMBABWE.
NIGERIA. TEL+2348069030588, yemibamigbedj-
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Agric Eng. Research Institute, Agril. Research Cen-
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EGYPT. [email protected] Secretary to the Adamawa State Government, The Full Prof. and Director of Food and Agribusiness
Government House, Yola, Adamawa State, NIGE- Program Agronomy College Buenos Aires Univ.,
Ahmad Addo RIA. TEL+234-8-033-156-117, [email protected] Av. San Martin 4453, (1417) Capital Federal, ARGEN-
Assoc. Prof., Department of Agril. Engg, Kwame TINA. TEL+54-11-4524-8041/93, cetrango@agro.
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GHANA. TEL+233-3220-60242, aaddo.coe@knust. Prof., Dept. of Agril. Eng., Univ. of Ibadan,, Ibadan,
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Agric., Univ. of Ghana, Legon, GHANA Prof., Agril. Engg Dept., Faculty of Eng., Univ. of Ni-
geria, Nsukka, Enugu state, NIGERIA. TEL+234-042- Abdelkader E. Ghaly
Israel Kofi Djokoto 771676, [email protected] Prof., Emeritus of Biological & Environmental Eng.
Prof., Israel Kofi Djokoto, Associate Prof. Univ. of Dalhousie Univ., P.O. Box 1500, 1360 Barrington St.,
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A B Saeed A I Khatibu S Tembo HA I de A Nääs A E Ghaly E J Hetz MAL R Aguirre O Ulloa-

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Magan a Laurel Maldonado Mahapatra Hussain
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Mechanization and Energy Dept., Agril. Eng. Fac- Rincon, PR-00677, U.S.A. [email protected]
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[email protected] Agric. & Biosystems Eng. Dept., South Dakota State Gaur City, Greater Noida. UP. 201009, INDIA. TEL
Univ., P.O. Box 2120 Brookings, SD 57007-1496, +234-042-771676, [email protected]
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Agril. Engineer Univ. Agraria de La Habana, Facul- Member-Director, Bangladesh Agri. Res. Council, 1/64, Vattekunnam, Methanam Road, Edappally
tad de Ciencias Técnicas Autopista Nacional y Car- Farmgate, Dhaka, BANGLADESH. mamazed@ North P.O., Cochin, 682024, Kerala State, INDIA.
retera de Tapaste Apartado, 18-19 San José de las barcbgd.org [email protected]
Lajas, Mayabeque, CP 32700 CUBA. ymm@unah.
edu.cu Rostom Ali B. S. Pathak
Prof., Dept. of Farm Power and Machinery, Bangla- Adjunct Prof., Indian Agril. Research Institute,
Pedro Paneque Rondon desh Agricultural University, Mymensingh-2202, KC5, Kavi Nagar, Ghaziabad- 201002, INDIA.
Assoc. Prof., Universidad Agraria de La Habana, BANGLADESH. [email protected] [email protected]
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PhD. and Prof., Paseo de los Claveles #398, Colonia Gajendra Singh
Parques de la Cañada. CP 25080, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mohammad Ali Basunia Adjunct Professor, Indian Agricultural Research
MEXICO. [email protected] Associate Prof., Mechanical Engineering Pro- Institute (IARI), 86-C, Millennium Apartments,
gramme, Institute Teknologi Brunei (ITB), Jalan Sector-61, NOIDA, U. P. 201301, INDIA. TEL+91-99-
Hipolito Ortiz-Laurel Tungku Link, Gadong BE 1410, BRUNEI DARUS- 71087591, [email protected]
Head of Agric. Eng. and Mechanization Dept./ SALAM. [email protected]
Postgraduate College, Iturbide 73, Salinas de Hgo, Sitaram Dagdupant Kulkarni
S.L.P., C.P. 78600, MEXICO. TEL+52-496-30448 Minzan Li Dr., Flat No. 105, Guruprasad Apptts., Plot No. 85
Prof. of College of Information and Electrical Engi- & 86, Survey No. 78, Left Bhusari Colony, Kothrud,
Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado neering, China Agricultural University, P.O. Box 125, Pune - 411038, INDIA. [email protected]
Prof. and Head of the Dept. of Agricultural and China Agricultural University (East Campus), Qin-
Food Engineering, Autonomous University of ghua Donglu 17, Haidian District, Beijing, 100083, Peeyush Soni
Nuevo Leon, Nuevo León, MEXICO. alejandro.lu- CHINA. [email protected] Associate Prof., Dept. of Agricultural and Food
[email protected]; [email protected] Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Xiwen Luo Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal -721302, INDIA.
Ganesh C. Bora Prof. of South China Agricultural University; Aca- TEL+91-3222-283100, [email protected]
Associate Prof., Dept. of Agricultural and Biological demician of Chinese Academy of Engineering,
Engineering, Mississippi State Univ., 130 Creel- Wushan, Guangzhou, 510642, CHINA, xwluo@ Kamaruddin Abdullah
man St., Room 242, P.O. Box 9632, MS 39762, U.S.A. scau.edu.cn The Graduate School/Renewable Energy, Darma
[email protected] Persada University, JI. Radin Inten II, Pondok Ke-
lapa, East Jakarta, 13450, INDONESIA. TEL+64-21-
B S Pathak VM G Singh P Soni Kamaruddin M Saeid A VR A M Abdul-

Salokhe Abdullah Behroozi-Lar Minaei Mahdavian Sharabiani Munaim
94 AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA 2022 VOL.53 NO.1
H B A Snobar J H Chung In-Bok Lee MZ Enkhbayar M P Pariyar HPW Alamgir A AQA
Hasegawa Bardaie Gonchigdorj Jayasuriya Khan Mughal
M S Mirjat NA R M Lantin RP SA AMS SG Suming S S Phong-

Abu-Khalaf Venturina Al-Suhaibani Al-Amri Illangantileke Chen Krishnasreni supasamit
8649051, [email protected] Putra Malaysia, 43400 upm, Serdang, Selangor, Sciences & Food, King Faisal Univ., P.O.Box 55035,
MALAYSIA. TEL+60-3-8946-6410, zohadie@eng. Al-Ahsa, 31982 SAUDI ARABIA. [email protected]
Mansoor Behroozi-Lar upm.edu.my
Prof., Emeritus Tehran Uni. Agr. Eng., Ph. D., Jalal All Sarath G. Illangantileke
Ahmad Nasim St. Nasim Danesh Complex Block Enkhbayar Gonchigdorj Prof., Sarath Ilangantileke, Consultant in Agric
#35, second floor Tehran, IRAN. Behroozil@Yahoo. Director, School of Eng. & Technology, Mongo- Engineering, Mechanization and Education, 4/567
com lian University of Life Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Zai- Victoria Range Bungalows, Kengalla, SRI LANKA.
san, 17024, MONGOLIA. TEL+60-976-11-341554 [email protected]
Saeid Minaei [email protected]
Professor, Dept. of Agr. Machinery Eng., Tarbiat Suming Chen
Modarres Univ., P.O.Box 14115-336, Tehran, IRAN. Madan P. Pariyar Prof., Dept. of Bio-Industrial Mechatronics Eng.,
TEL+9821-44180537, [email protected] Consultant, Rural Development through Selfhelp National Taiwan Univ., 1, Section 4, Roosevelt Road,
Promotion Lamjung Project, German Technical Taipei, TAIWAN. TEL+886-2-33665350, schen@ntu.
Alireza Mahdavian Cooperation. P.O. Box 1457, Kathmandu, NEPAL. edu.tw
Assistance Prof., Department of Biosystems Engi-
neering, Tarbiat Modares Univ., P.o.Box 14115-336, Hemanatha P. W. Jayasuriya Suraweth Krishnasreni
Tehran -14977-13111, IRAN. TEL +98-912-3346506, College of Agril. and Marine Sciences, P.O. Box 34, Emeritus Prof. 24/77 Baan Kasemsan 1, Soi
al. mahdav ian@ gmail.com; a. mahdavian@ PC 123Al-khod, Muscat Sultanate, OMAN. TEL+968- Kasemsan 1 Rama 1 Rd., Wangmai, Pathumwan,
modares.ac.ir 2414-1223, [email protected] Bangkok 10330, THAILAND, [email protected]
Vali Rasooli Sharabiani Alamgir A. Khan Surin Phongsupasamit

Associate Professor, Dept. of Bio-System Engineer- Research Engineer, Agricultural Mechanization Re- President, Institute for Promotion of Teaching Sci-
ing, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, IRAN. vra- search Institute, Multan, PAKISTAN. alamgirakhtar@ ence and Technology, 924 Sukumit Rd. Klong Toey
[email protected] hotmail.com Bangkok, THAILAND, [email protected]
Ali Mazin Abdul-Munaim A. Q. A. Mughal Akkapol Senanarong

Assistant Prof., Dept. of Agril. Machines and Equip- Research Professor, Greenwich Univ., DK-10, Street Agricultural Engineering Research Institue De-
ments, College of Agric., Univ. of Baghdad, IRAQ. 38t, Darakshan, DHA Phase-6, Karachi-75500, PAKI- partment of Agriculture, 50 Phaholyothin Rd.,
TEL+964-778-4561, [email protected] STAN. [email protected] Jatuchak Bangkok 10900, THAILAND, akkapol@
ksc.th.com
Hideo Hasegawa Muhammad Saffar Mirjat
Assoc. Prof., Institute of Science and Technology, Dean, Faculty of Agril. Eng., Sindh Agriculture Univ. Can Ertekin
Niigata University, 8050 Ikarashi 2-no-cho, Nishi-ku, Tandojam, PAKISTAN. TEL+92-221653160, drmirjat@ Prof., Dpt. of Farm Machinery and Technologies
Niigata 950-2181 JAPAN. +81-25-262-6690, hsgw@ hotmail.com Eng., Faculty of Agril., Akdeniz University, 07070,
agr.niigata-u.ac.jp Antalya, TURKEY. [email protected]
Nawaf A. Abu-Khalaf
Bassam A. Snobar Assistant Prof., Palestine Technical Univ. -Kadoorie Imad Haffar
Prof., Univ. of Jordan, Faculty of Agriculture, Am- (PTUK), P.O.Box 405, Hebron, West Bank, PALES- Managing Director, Palm Water Jumeirah Village
man 11492, JORDAN. [email protected] TINE. TEL+972-2-2227-846/7, [email protected] (SIte Office Gate #10) Al Khail Road, P.O. Box 215122,
Dubai, U.A.E. Tel+971-4-375-1196, imad.haffar@
Jong Hoon Chung Reynaldo M. Lantin palmwater.ae
Prof., Dept. of Biosystems & Biomaterials Science Retired Professor, College of Engineering and
and Eng., College of Agril. and Life Sciences, Seoul Agro-Industrial Technology, University of the Phil- Nguyen Hay
National Univ., Bldg 200 Rm 2216 1 Gwanangno, ippines Los Banos, College, Laguna 4031, PHILIP- Prof., President of Nong Lam Univ., Linh Trung
Gwanak-Gu, Seoul, 151-742, KOREA. TEL+82-2-880- PINES. TEL+63-49-536-2792, [email protected] Ward, Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City, VIET
4601, [email protected] NAM. [email protected]
Ricardo P. Venturina
In-Bok Lee PHILIPPINES. Pham Van Lang
Prof., Laboratory of Aero-Environmental & Energy VIET NAM. [email protected]
Engineering (A3EL), Dept. of Rural Systems Eng., Saleh Abdulrahman Al-suhaibani
College of Agril. & Life Sciences, Seoul National Prof., Agril. Eng. Dept.,College of Agric., King Saud
Univ., San 56-1, Shillim-dong, Gwanak-gu, Seoul- Univ., P.O. Box 2460 Riyadh 11451, SAUDI ARABIA. -EUROPE-
city, KOREA. TEL+82-2-880-4586, [email protected] [email protected]
Tihomir Hristov Katardjiev
Muhamad Zohadie Bardaie Ali Mufarreh Saleh Al-Amri General Manager at Yogurtson Trade Ltd., Omachi
Prof., Dept. of Agril. and Biosystems Eng., Univ. Prof., Dept. of Agril. Systems Eng., College of Agril. 216-74, Ichikawa-shi, Chiba-ken 272-0801, Japan
A C Ertekin I Haffar N Hay P V Lang TH P Kic J Müller KP Nick

Senanarong Katardjiev Ferentinos Sigrimis
E Y M Martinov J Ortiz- Brian G
Gasparetto Lobachevsky Cañavate Sims
(BULGARIA). [email protected] Nick Sigrimis Jaime Ortiz-Cañavate Puig-Mauri

Prof., Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos Dpto. Ingenieria Rural Universidad Politécnica de
Pavel Kic 75, Athina 118 55, GREECE. TEL +30-6940940885, Madrid, Esc. T. S. Ing. Agrónomos 28040-Madrid
Professor, Czech Univ. of Life Sciences Prague, [email protected] SPAIN. TEL+34-91-336-5852, jaime.ortizcanavate@
Faculty of Eng. 16521 Prague 6-Suchdol, CZECH upm.es
REPUBLIC. TEL+420-2-2438314 [email protected] Ettore Gasparetto
Via Galileo Galilei 17, I-35121 Padova, ITALY. TEL Brian G. Sims
Joachim Müller +39-0250316619, [email protected] FAO Agricultural Mechanization Consultant. 3
Prof. of the Univ. Hohenheim, Institute of Agril. Bourneside Bedford MK41 7EG, U.K. sims.brian2@
Eng., Head of Agric.l Eng. in the Tropics and Sub- Yakov Lobachevsky gmail.com
tropics, Univ. of Hohenheim, 70593 Stuttgart, GER- Deputy Director of VIM, Federal State Budgetary
MANY. TEL+49-711-459-22490, Joachim.mueller@ Science Institution “Federal State Agro Engineer-
uni-hohenheim.de ing Center VIM” , 1st Institutskiy passage, 5., Mos-
cow -109428, RUSSIA. [email protected]
Konstantinos P. Ferentinos
Researcher, Dept. of Agricultural Engineering, Milan Martinov
Institute of Soil & Water Resources, Hellenic Agri- Prof., Faculty of Technical Sciences, Chair for Bio-
cultural Organization “Demeter” , Ministry of Ag- systems Eng., Novi Sad, SERBIA. TEL+ 381-21-485-
riculture and Food of Greece, 61 Dimokratias Av., 2369, [email protected]
Athens 13561, GREECE. [email protected]
Retirement Co-editors' Name List
Co-editor's name Nationality Inaugu- Retired Inaugu- Retired

ral year year Co-editor's name Nationality ral year year
Adrian Moens Netherlands 1972 1989 A. A. Valenzuela Chile 1982 2013
Bala Krishna Shrestha Nepal 1972 1991 David Boakye Ampratwum Ghana 1982 2011
Chul Choo Lee Korea 1972 2014 Kshirode Chandra Roy Bangladesh 1982 1985
Chau Van Khe Vietnam 1972 1980 M. H. Abdel Aziz Saudi Arabia 1982 1991
Manbahadur Gurung Bhutan 1972 2006 Krishna Prakash Srivastava Ethiopia 1983 1989
Merle L. Esmay U. S. A. 1972 1990 Muhammad Siddique Chaudhry U. S. A. 1983 1991
Giuseppe Pellizzi Italy 1973 2012 Wimala Tissa Weerakoon Zambia 1983 1985
Mohamed A. Bedri Sudan 1973 1987 Harry D. Henderson Lebanon 1984 1985
Shahansha-Uddin Choudhury Bangladesh 1973 1991 Mohammad Afzal Pakistan 1984 1994
T. B. Muckle U. K. 1973 1978 A. P. Kaloyanov Bulgaria 1985 2013
Chang Joo Chung Korea 1975 2014 Soedjatmiko Indonesia 1986 2014
T. Touggaard Pedersen Denmark 1975 1990 Aalbert Anne Wanders Netherlands 1988 2007
Bilash Kanti Bala Bangladesh 1976 1982 Ali Mahmoud El Hossary Egypt 1988 2010
George B. Hanna Egypt 1976 1988 Chanchai Rojanasaroj Thailand 1988 2011
Jun Sakai Japan 1976 2015 Edward A. Baryeh Zimbabwe 1988 2014
Siswadhi Soepardjo Indonesia 1976 1985 T. P. Ojha India 1988 2015
Tieng-Song Peng Taiwan Taiwan 1976 2015 Eltag S. Eldin Mahmoud Sudan 1990 2011
Mohammad Ilyas Pakistan 1977 1981 Henrik Have Denmark 1990 2009
Amala Prasad Sharma Fiji 1978 1981 Graeme Ross Quick Australia 1995 2015
Arumugam Kandiah Ethiopia 1978 1989 Rafiq ur Rehman Pakistan 1995 2015
,
Bherulal T. Devrajani Pakistan 1978 2004 Abdulsamad Abdulmalik Hazza a Yemen 1999 2014
John Kilgour U.K. 1978 2014 Yunus Pinar Turkey 1983 2016
Satish Chandra Fiji 1979 1990 William J. Chancellor U.S.A 1972 2017
Jitendra P. Mittal Nigeria 1980 1993 Kunihiro Tokida Japan 2016 2017
Naresh Chandra Saxena India 1980 1988 Shujun Li China 2012 2018
Paris Andereou Lebanon 1980 1984 S. F. (Sen-Fuh) Chang Taiwan 1987 2018
Wang Wanjun China 1981 2012 Jan Pawlak Poland 2002 2019
Allah Ditta Chaudhry Pakistan 1981 2015 Oleg S. Marchenko Russia 2003 2019
Allan L. Phillips U. S. A. 1981 2004 W. B. Hoogmoed Netherlands 2007 2019
Julien G. Van Lancker Brundi 1981 1989 Sitaram Dagdupant Kulkarni India 2017 2020
Suppiah Kathirkamathamby Sri Lanka 1981 1991 Shah M. Farouk Bangladesh 1982 2021
Armed Hossain Mirdha Mexico 1982 1991 S. R. Verma India 1982 2021
Back Issues AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA
(Vol.51, No.1, Winter, 2020-)
◇ ◇ ◇ (Aleksandr G. Aksenov, Aleksei V. Sibirev) 12 Smart Agriculture Research in IAM-NARO

Vol.51, No.2, Spring 2020 The Prospect of Using Gas Turbine Power (K. Kobayashi).............................................. 36
Could Conservation Tillage Farming Be the Plants in the Agricultural Sector (Valentin As a Successful Contribution for New Agri-
Solution for Agricultural Soils in Iraq? (Ali A. Gusarov, Zakhid A. Godzhaev, Elena V. culture Paradigm (Y. Hashimoto)................ 38
Mazin Abdul-Munaim, David A. Light- Gusarova)....................................................... 19 Smart Agriculture for 9 Billion People’s Food
foot, Dennis G. Watson)................................ 7 The State, Promising Directions and Strate- Production and Environmental Conserva-
Design, Development and Testing of 4-Row gies for the Development of the Energy tion Aiming SDGs (N. Kondo)..................... 40
Tractor Draw n Gladiolus (Gladiolus Base of Agriculture (Andrey Yu. Izmaylov, Smart Robots for Production Agriculture for
Grandiflorus L.) Planter for Uniformity in Yakov P. Lobachevsky, Dmitry A. Tik- SDGs (N. Noguchi)....................................... 42
Corm Spacing (T. P. Singh, Vijay Guatam, homirov, Anatoly V. Tikhomirov)................ 24 Digital Farming Strategy toward Agricultural
Padam Singh, Santosh Kumar)..................... 10 Regional Features of Scientific-technical and Transformation (S. Shibusawa).................... 48
Design and Development of Power Operated Technological Modernization of Agro- Mechanization, Digitizing and Innovations in
Walking Type Weeder (Ajay Kumar Verma) industrial Sector of Bashkortostan at the Agriculture (T. Nanseki)............................... 53
Optimization of Parameters of Axial Flow16 Present Stage (Pavel A. Iofinov, Ildar I. Need for Mechanization of Agriculture with
Paddy Thresher (Ritu Dogra, Desai Kishor Gabitov, Salavat G. Mudarisov, Denis A. Environmental Protection in Developing
Waman, Baldev Dogra, Ajeet Kumar)......... 22 Mironov, Badry H. Akhalaya)...................... 36 Countries (K. Omasa)................................... 55
Measuring Spray and Spray Deposition on Technological Support of Soybean Cultiva- Overseas Expansion of Japanese Agricultural
Plant and Unwanted in Field Under Iraqi tion (Aleksei S. Dorokhov, Marina E. Machinery through Cooperation with Inter-
South Conditions (Majid H. Alheidary, Belyshkina, Ivan A. Starostin, Narek O. national Cooperation Agency (H. Hasegawa).56
Qusay. Sameer, Abdul Salam G. Maki, Ali. Chilingaryan)................................................. 42 SDGs and Kubota’s Vision (Y. Kitao).............. 58
F. Nasir).......................................................... 28 Strategy of Technical Support of Grain Har- Agricultural Mechanization in the United
Current Situation and Perspectives for Soy- vesting Operations in Republic of Kazakh- States of America (J. K. Schueller).............. 60
bean Production in Amur Region, Russian stan (Vladimir L. Astaf’yev, Vladimir A. Fifty Years of Progress in Agricultural Mech-
Federation (Boris Boiarskii, Hideo Hasega- Golikov, Eduard V. Zhalnin, Sergey A. anization (B. Sims, J. Kienzle)..................... 64
wa, Anna Lioude, Elizaveta Kolesnikova, Pavlov, Igor A. Pekhalskiy)........................... 46 50 Years of AMA, the SDGs and Agriculture
Valentina Sinegovskaia)................................ 33 The Methodology of Modeling and Optimi- in Germany Karl Th. Renius)....................... 67
Development and Evaluation of Rasp Bar zation of Technologies in Crop Produc- Development Trend “Digital Agriculture”
Mechanism for the Extraction of Onion tion (Vladimir V. Мikheev, Andrey G. from a German Perspective (Peter Pickel)... 70
(Allium Cepa L.) Seeds (R. Pandiselvam, Ponomarev, Pavel A. Eremin, Vladislav S. Mechanization of Agriculture in Germany (P.
R. Kailappan, Anjineyulu Kothakota, B. Mikheev)........................................................ 52 S. Lammers)................................................... 74
Kamalapreetha, G. K. Rajesh)...................... 39 Benefits of Using Liquid Nitrogen Fertilizers The Role of Life Sciences Universities in Re-
Design and Development of Low Cost Multi- for Russian Farm Enterprises (Leonid A. lation and Strategy of Sustainable Develop-
Row Manual Jute Seed Drill (V. B. Shamb- Marchenko, Igor G. Smirnov, Tatiana V.58 ment Goals (P. Kic)....................................... 77
hu)................................................................... 46 Mochkova, Rashid K. Kurbanov)................. Serbian Agriculture, Agricultural Engineer-
Performance of Milking Machine at Different Trends in the Use of the Microwave Field in ing – Past and Future (M. Martinov, Dj.
Vacuum Levels in Crossbred Dairy Cows the Technological Processes of Drying and Djatkov, S. Bojic, M. Viskovic).................... 82
Milked in Automated Herringbone Parlour Disinfection of Grain (Alexey N. Vasil’yev, Sustainable Development of Chinese Agricul-
(A. Fahim, M. L. Kamboj, A. S. Sirohi)....... 52 Alexey S. Dorokhov, Dmitry A. Budnikov,63 ture and Food Security (C. Zhi).................... 84
Development of Integrated Small Scale Lac Alexey A. Vasil’yev)..................................... 50 Years of Agricultural Mechanization in
Processing Unit (S. C. Sharma, N. Prasad, The Main Stages of Agriculture Mechaniza-69 China (Y. Minli, L. Minzan, L. Xiwen)........ 86
S. K. Pandey, V. K. Bhargava)...................... 58 tion in Russia (Yuliya S. Tsench)................. Current Status and Prospects of Agricultural
Design and Construction of a Farm Scale The Choice of Combine Harvesters and Their Mechanization in China (Z. Yanshui).......... 93
Evaporative Cooling System (Gürkan Alp Adapters for the Conditions of Northern SDGs and Agricultural Mechanization in In-
Kağan Gürdil, Pavel Kic, Bahadır Demirel, Kazakhstan (Mikhail E. Chaplygin, Sergey74 dia (I. Mani)................................................... 96
Emel Demirbas Yaylagül)............................. 67 V. Tronev, Igor A. Pekhalskiy)..................... Smart Farm Mechanization for Sustainable
Development and Performance Evaluation The Trend of Tillage Equipment Development Indian Agriculture (C. R. Mehta, N. S.
of Tractor Drawn Cultivator Cum Spike- (Sergey I. Starovoytov, Badri H. Akhalaya,77 Chandel, Y. A. Rajwade)............................... 99
Roller (V. R. Vagadia, Rajvir Yadav, D. B. Sidorov S. A., Mironova A. V.)..................... Agricultural Mechanization in Bangladesh:
Chavda, Geeta Tomar, D. V. Patel)............... 72 N. A. Borodin’s Firsthand Study of the USA Status and Challenges towards Achieving
Development of Mat Nursery Raising and Power Farming Experience: the Lessons the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Uprooting Techniques for Paddy (Oryza from History (Roman A. Fando, Maria M.82 (A. Rahman, Md. R. Ali, Md. S. N. Kabir,
Sativa L.) Crop and Their Field Evaluation Klavdieva)...................................................... Md. M. Rahman, Md. R. A. Mamun, Md.
with Mechanical Transplanter for South Agricultural Robots in the Internet of Agri- A. Hossen)...................................................... 106
East Asia (Mahesh Kumar Narang, Ru- cultural Things (Vyacheslav K. Abrosi- The Regional Network for Agricultural Ma-
pinder Chandel, Baldev Dogra, Gursahib mov, Zakhid A. Godzhaev, Alexander V.87 chinery (R. M. Lantin).................................. 121
Singh Manes)................................................. 79 Prilukov)........................................................ Agricultural Mechanization Today in Indone-
Improving the Resource, Reliability and Ef- sia in Relation to the SDGs (K. Abdullah)... 133
◇ ◇ ◇ ficiency of Worn-out Machines with New Sustainable Development for Agricultural
Vol.51, No.3, Summer 2020 Methods of Their Maintenance (Anatoliy93 Products Processing Industry and Agricul-
Specual Issue: VIM 90th Anniversary V. Dunayev, Sergey A. Sidorov)................... tural Mechanization in Vietnam (N. Hay)... 135
The Federal Scientific Agro-engineering Egyptian Agriculture and Current Situation
Center VIM: History of Foundation and ◇ ◇ ◇ of Agricultural: Tractors and Equipment
Development (Andrey Yu. Izmailov, Yuli- Vol.51, No.4, Autumn 2020 in Egypt 2009-2018 (T. Kadah, R. Khamis
ya S. Tsench, Yakov P. Lobachevsky).......... 7 Specual Issue: AMA50th Anniversary Ibrahim, H. Radwan, A. El Behery)............. 137
Technical Support of Vegetable Growing in SDGs of Agricultural Machinery Industry in31 SDGs and Storage Obstacles of Agricultural
Countries of the Eurasian Economic Union Japan (M. Kimata)......................................... Production in Egypt (S. E. Abdallah, W.
M. Elmessery)................................................ 146 oping Countries (Karun Sharma, Rupinder Kumar Gautam, Atul Kumar Shrivastava,
SDGs and Agricultural Mechanization Prac- Chandel)........................................................ 7 Amit Jha)....................................................... 54
tice in Nigeria (Oyelade, Opeyemi Adeniyi)151 Design and Development of a Motorized Indices for Comparative Performance Evalu-
Agricultural Mechanization Today in Nigeria Manioc Slicer for the Small and Medium ation of Seed Dril (N. S. Chandel, Dilip
in Relation to Sustainable Development Scale Processing Industry in Sri Lanka Jat, C. R. Mehta, Y. A. Rajwade)................. 61
Goals (A. F. Alonge)...................................... 155 (K. Y. H. D. Shantha).................................... 14 Development of a Pelleting Machine for Hazel-
Draft Efforts’ Behavior of a Vibratory Tool Comparative Field Evaluation of Mechanized nut Residue Utilization (Bahadır Demğrel,
to Different Forward Speeds (L. O. M. Ca- and Manual Cassava Production Opera- Gürkan Alp Kağan G�rd�l, Pavel Kic, Yu-
brera, A. M. Rodriguez, A. G. de la Figal tions: The Case of Cassava Farmers in nus Özcan Baz).............................................. 71
Costales, Y. M. Mesa)................................... 157 Ogun State of Nigeria (Adebayo Abass, Design, Development and Perfor mance
Paul S. Amaza, Richardson Okechuku, Evaluation of an Intercrop Planter for Soy-
◇ ◇ ◇ Wasiu Awoyale, Nuhu Gworgwor)............... 20 bean-Pigeon pea, Chickpea (Ajay Kumar
Vol.52, No.1, Winter 2021 Current Status and Perspectives of Agricul- Verma, Piyush Pradhan)............................... 79
Development of Pedal Operated Arecanut tural Mechanization in Primorsky Krai,
Dehusker Based on Ergonomical and Me- Russian Federation (SIaroslav Patuk, ◇ ◇ ◇
chanical Considerations (V. V. Aware, A. Hideo Hasegawa, Piotr F. Borowski)........... 28 Vol.52, No.4, Autumn 2021
K. Mehta)...................................................... 7 Development of an Electronically-Operated Evolution of Greenhouse Vegetable Cultiva-
Determination of Essential Indexes in As- Automatic Transplanting Mechanism for tion in the Former USSR and Modern Rus-
sessing the Status of Agricultural Mecha- Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) Sys- sia (Mikhail Dorzhiev, Hideo Hasegawa,
nization in Kurdistan, Iran (S. Zaree, J. te (P. Vivek, R. Kavitha, V. M. Duraisamy).37 Anna Lyude, Alima Dorzhieva, Elizaveta
Khodaei)........................................................ 13 Modelling of Tractor Fuel Consumption for Kolesnikova)................................................. 7
Evaluation Parameters Effeccting the Perfor- Ploughing Operation in a Sandy Loam Specific Cutting Energy Characteristics of
mance of Vibrating Vertical Tillage Equip- Soil (O. A. Oyelade, K. C. Oni)................... 44 Cassava Stem with Varying Blade Parame-
ment, First Stage (Guillen Sánchez Juan, Design and Development of a Double Peeling ters Using Impact Type Pendulum Test Rig
Santos G. Campos Magaña, Carlos Sán- Machine for Watermelon (Vishal Kumar, Bikram Jyoti, K. Karthirvel, C. Divakar
chez López, Oscar M. González-Brambila,17 S. K. Jain, S. M. Chavan, Subhash Chan- Durairaj, T. Senthil Kumar).......................... 15
Gabriela Ramírez-Fuentes)........................... dra, B. L. Salvi, N. K. Jain).......................... 53 Physiological Response of Female Farm
Development of a Watermelon (Citrullus Shelflife Extension of Jew’s Mallow by Means Workers on Manually Operated Ambika
lanatus) Seed Extractor (Shrinivas Desh- of a Modified Evaporative Cooler (Said Rice Weeder for System of Rice Intensifi-
pande, G. Senthil Kumaran, A. Carolin24 Elshahat Abdallah, Wael Mohamed Elmess- cation (SRI) (Ajay Kumar Verma, Meera
Rathinakumari)............................................. ery, Mohamed Taha, Reham Elmessery)....... 61 Patel).............................................................. 24
Optimization of Energy Consumption of Current Status and Perspectives on Agricul- Characterisation of Ventilated Multi-Scale
Okra Slices in a Solarassisted Electric30 tural Engineering in Central Asian Coun- Packaging Designs Used for Postharvest
Crop Dryer (N. R. Nwakuba)....................... tries (Abdukarim Usmanov, Vladimir Go- Handling of Pomegranate in South Africa
Design, Development and Evaluation of likov, Askar Rzaliev, Marat Kaliaskarov, (Matia Mukama, Alemayehu Ambaw, Um-
Minimal Processing Machine for Tender Hideo Hasegawa).......................................... 69 ezuruike Linus Opara).................................. 31
Coconut (Cocos nucifera) (R. Pandisel- Comparative Evaluation of Four Different Wheel Slip Measurement Methods and De-
vam, M. R. Manikantan, A. C. Mathew,39 Cassava Peeling Devices (P. O. Kolawole, velopment of Novel Technique for Its Mea-
Shameena Beegum, K. B. Hebbar).............. A. Abass, P. Kulakow, T. A. Diallo, T. M. surement to Improve Tractive Performance
Agricultural Machinery Manufacturing Sec- Samuel).......................................................... 74 of Off-road Vehicles (A. Ashok Kumar, P.
tor in Palestine - Reality and Challenges44 Increasing Rice Production in Nigeria Through Samba Siva Rao, S. Anusha, N. R. Lalitha
(Nawaf Abu-Khalaf, Yasser A. R. Natour).. Sawah Eco-Technology: 2005-2018 (SY. S. Chowdary K. Swathi, K. Nandha Kishore).. 39
Modification of Rotary Unit of Power Tiller Ademiluyi, O. A. Oyelade, O. T. Dada-Joel, Performance Evaluation of KAU Manure
for Biasi (Interculture Operation) Rice J. S. Olanrewaju, T. Wakatsuki)..................... 82 Pulverizer (K. T. Arya, V. Harsha, Dev J.
Cultivation in Eastern India (Ajay Kumar48 Amal, P. R. Jayan)......................................... 49
Verma, Samir Santiya)................................. ◇ ◇ ◇ Development and Evaluation of a Walk Be-
Desig n of Rot a r y Assisted Broad Bed Vol.52, No.3, Summer 2021 hind Engine-operated Weeder for Upland
Former-cum-Seeder for Vertisols (K. P. Effect of Some Process Conditions on Oil Crops (Vinayaka, A. Tajuddin, C. Divaker
Singh, Dilip Jat, Avinash Kumar Gautam,55 Recovery Efficiency from Palm Kernel Durairaj)........................................................ 53
M. P. S. Chouhan)......................................... Under Uniaxial Compression (Isaac C. Smartphone Application Development for the
The Optimization of Topological Mechanism Ozumba, Kayode Oje, Caesar Nwosu)........ 7 First Generation Selection of Sugarcane
and Dimension Design of Parallel Trans- An Assessment of the Current Status of Clones (Sunattha Attisilwet, Ratana Tang-
planting Machine in Greenhouse (Qizhi Postharvest Management of Major Ag- wongkit, Borpit Tangwongkit, Pongsak
Yang, Jing Cai, Xin Zhou, Ibrar Ahamd,61 ricultural Commodities in the Republic Chontanaswat, Lop Phavaphutanon)............ 60
Jianping Hu, Jun Gu).................................... of Mozambique (Missels Quécio Carlos Development and Performance Evaluation
Implementation of Image Processing and Monjane, Julieta Ziote, Ivane Sarmento of an Eco-friendly Turmeric Polisher (S.
Fuzzy Logic Discriminator of Hatching Maunze, Hideo Hasegawa, Tadao Aoda).... 15 Parveen, R. Kailappan)................................. 70
Eggs Fertility (S. E. Abdallah, W. M. El-67 Computer Aided Design and Development of Development and Testing of Bhutanese Maize
messery, A. Elseify)....................................... a Tractor Operated Cotton Header (Pramod Sheller (Lhakpa Dorji, Kinga Norbu,
Performance Evaluation of a Multi-crop Kumar Mishra, Manjeet Singh, Biswa Karma Thinley)............................................. 77
Shelling/Cracking Machine for Shelling of74 Mandal, Derminder Singh, Vishal Bector, Current Status and Perspectives of Rice
Peanut Pods (A. M. Mousa, E. A. Darwish). Bharat Patel).................................................. 24 Farming in Sivakovka Village, Primor-
Power Requirement and Fuel Consumption Development and Evaluation of a Tractor sky Krai, Russia (Iaroslav Patuk, Hideo
Reduction of Forage Harvester Chopper Operated Cotton Header (Pramod Kumar Hasegawa, Andrew C. Whitaker, Piotr F.
Blades by Thermal Coating (Engin ErgÜl,81 Mishra, Manjeet Singh, G. S. Manes, Borowski, Boris Boiarskii, Igor Borodin).... 80
B. Çakmak)................................................... Biswa Mandal, Bharat Patel, H. S. Brar)..... 35
Technical Performance and Benefit of Mini
◇ ◇ ◇ Combine Harvester in Southern Delta of
Vol.52, No.2, Spring 2021 Bangladesh (M. K. Hasan, M. R. Ali, C. K.
Multiple Attributed Parametric Review on Saha, M. M. Alam, M. M. Hossain)............. 45
Mechanical Picking of Cotton (Gossypium Design Parameters of Tractor Drawn Pres-
Hirsutum L.) Crop in Relevance to Devel- surized Aqueous Fertilizer Drill (Avinash
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Vol.53 No.1 Winter 2022

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VOL.53, NO.

AMA Fake site: https://www.shin-norinco.com/

FARM MACHINERY INDUSTRIAL RESEACH CORP.

Yoshisuke Kishida 5 Editorial

Nadezhda Sandakova 7 Agricultural Machinery Cluster Formation Model under Import

Abstarcts........................................................ 45, 87 Instructions to AMA Contributors......................99

Anna Lyude Tsyden Sandakov

Results and Discussion

Source: The Federal State Statistics Service, 2017

Mauro Estevão Machipane Hideo Hasegawa*

tivity seen on the continent (African

Seed Certification and Quality

A. Srinivasa Rao Ch. Someswara Rao

Measurement of Water Saving

Table 6 Crop Parameters under direct dry seeded rice

Table 8 Crop parameters under direct wet-seeded rice

Daba Radnaev Nadezhda Sandakova

board cultivation technology, which

Fig. 2 Schematic Diagram of Kuzbass-8.5 Fig. 3 Schematic Diagram of APD-7.2

(a) Conventional tillage (b) Minimum tillage

Naresh Mukesh Jain

labour requirement over manual improved hand tools or power oper-

Fig. 1 Schematic of rotary weeder Fig. 2 The developed rotary weeder

The first year of experiment The first year of experiment

3.3. Seedlings Emergence

Fig. 3 Changes in seed distribution area (mm 2) according to sowing speeds

The first year of experiment The second year of experiment

Anoop Kumar Dixit

Design Basis for Cutting Unit

Field Trial of Biomass Incorpora-

Fig. 8 A stationary view of tractor

batch conventional mixer (48.2%). (Holland et al., 2009, Al-Said et al.,

using ISHIKAWA diagram and a proficient. There was low affordabil-

Fig. 1 Pareto diagram prioritizing the primary causes of breakdown

① From other operators 46％

① < 5 years 48％ ① No 54％ ① < 1 mouth 18％

① MINADER 48％ ① Open air 44％

Fig. 9 Availability of tractor spare parts in the five AEZ

d. Spare parts availability e. Spare parts availability

① Absence of spare parts

Fig. 10 Availability of tractor spare parts in the five AEZ

d. Spare parts availability e. Spare parts availability

① Spare parts unaordable

3.4 Identification and Analysis of

Fig. 11 Accessibility of tractor spare parts in the five AEZs

d. Spare parts availability e. Spare parts availability

① Inaccessibilty of spare parts

3.5 Proposition of a Maintenance

ings whereas rice accounted for 1. Biogas production (Waste to en-

Food Security for SDGs

Fig. 2 Classification of crop residue

Table 1 Agricultural wastes delivered from different crops in Egypt

Fig. 7 On-farm shredding the residues of cotton and sugar-cane

Fig. 13 Klapsho biofuel processing unit

B Kayombo M F Fonteh SA SE AAK Ahmad R J Bani I K Djokoto A N GITAU D K Some

K Houmy A F Alonge OA Umar B J C Igbeka E U- K C Oni U L Opara NG AH

-AFRICA- mental and Biosystems Engineering, University Umezuruike L. Opara

A B Saeed A I Khatibu S Tembo HA I de A Nääs A E Ghaly E J Hetz MAL R Aguirre O Ulloa-

Omar Ulloa-Torres Daulat Hussain C. R. Mehta