Modern Physics

Black Body Radiation
Blackbody is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic

radiations, regardless of frequency or angle of incidence. The name "black body" is
given because it absorbs radiation in all frequencies, not because it only absorbs,
indeed, the body can also emit radiation.
A black body in thermal equilibrium (that is, at a constant temperature) emits
electromagnetic radiation that is called black-body radiation. The radiation is
emitted according to Planck's law.
An ideal black body in thermal equilibrium has two notable properties:
1. It is an ideal emitter: at every frequency, it emits as much or more thermal

radiative energy as any other body at the same temperature.
2. It is a diffuse emitter: measured per unit area perpendicular to the direction,
the energy is radiated isotropically, independent of direction.
Planck’s radiation law: The primary law governing blackbody radiation is the
Planck Radiation Law, which governs the intensity of radiation emitted by unit
surface area into a fixed direction from the blackbody as a function of wavelength
for a fixed temperature. A mathematical relationship formulated in 1900 by German
physicist Max Planck to explain the spectral-energy distribution of radiation emitted
by a blackbody. Planck assumed that the sources of radiation are atoms in a state of
oscillation and that the vibrational energy of each oscillator may have any of a series
of discrete values but never any value between. Planck further assumed that when
an oscillator changes from a state of energy E1 to a state of lower energy E2, the
discrete amount of energy E1 − E2, or quantum of radiation, is equal to the product
of the frequency of the radiation, symbolized by the Greek letter ν and a constant h,
now called Planck’s constant, that he determined from blackbody radiation data;
i.e., E1 − E2 = hν.
Planck’s law for the energy Eλ radiated per unit volume by a cavity of a blackbody
in the wavelength interval λ to λ + Δλ (Δλ denotes an increment of wavelength) can
be written in terms of Planck’s constant (h), the speed of light (c), the Boltzmann
constant (k), and the absolute temperature (T):
Particle properties of wave: Wave properties dominate at low energy (E = hf), equivalent to long
wavelength and small frequency, e.g. radio waves. Particle properties dominate at high energy,
equivalent to short wavelength and high frequency, e.g.X-rays. Low energy photons tend to behave
more like waves and higher energy photons behave like particles.
Suppose we have a photon with energy above the threshold energy (called the work
function for that metal), then upon striking the metal surface an electron will be knocked out
from inner shell of the atom by totally absorbing the electron. This process of knocking out
of electron is called Photoelectric Effect and it depends on the energy of photon as well as
the metal it is striking.
 If a photon strikes the outer shell electrons, it may not be totally absorbed but part of its
energy is transferred to that outer shell electron. In doing so we have a photon
whose energy is reduced and a free electron. Since the energy of photon is reduced, we
have a change in the wavelength of that photon. This process is called Compton
Scattering or Compton Effect.
Difference between photoelectric effect and Compton effect:
The photoelectric effect and Compton effect are two types of interactions between
light and matter. Both effects demonstrate the particle nature of electromagnetic
waves. The photoelectric effect was explained by Albert Einstein. Compton effect
was observed and explained by Arthur Compton. In the photoelectric effect, the
entire energy of the incident photon is acquired by a single electron but, in the
Compton effect, the incident photon transfers only a part of its energy to an
electron. The photoelectric effect is a low energy phenomenon, and the interacted
photons disappear just after they deliver their energy to electrons. The Compton
effect, on the other hand, is a mid-energy phenomenon, and the interacted photons
are scattered by the electrons. This is the main difference between Photoelectric
Effect and Compton Effect.
Compton Scattering or effect:
Compton effect or Compton scatter is one of principle forms of photon interaction. It is

the main cause of scattered radiation in a material. It occurs due to the interaction of the
photon (x-ray or gamma) with free electrons (unattached to atoms) or loosely bound
valence shell (outer shell) electrons. The resultant incident photon is scattered (changes
direction) and imparts energy to the electron (recoil electron). The scattered photon will
have a different wavelength (observed phenomenon) and thus a different energy
(E=hc/λ). Energy and momentum are conserved in this process. The Compton effect is a
partial absorption process and as the original photon has lost energy, known as Compton
shift (i.e. a shift of wavelength/frequency). The wavelength change of the scattered
photon can be determined by 0.024 (1- cos θ), where  is scattered photon angle. Thus,
the energy of the scattered photon decreases with increasing scattered photon angle.
The energy of the system before collision

The energy of the system after collision
According to the principle of conservation of energy
..............(1)
According to the principle of conservation of linear momentum along and
perpendicular to the direction of incident photon (i.e., along x and y axis), we
have
or
..........(2)
and
or
..............(3)
Squaring (2) and (3) and then adding, we get
or
or
..(4)
𝟐
Squaring equation (1), get 𝒎𝟐 𝒄𝟒 = 𝒉𝟐 𝟐 + 𝒉𝟐 / − 𝟐𝒉𝟐 / + 𝒎𝟐𝟎 𝒄𝟒 +
𝟐𝒎𝟎 𝒄𝟐 𝒉( − / ) ..(5)
Subtracting (4) from (5), we get
..(6)
According to the theory of relativity
or
or
Multiplying both sides by c2, we get
....(7)
Using equation (6) equation (7) becomes
..(8)
To find the relation in term of wavelength, let us

substitute and, we thus have
Compton shift
.........(9)
From above equations (8) and (9) following conclusions can be drawn
The wavelength of the scattered photon λ’ is greater than the wavelength of

incident photon λ.
when = ; cos  =0
= λc ; ……..(10)
Where λc is called the Compton wavelength of the electron.
when = ; cos = -1
............(11)
where
Electromagnetic waves have both wave and particle properties

Prob: An incident 71-pm X-ray is incident on a calcite target. Find the wavelength
of the X-ray scattered at a 30° angle. What is the largest shift that can be expected
in this experiment?
Solution
The shift at θ=30°θ=30° is
Δλ=λc(1−cos30°)=0.134λc=(0.134)(2.43)pm
This gives the scattered wavelength:
λ′=λ+Δλ=(71+0.325)pm=71.325pm.λ′=λ+Δλ=(71+0.325)pm=71.325pm.
The largest shift is
(Δλ)max=λc(1−cos180°)=2(2.43pm)=4.86pm.(Δλ)max=λc(1−cos180°)=2(2.43pm)=
4.86pm.

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Black Body Radiation

Blackbody is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic

1. It is an ideal emitter: at every frequency, it emits as much or more thermal

Compton effect or Compton scatter is one of principle forms of photon interaction. It is

The energy of the system before collision

According to the principle of conservation of energy

Squaring (2) and (3) and then adding, we get

Subtracting (4) from (5), we get

According to the theory of relativity

Multiplying both sides by c2, we get

Using equation (6) equation (7) becomes

To find the relation in term of wavelength, let us

The wavelength of the scattered photon λ’ is greater than the wavelength of

when = ; cos  =0

Where λc is called the Compton wavelength of the electron.

when = ; cos = -1

Electromagnetic waves have both wave and particle properties

The shift at θ=30°θ=30° is

This gives the scattered wavelength:

The largest shift is

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