The probability of each process is expressed as absorption coefficient.

The
total absorption coefficient is sum of absorption coefficients of the three
processes. The various absorption coefficients depend upon the energy of the g-
rays as well as nature of absorbing material. Thus, the absorption of g-rays
cannot be expressed in a single formula. Each partial absorption coefficient is
expressed as a function of energy for a given material and tables have been
prepared for different materials. The total absorption coefficient m of a given
material is expressed by the formula
m(E) = mpe(E) + ms(E) + mpp(E)……………………(5.13)
where indices pe, s and pp stand for photoelectric effect, Compton effect and
pair production respectively.
Now we discuss these effects in detail.

5.6 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

In 1887, Hertz observed that a metallic surface emits electrons when a photon of
low wavelength is incident on it. He further observed that when ultraviolet light
falls on zinc plate (which is electrically neutral), the plate becomes positively
charged, i.e. electrons are emitted by the plate. This phenomenon of emission of
electrons by a metallic plate when photons of suitable wavelength falls on it, is
known as photoelectric effect. Prof. Albert Einstein got Noble Prize in 1916 for
the explanation of photoelectric effect.
Further experiments give us the following results:

1. A minimum frequency of photons is needed for the emission of electrons

from a metallic surface. This energy associated with the minimum
frequency is known as the work function of the material.
2. The number of photoelectrons emitted by the material depends upon the
intensity of the incident photons.
3. If the frequency of the incident photon is higher than the work function,
then the difference between the incident energy and the work function
becomes the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons, i.e.

mv2 = hn – hn0……………………(5.14)

where m is the mass of the electrons, v is the velocity of the electron, hn is the
energy of the incident photon and this has to be greater than hn0, the minimum
energy required to eject the electron from the surface. hn0 = w, the work
function n0 is called threshold frequency and the corresponding wavelength l0 is
called threshold wavelength.
The photoelectric effect is observed from the inner shell electrons with high
probability and is predominant with high Z materials.
Why Photoelectric Effect is Not Possible with Free Electrons?
Let us assume a completely non-relativistic case and assume photoelectric effect
is taking place with free electrons. Electron is initially at rest. So, its kinetic
energy and momentum are zero. Incident photon has kinetic energy hn and
momentum hn/c. After photoelectric effect, incident photon is completely
absorbed and electron moves with a kinetic energy 1/2mv2 and momentum mv.
Applying law of conservation of momentum, we get

Similarly, applying law of conservation of energy, we get

Solving Eqs. (5.15) and (5.16) for v, we get

v = 2c
This means that electron will move with a velocity which is twice the velocity
of light. This is in contradiction with the theory of relativity, which states that no
material particle can travel with velocity greater than velocity of light in vacuum.
Hence, it is not possible to have photoelectric effect with free electron. This
holds true also for the relativistic case. We must have a bound electron, so that
momentum and energy conservation laws are not violated.
Experimental verification of the photoelectric effect discussed above is not
simple. It requires electromagnetic radiations of energy higher than the binding
energy of electrons in
K, L, … shells. This energy is of the order tens of eV to tens of keV. This
requires a source of electromagnetic radiations emitting either UV radiations or
X-rays. However, we consider only those electrons which are very weakly bound
to the atom or are almost free. These electrons can be removed by supplying
energy equal to work function of the material. The work function of most of the
materials is of the order of few eV. This energy can be provided by visible light.
Below we present different experiments based on the above discussion.

5.6.1 Experimental Verification of Photoelectric Effect

The apparatus used to verify photoelectric effect is shown in Figure. 5.5. It
consists of an evacuated quartz tube. The tube contains two metal electrodes.
The electrodes are connected to a variable power supply. One of the electrodes is
exposed to light acts as an anode. When anode is exposed to light, it ejects
photoelectrons. Some of the photoelectrons that emerge from anode have enough
energy to reach the cathode despite of its negative polarity and constitute the
current in the circuit. The electrons moving with lower energy are repelled by
the cathode and will not reach the cathode. When potential between the two
electrodes is increased, no more photoelectrons arrive at the cathode and current
in the circuit drops to zero. This extinction voltage corresponds to the maximum
kinetic energy of photoelectrons.

Figure 5.5 Set-up used for verification of photoelectric effect.

In the first part of the experiment, frequency of the incident light is kept
constant. Intensity of the light is varied and the extinction voltage (the voltage at
which the current in the ammeter becomes zero) V0 is measured. The results for
different intensities of incident light are shown in Figure 5.6. It is found that
extinction voltage remains same, i.e. independent of the intensity of light.
 In the second part of the experiment, intensity of the incident light is kept
constant and the frequency of the incident light is varied. The results of the
experiment are shown in
Figure 5.7. It is found that as the frequency of the light increases, extinction
voltage also increases. In other words, the kinetic energy of photoelectrons is
directly proportional to the frequency of incident light.

Figure 5.6 Photoelectric current versus retarding potential for various intensities of incident light.

Figure 5.7 Photoelectric current versus retarding potential for various frequencies of incident light.

These two experiments verify basic aspects of photoelectric effect. It has been
shown that
 Probability of photoelectric effect  Z4.5.

Probability of photoelectric effect  if hn0 > m0c2 and  , if

hn0 < m0c2.

5.7 COMPTON EFFECT

Compton in 1923 was able to demonstrate that if a beam of monochromatic X-
rays or light of high frequency was incident on an element of low Z, such as
carbon, the scattered radiations consisted of two components, one component
was of same frequency as the incident radiation and the second component was
of lower frequency.
Compton assumed that scattering process between the incident photon and
electron (assumed to be free and at rest) is an elastic collision. So, the kinetic
energy and momenta are conserved. After scattering, the recoil electron takes
energy from the incident photon. Thus, the energy of the incident photon is
reduced or we can say that the incident photon has a lower frequency or longer
wavelength. Schematically the scattering process is shown in Figure 5.8.

Figure 5.8 Schematic representation of Compton effect.

Compton effect studies are generally carried out with gamma rays having
relatively high energies, so the recoil energy of the Compton scattered electrons
is also high. Since rest mass energy of the electrons is only 0.511 MeV, so
relativistic effects have to be considered. Thus, the mass of the electron m
moving with velocity v is given by

where m0 is the mass of the electron at rest and c is the velocity of light.
Applying the law of conservation of energy to the Compton scattering process,
we get the following equation
m0c2 + hn0 = hn + mc2………………(5.17)
Since momentum is a vector quantity, applying the law of conservation of
momentum along the x-axis, we have

Similarly, applying the law of conservation along the y-axis, we get

where is the initial momentum of the gamma ray and is the momentum
of the scattered gamma ray.
Multiplying Eqs. (5.18) and (5.19) by c, we get
hn0 – hn  cos q = mvc  cos f………………(5.20)
hn  sin q = mvc  sin f………………(5.21)
Squaring Eqs. (5.20) and (5.21) and adding, we have
m2v2c2 = h2 (n02 + n2 – 2nn0  cos q)………………(5.22)

Dividing this equation by c2 and using the relation l = , one obtains

Rewriting Eq. (5.17) as

mc2 = m0c2 – h(n – n0)
Squaring this equation, we get
m2c4 = m02c4 + h2(n – n0)2 – 2m0c2h(n – n0)………………(5.24)
Subtracting Eq. (5.22) from Eq. (5.24), we get
m2c2 (c2 – v2) = –2h2(1 – cos q)nn0 + m02c4 – 2h(n – n0)m0c2
Using the relation Eq. (5.24) becomes

= –2h2nn0 (1 – cos q) + m02c4 – 2h(n – n0) m0c2

Simplifying this equation, we have

2h(n0 – n) m0c2 = 2h2 nn0 (1 – cos q)
Cancelling 2h and dividing by nn0, we get

Using the relation we get

This change in wavelength is known as Compton shift. As is clear from the

above equation, this shift depends upon q only, as h, m0 and c are constants. It is
independent of incident energy.
Different cases of Compton shift can be considered for different values of q:
1. If q = 0°, cos q = 1, and l becomes 0, which means, that there is no
scattering of the incident photon as Compton shift is 0.
2. If q = 90°, cos q = 0, then
 Substituting the constants h = 6.625  10–34 J s, m0 = 9.1  10–31 kg, c =
3  108 m/s, we get
l = 2.42  10–12 m = 0.0242 Å

3. If q = 180°, then cos q = –1 and l = = 0.0484 Å

is known as Compton wavelength and its value is 2.42  10–12 m.

Energy of Scattered Photon

Rewriting Eq. (5.25)

Dividing numerator and denominator on the right-hand side by m0c2, we have

hn =

Substituting = a, we get

hn = ………………(5.27)
This relation for hn gives us the energy of the scattered photon.
Special cases:

For q = 0°, hn = hn0, i.e. the energy of the scattered photon is same as the
energy of the incident photon. In this case Compton effect is not taking
 place.

For q = , hn = . Since a > 0, so energy of the scattered photon is

always be less than that of incident photon i.e. Compton effect is taking
place
For q = p, i.e. incident photon is back-scattered. In this case

As energy of the incident photon is increased, the energy of the back-scattered

photon converges to 0.255 MeV.
Energy of Recoil Electrons
From Eq. (5.17), we have
Kinetic energy of the recoil electron T = hn0 – hn.
Substituting for hn from Eq. (5.27), we get

Special cases:

For q = 0°,………T = 0

For q = ,………T = hn0

For q = p,………T = hn0

5.7.1 Experimental Verification of Compton Effect

The set-up used for verification of Compton effect is shown in Figure 5.9. In this
set-up, source of radiations is a radioactive source (S) of 137Cs, which emits
gamma rays of 662 keV. These gamma rays after collimation (A) are made to fall
on an aluminium cylinder (C). Aluminium cylinder acts as a scatterer. The
Compton scattered gamma rays go in different directions. The number of
photons and their energy at different angles are measured by a scintillation
spectrometer (this spectro-meter is discussed in Chapter 7). For different angles
we observe two gamma rays, one corresponding to the incident energy of
662 keV (elastically scattered) and the other is corresponding to the Compton
scattered gamma ray. This is shown in Figure 5.10. In the top part at 0°, only one
g-ray at 662 keV is present, corresponding to unshifted peak. In the other parts
of the figure, two peaks are present, one corresponding to unshifted component
and the other due to Compton scattering. The energy of this Compton scattered
gamma ray can be calculated from Eq. (5.27).

Figure 5.9 Experimental set-up to verify Compton effect.

Figure 5.10 Compton scattered 662 keV g-rays of 137Cs at different angles.

The probability of Compton effect depends upon the atomic number of the
scatterer and the energy of the incident gamma rays. This variation is as under:
 Probability of Compton effect  Z

Probability of Compton effect 

Compton Effect with Visible Light

Compton shift is given by

This small change in wavelength of visible light is not possible to detect with
any optical instrument. Therefore, Compton effect cannot be observed with
visible light. Similarly, ultraviolet radiation which extends from ~ 4000  10–
10 m to ~ 10  10–10 m can not be used for observing Compton effect.
Further, Compton effect takes place from free electrons. The binding energy of
electrons in an atom generally varies from ~ 13 eV to ~ 80 keV. The energy of
visible light is of the order of 2 eV and that of ultraviolet light it is of the order of
10 eV. For such low energies, electrons in atom are bound. For X-rays or g-rays
the binding energy of electrons in an atom is negligibly small and the electrons
can be treated as free electrons.

5.8 PAIR PRODUCTION

We have already seen that g-ray photons give an electron all of its energy
(Photoelectric effect) or transfer only a part of its energy (Compton effect).
There is a third possibility in which a photon materializes into an electron and a
positron. This process is called pair production.
All the conservation laws are fulfilled during this process. For example, the
sum of the charge of electron (q = –e) and of positron (q = +e) is zero and the
charge on photon is also zero. The total energy which also includes the rest mass
energy of electron and positron is equal to the g-ray photon energy. The linear
momentum is also conserved (with the help of the nucleus, which carries away
enough photon momentum for the process to occur). The rest mass energy of
electron and positron is 0.511 MeV each, hence pair production requires a
photon energy of at least 1.022 MeV. If the energy of the incident photon is
higher, 1.022 MeV is consumed in the formation of electron positron pair and
the remaining energy is shared by electron and positron as their kinetic energy.
This process is represented by the relation
g  e– + e+
Dirac Theory of Pair Production
The creation of electron–positron pair was explained by Dirac in 1931 by
developing relativistic quantum mechanical equation for electrons.
One of the puzzling features of the Dirac equation was that for a free electron,
it predicted not only a continuum of energy states greater than its rest mass
energy but also a continuum of negative energy states. This theory is discussed
below in a very simplified way. Relativistically the total energy E of a particle of
rest mass m0 and momentum p is given by

E2 = m02c4 + p2c2………………(5.29)
or

Dirac interpreted that an electron may have total positive energy from
+m0c2 to  or a negative energy from –m0c2 to – as shown in Figure 5.11.
We see only electrons in positive energy state. Dirac proposed that the negative
energy states (called Dirac sea) are completely filled with electrons and Pauli
exclusion principle forbids any transition from positive energy state to negative
energy state. Electron from negative energy state cannot make a transition to
positive energy state by itself as it requires 1.022 MeV energy.
 Figure 5.11 Dirac diagram for electron hole (positron) production.

However, if a photon of energy greater than 1.022 MeV or 2m0c2 falls on an

electron in negative energy region, it raises the electron to positive energy state.
This results in a “hole” in the negative energy state. This hole in the negative
energy sea is supposed to behave like a positron.
In quantum electrodynamics (QED), the final theory of electro-magnetic
interactions developed independently by Feynman, Schwinger and Tomonaga in
1948, where electron–positron creation was properly described. According to
this theory, ‘a positron can be considered as an electron moving backward in
time’.
5.8.1 Positron Annihilation
An inverse process occurs when a positron comes closer to an electron under the
influence of their opposite charges. Both electron and positron vanish
simultaneously and two g-rays of energy > 0.511 MeV moving in opposite
directions appear.
e– + e+  g + g
This process in which a positron captures an electron and both annihilate into
two g-rays of energy moving in opposite directions is known as positron
annihilation or pair annihilation.
The two g-rays move in opposite directions to conserve linear momentum. For
positron annihilation presence of nucleus (for momentum conservation) is not
required. Electron and positron can annihilate in vacuum also.
Pair Production Cannot Occur in Vacuum
Let us assume that pair production is taking place in empty space. An incident
photon of energy hn and momentum hn/c gets annihilated in empty space and
forms e– and e+ pair. The vector diagram of momenta involved when photon is
converted into electron–positron pair is shown in Figure 5.12. Applying energy
conservation, we get
hn = 2mc2………………(5.30)
where m is the moving mass of moving electron or positron.

Figure 5.12 Momentum conservation in pair production.

The angles of emission of e– and e+ are equal due to conservation of linear

momentum along perpendicular direction.
Applying momentum conservation in the direction of incident photon, we get

where n is the velocity of both electron and positron. This equation can also be
written as

hn = 2mc2 cos q (5.33)

As < 1 and cos q  1, therefore,
hn  2mc2………………(5.34)
This contradicts with the law of energy conservation (hn = 2mc2). Therefore,
it is not possible for pair production to take place in vacuum as it violates energy,
momentum conservation laws. Presence of third body—the nucleus is a must
which carries away part of the momentum of the incident photon, thereby
satisfying both the laws.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Section 5.2