3.0. Cement

Download as docx, pdf, or txt
Download as docx, pdf, or txt
You are on page 1of 10

3.0.

CEMENT

3.1 Introduction
Cement refers to a material which acts as a binder. In
building and civil engineering works,  cement  is  used  to 
bind  structural  members  for  construction  of 
buildings, pavements, bridges, tunnels, roads and highways
etc.

Cement is a commonly used binding material in the


construction. Cement is obtained by burning a mixture of
calcarious (calcium) and argillaceous (clay) material at a
very high temperature and then grinding the clinker so
produced to a fine powder. It was first produced by a mason
Joseph Aspdin in England in 1824. He patented it as Portland
cement.

Assyrians and Babylonians were perhaps the first to use clay


as cementing material. In ancient monuments, e.g. forts,
places of worship and defense structures, stones have been
invariably used as a construction material with lime as the
binder. Records show that Egyptians have used lime and
gypsum as cementing materials in the famous pyramids.
Vitruvius, a Roman scientist, is believed to be the first to
have the know how about the chemistry of the cementitious
lime. The calcareous cements used by the
Romans were either composed of suitable limestone burned
in kilns or were mixtures of lime and pozzolanic materials
(volcanic ash, tuff) combined into a hard concrete. Joseph
Aspedin of Yorkshire (U.K.) was the first to introduce
Portland cement in 1824 by heating a mixture of limestone
and finely divided clay in a furnace to a temperature high
enough to drive off the carbonic acid gas. In  1845, Isaac C.
Johnson invented cement by increasing the temperature at
which the mixture of limestone and clay were burned to
form clinker. This cement was the prototype of the modern
Portland cement.
From then onwards, a gradual improvement in the
properties and qualities of cement has been made possible
by researchers in U.S.A., U.K., France and Germany.
Cements in a general sense are adhesive and cohesive
materials which are capable of bonding together particles of
solid matter into a compact durable mass. For
civil engineering works, they are restricted to calcareous
cements containing compounds of lime as their chief
constituent.

The primary function of cement is to bind the fine (sand)


and coarse (grits) aggregate particles together. Cements
used in construction industry may be classified as
hydraulic and non-hydraulic. The latter does not set and
harden in water such as non-hydraulic lime or which are
unstable in water, e.g. Plaster of Paris. The hydraulic cement
sets and hardens in water to give a product which is stable.
An example is Portland cement.
Cement can be manufactured either from natural cement
stones or artificially by using calcareous and argillaceous
materials. The examples of natural cements are Roman
cement, Pozzolana cement and Medina cement and artificial
cements include Portland cement and special cements.
Today cement finds extensive use in all types of construction
works; in structures where high strength is required e.g.
bridge piers, light houses, lofty towers, and large structures
such as bridges, silos, chimneys and also in structures
exposed to the action of water, e.g. reservoirs, dams, dock
yards etc.
3.2. Portland Cement
Portland cement is hydraulic cement capable of setting,
hardening and remains stable under  water.  It  is  composed 
of  a  properly  proportioned  mixture  of 
argillaceous (calcium) and calcareous (silica) materials.
Calcium: Limestone, chalk, etc (CaO+CO2)
Silica: Clays and shales (SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3+H2O)
Care must be exercised in proportioning the raw materials so
that the clinker of proper constitution is obtained after
burning.
3.2.1. Chemical composition of Portland cement
The three constituents of hydraulic cements are lime, silica
and alumina. In addition, most cement contains small
proportions of iron oxide, magnesia, sulphur trioxide and
alkalis. There has been a change in the composition of
Portland cement over the years, mainly reflected in the
increase in lime content and in a slight decrease in silica
content. An increase in lime content beyond a certain value
makes it difficult to combine completely with other
compounds. Consequently, free lime will exist in the clinker
and will result in unsound cement. An increase in silica
content at the expense of alumina and ferric oxide makes the
cement difficult to fuse and form clinker.
The approximate limits of chemical composition in cement are given in
Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Chemical composition of Portland cement

3.2.2. Composition of the cement clinker


The  various  constituents  are  mixing  and  burnt  to  form 
a  cement  clinker.  The compounds formed during the
burning process have setting and hardening properties in
the presence of water. They are known as Bogue
compounds; after Bogue who identified them. Le-Chatelier
and Tornebohm have referred these compounds as
Tricalcium silicate (C3S), Di-calcium silicate (C2S), Tri-
calcium aluminate (C3A) and Tetracalcium aluminate (C4AF).
The following Bogue compounds are formed during clinkering process.
Table 3.2: Composition of cement clinker

The properties of Portland cement vary according to the


proportions of the above four compounds, reflecting
substantial difference between their individual behaviour.
Tri-calcium silicate is supposed to be the best cementing
material and is well burnt cement. It is about 25-50%
(normally about 40 per cent) of cement. It renders
the clinker easier to grind, increases resistance to freezing
and thawing, hydrates rapidly generating high heat and
develops an early hardness and strength.

However,  rising  of  C3S  content  beyond  the  specified 


limits  increases  the  heat  of hydration and solubility of
cement in water. The hydrolysis of C3S is mainly
responsible for 7 day strength and hardness. The rate of
hydrolysis of C3S and the character of gel developed are the
main causes of hardness and early strength of cement paste.
The heat of hydration is about 500 J/g.
Di-calcium  silicate  is about  25-40%  (normally about  32
per cent) of cement.  It hydrates and hardens slowly and
takes a long time to add to the strength (after a year or more).
It imparts resistance to chemical attack. Rising of C 2S
content renders clinker
harder to grind, reduces early strength development,
decreases resistance to freezing and thawing at early ages
and decreases heat of hydration. The hydrolysis of
C2S proceeds slowly. At early ages (less than a month), C 2S
has little influence on strength
and  hardness.  While  after  one  year,  its  contribution  to 
strength  and  hardness  is proportionately almost equal to
C3S. The heat of hydration is 260 J/g.

Tri-calcium aluminate is about 5-11% (normally about 10.5


per cent) of cement. It rapidly reacts with water and is
responsible for flash set of finely grounded clinker. The
rapidity of action is regulated by the addition of 2-3% of
gypsum at the time of grinding cement. Tri-calcium
aluminate is responsible for the initial set, high heat of
hydration and has greater contribution to volume changes
causing cracking. Rising the C3A content reduces the setting
time, weakens resistance to sulphate attack and lowers the
ultimate strength, heat of hydration and contraction during
air hardening. The heat of hydration of 865 J/g.

Tetra-calcium aluminate is about 8-14% (normally about 9


per cent) of cement. It is responsible for flash set but
generates less heat. It has the poorest cementing
value. Raising the C4AF content reduces the strength slightly.
The heat of hydration is 420 J/g.
1. Cement: raw materials, manufacture, composition and
types, special cements,  hydration, tests of cement, paste
and mortar.
3.2.3. Hydration of cement
The chemical reaction between cement and water is known
as hydration of cement. The reaction takes place between the
active components of cement (C3S, C2S, C3A and C4AF,) and
water. The factors responsible for the physical properties of
concrete are the extent of hydration of cement and the
resultant microstructure of the hydrated cement.
When cement comes into contact with water, hydration
products start depositing on the outer periphery of the
nucleus of hydrated cement.

This reaction proceeds slowly for 2-5 hours and is


called induction or dormant period. As the hydration proceeds,
the deposit of hydration products on the original cement
grain makes the diffusion of water to the unhydrated
nucleus more and more difficult, consequently reducing the
rate of hydration with time. At any stage of hydration, the
cement paste consists of gel (a fine-grained product of
hydration having large surface area), the unreacted cement,
calcium hydroxide, water and some minor compounds.
The crystals of the various resulting compounds gradually
fill the space originally occupied by water, resulting in the
stiffening of the mass and subsequent development of the
strength.
The reactions of the compounds and their products are as follows:
3.2.3.1. Rate of hydration
The reaction of C3A with water is very fast and is responsible
for flash setting of cement
(stiffening without strength development) and thus it will
prevent the hydration of C3S
and  C2S.  However,  calcium  sulphate (CaSO4)  present  in 
the  clinker  dissolves
immediately in water and forms insoluble calcium sulphur-
aluminate. It deposits on the surface of C3A forming a
colloidal membrane and consequently retards the hydration
of C3A. The amount of CaSO4 is adjusted to leave a little
excess of C3A to hydrate directly. This membrane in the
process breaks because of the pressure of the compounds
formed during hydration and then again C3A becomes active
in the reaction. The hardening of C 3S can be said to be
catalyzed by C3A and C3S becomes solely responsible for
gain of strength up to 28 days by growth and interlocking of
C-S-H gel. The increase in strength at later age is due to
hydration of C2S.

3.2.4. Manufacture of cement


1. Crushing and Proportioning
Limestone rock is the principal raw material, the first step
after quarrying the next process is crushing. Mountains of
rock are fed through crushers capable of handling pieces as
large as an oil drum. The first crushing reduces the rock to a
maximum size of about 15 cm. The rock then goes to
secondary crushers or hammer mills for reduction to about
7.5cm or smaller.
2. Raw milling & Blending
The next step in the process is to grind the above particles to
a size of 90 microns or less which is done in a raw mill, a
closed circuit ball mill equipped with high
efficiency separator. After achieving the 90 microns size the
fine grinded material also known as raw meal is sent to the
continuous blending silos for homogenization & extracted
by means of load cell hopper for the next step which is
feeding to the kiln pre-heaters.
3. Pyro processing
The raw material is heated to exceeding 1,450 °C in huge
cylindrical steel rotary kilns lined with special firebrick.
Kilns are frequently as much as 3.7m in diameter,
large enough to accommodate an automobile and longer in
many instances than the height of a 40-story  building.  Kilns 
are  mounted  with  the  axis  inclined  slightly  from 
the horizontal. The finely ground raw material or the slurry is
fed into the higher end. At the lower end is a roaring blast of
flame, produced by precisely controlled burning
of powdered coal, oil or gas under forced draft.
4. Burning and cooling
As the material moves through the kiln, certain elements are
driven off in the form of gases. The remaining elements unite
to form a new substance with new physical and chemical
characteristics. The new substance, called clinker, is formed
in pieces about the size of marbles. Clinker is discharged
red-hot from the lower end of the kiln and generally is
brought down to handling temperature in various types of
coolers. The heated air from the coolers is returned to the
kilns, a process that saves fuel and increases burning
efficiency.
5. Cement milling, Storage & Packing
Portland cement, the basic ingredient of concrete, is a closely
controlled chemical combination of calcium, silicon,
aluminum, iron and small amounts of other ingredients to
which gypsum is added in the final grinding process to
regulate the setting time of the
concrete. Lime and silica make up about 85% of the mass.
Common among the materials used in its manufacture are
limestone, shells, and chalk or marl combined with
shale, clay, slate or blast furnace slag, silica sand, and iron
ore.  After the cement has cooled, it is either packed in bags
or delivered in bulk according to the client's needs.
3.2.5. Types of cement
Cements of unique characteristics for desired performance
in a given environment are being  manufactured  by 
changing  the  chemical  composition  of  Ordinary  Portland
Cement (OPC) or by using additives, or by using different
raw materials. Some of the cements available on market are
as follows:
Type I: General purpose. For use when the special properties
specified for any other types are not required.
Type  II:  For  general  use,  more  especially when  moderate 
sulphate  resistance  or moderate heat of hydration is desired.
Type III: For use when high early strength is desired (limit
the C3A content of the cement to maximum 15%).
Type IV: For use when low heat of hydration is desired.
Type V: For use when high sulfate resistance is desired. (Maximum limit
of 5% on C3A)
3.2.6. Storage of Cement
Portland cement is kept in sacks of 0.035 m3 (50 kg) capacity for local use.

1. Cement bags should not be stored in an enclosed area


where the walls, roof and floor is not completely
weatherproof. Cracks and openings in store houses
should be closed.
2. Cement bags must not be stored in wet surroundings and humid
conditions.
3. Cement bags should stack be on wooden planks and
should not be stacked against
      the wall.
4. Cement bags should be piled close together.
5. It is better to arrange the cement bags in a header and stretcher
fashion.
6. Cement bags that were stored first must be used first.
7. Transportation should be in vehicles with watertight, properly sealed
lids.
8. Cement stored for long periods of time should be tested for strength
before use.
3.2.7. Application of Cement

Cement is used widely for the construction of various


structures. Some of them are listed below:

  Cement slurry is used for filling cracks in concrete structures.


  Cement mortar is used for masonry work, plastering and pointing.
  Cement concrete is used for the construction of various
structures like buildings,
      bridges. Water tanks, tunnels, docks, harbors etc.
  Cement is used to manufacture lamp posts, telephone
posts, railway sleepers,
      piles, etc.
  For manufacturing cement pipes, garden seats, dust
bins, flower pots etc. cement
      is commonly used.
  It is useful for the construction of roads, footpaths, courts for various
sports etc.

3.2.8. Physical tests on cement


Fineness test, Consistency test, Determination of the
initial and final setting time, Soundness  test,  Strength 
test  i.e.  compression  and  tensile  strength,  Heat 
of hydration, Specific gravity test, Chemical tests, 

You might also like