Articles

Projected health-care resource needs for an effective

response to COVID-19 in 73 low-income and middle-income
countries: a modelling study
Tessa Tan-Torres Edejer, Odd Hanssen, Andrew Mirelman, Paul Verboom, Glenn Lolong, Oliver John Watson, Lucy Linda Boulanger, Agnès Soucat

Summary
Background Since WHO declared the COVID-19 pandemic a Public Health Emergency of International Concern, Lancet Glob Health 2020
more than 20 million cases have been reported, as of Aug 24, 2020. This study aimed to identify what the additional Published Online
health-care costs of a strategic preparedness and response plan (SPRP) would be if current transmission levels are September 9, 2020
https://doi.org/10.1016/
maintained in a status quo scenario, or under scenarios where transmission is increased or decreased by 50%.
S2214-109X(20)30383-1
Health Systems Governance
Methods The number of COVID-19 cases was projected for 73 low-income and middle-income countries for each of and Financing, Universal
the three scenarios for both 4-week and 12-week timeframes, starting from June 26, 2020. An input-based approach Health Coverage and Life
was used to estimate the additional health-care costs associated with human resources, commodities, and capital Course (T Tan-Torres Edejer MSc,
A Mirelman PhD, A Soucat PhD),
inputs that would be accrued in implementing the SPRP.
and Health Emergencies
Preparedness and Response
Findings The total cost estimate for the COVID-19 response in the status quo scenario was US$52∙45 billion over (G Lolong LLM,
4 weeks, at $8∙60 per capita. For the decreased or increased transmission scenarios, the totals were $33∙08 billion L L Boulanger MD), WHO,
Geneva, Switzerland; Swiss
and $61∙92 billion, respectively. Costs would triple under the status quo and increased transmission scenarios at
Tropical and Public Health
12 weeks. The costs of the decreased transmission scenario over 12 weeks was equivalent to the cost of the status Institute, Basel, Switzerland
quo scenario at 4 weeks. By percentage of the overall cost, case management (54%), maintaining essential (T Tan-Torres Edejer); University
services (21%), rapid response and case investigation (14%), and infection prevention and control (9%) were the of Basel, Basel Switzerland
(T Tan-Torres Edejer); Reading,
main cost drivers.
UK (O Hanssen MSc); Gex,
France (P Verboom MSc); and
Interpretation The sizeable costs of a COVID-19 response in the health sector will escalate, particularly if transmission MRC Centre for Global
increases. Instituting early and comprehensive measures to limit the further spread of the virus will conserve Infectious Disease Analysis,
Department of Infectious
resources and sustain the response.
Disease Epidemiology, Imperial
College London, London, UK
Funding WHO, and UK Foreign Commonwealth and Development Office. (O J Watson PhD)
Correspondence to:
Copyright © 2020 This is an Open Access article published under the CC BY-NC-ND 3.0 IGO license which permits Dr Tessa Tan-Torres Edejer,
Health Systems Governance and
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. In any
Financing, Universal Health
use of this article, there should be no suggestion that WHO endorses any specific organisation, products or services. Coverage and Life Course, WHO,
The use of the WHO logo is not permitted. This notice should be preserved along with the article’s original URL. Geneva 1211, Switzerland
[email protected]
Introduction essential health services in acknowledgment that the
On Jan 30, 2020, WHO declared SARS-CoV-2 a Public pandemic was already straining the health system.5 WHO
Health Emergency of International Importance, later also released guidance on public health and social
formally identified as COVID-19.1 The declaration measures (PHSM) to slow down the transmission of the
advised the member states to prepare for containment virus.6 Countries closed offices, schools, restaurants, places
and prevention of onward spread of the virus. After of worship, and banned large gatherings to restrict
a week, 24 363 cases were reported, 99% of which were in movement and to avoid further straining of the health
China and the rest in 24 other countries. In response, system.7 Epidemiological models have predicted that many
WHO appealed for US$675 million to support member more deaths and infections would have occurred if these
states over a 3-month period, as they began implementing measures were not implemented.8 However, the social and
priority public health measures.2 The priority public economic repercussions of the PHSM are also beginning
health measures were outlined in the eight pillars of the to emerge. The World Bank has forecast global GDP will
strategic preparedness and response plan (SPRP), and contract by 5·2% in 2020, on the assumption that
ranged from country coordination to clinical case measures will start to be lifted in the second half of the
management.3 year. If the COVID-19 pandemic persists, and movement
As of July 1, 2020, more than 10 million cases of restrictions are maintained or intensified, greater losses
COVID-19, including more than 500 000 deaths, had been are predicted.9 This study aims to project the future costs
reported globally.4 WHO explicitly expanded the scope of of the strategic response and preparedness actions in the
the SPRP to include a ninth pillar on the maintenance of health sector to counter the COVID-19 outbreak. Given the

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Research in context
Evidence before this study International Concern. Considering the baseline preparedness
Since Jan 30, 2020, when WHO labelled the COVID-19 pandemic of low-income and middle-income countries, and the limited
a Public Health Emergency of International Concern, countries resilience of their health systems, major investment will be
have tried to limit its spread, instituting measures on physical needed to counter the virus. The result of the status quo
distancing and restrictions on movement. With more than scenario, a health-care cost total of US$52∙45 billion or
10 million cases reported, the World Bank and other major $8∙60 per capita after 4 weeks for 73 low-income and
financing institutions have projected an overall contraction of middle-income countries, is not an insignificant cost, but
5∙2% of global gross domestic product due to COVID-19 in 2020, reflects the constrained capacity in the countries facing a virus
with persisting effects in the years to come. This projection was that has spread and established itself. Some hope is offered by
made on the assumption that the restrictions will be lifted in the the scenario in which the public health and social measures are
second half of 2020; however, the costs of the actions needed to intensified, resulting in a decrease in transmission by 50%.
respond to the pandemic, which could enable the lifting of these However, the costs, when the restrictions are relaxed and
restrictions, have not been estimated for low-income and transmission increases by 50%, escalated at 4 weeks and
middle-income countries. From a different perspective, some further escalated at 12 weeks. The results show which pillars of
costing work has been done on preparedness. In 2016, after the the strategic preparedness and response drive the costs. This
Ebola outbreak, The National Academy of Medicine launched the study should inform governments, as they consider relaxing
Commission on a Global Health Risk Framework for the Future. restrictions to jumpstart their economies.
The Commission estimated US$4∙5 billion a year globally for
Implications of all the available evidence
pandemic preparedness versus an annualised expected loss from
The arguments for investing in preparedness are strong,
potential pandemics of more than $60 billion. In December
juxtaposed against the price tag for the response versus
2017, the International Working Group on Financing
COVID-19, and coupled with the expected shock on the global
Preparedness issued a report on investing in health security.
economy. Future work at the country level is needed to
Based on a few country studies costing the multisectoral
strategically identify the gaps in both preparedness and
national action plans for health security, they estimated a cost of
response against not only COVID-19, but also for other
$0∙5–1 per person per year on preparedness.
potential future pandemics.
Added value of this study
To our knowledge, this is the first study costing a strategic
response to COVID-19, a Public Health Emergency of

uncertainty in the future course of the disease, estimates two time periods to prevent new cases, and to treat
are provided in the short term, and separate scenarios are prevalent and incident cases, were costed. During this
modelled where current measures to restrict movement time, the course of the pandemic might change, depending
are maintained, relaxed, or intensified. on decisions taken by national leaders on either relaxing or
intensifying PHSM. In an attempt to capture this potential
Methods uncertainty, for each time period, three scenarios were
Scope analysed with the current measures to restrict movement,
This study estimates the costs of implementing the nine and facilitate physical and social distancing, being either
pillars of the SPRP in 73 low-income and middle-income maintained, relaxed, or intensified.
See Online for appendix countries (appendix p 20), accounting for 93·4% of the Only costs expected to be borne by the health sector
total population in that group of countries. The nine were included, and costs related to any social mitigation
pillars of the SPRP and the key cost items in each interventions, such as cash or in-kind transfers, were
pillar are presented in table 1. excluded. An inputs-based approach was taken, where
The study includes low-income countries, and the most quantities of items related to each activity were multiplied
populous lower-middle-income and upper-middle- by the unit price for each item. The interim guidance
income countries, and it excludes countries for which no documents issued by WHO and consultations with
GDP or epidemiological data were available. experts from relevant technical programmes were the
The costs were additional to what is currently known to sources of the types and quantities for key items.
exist, or to have been spent by the countries at the start of
the analysis (June 26, 2020), and were estimated in the Modelling of the number of new cases and deaths from
4-week and 12-week periods after this date (ie, until July 24 COVID-19
and Sept 18, 2020). The costing was therefore synchronised The estimated number of cases of COVID-19 were
chronologically to show the same time period in countries secondary data taken from the epidemiological model
at different stages of the epidemic. All of the one-time and from Imperial College (London, UK).10 This model was
recurrent inputs that were expected to occur within these used because it provides publicly available estimates for a

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Key cost items

(1) Country-level coordination, planning, and monitoring Coordination teams and communications equipment
(2) Risk communication and community engagement Risk communications teams, mass media campaigns, and materials
(3) Surveillance, rapid-response teams, and case investigation Rapid response, surveillance, and contact-tracing teams, including additional human resources for contact tracing
(4) Points of entry, and international travel and transport Points of entry teams, training, personal protective equipment, and test kits
(5) National laboratories Diagnostic machines and laboratory consumables
(6) Infection prevention and control Personal protective equipment, cloth masks, hygiene commodities (soap and hand sanitisers), and hand-washing stations
(7) Case management Human resources for health (incentives and hazard pay), field hospitals, biomedical equipment, drugs and consumables,
and safe burial teams
(8) Operational support and logistics Logistics teams, warehouses
(9) Maintaining essential health services and systems Coordination teams, salaries of new hires, facility repurposing, outreach teams, and rented ambulances

Table 1: Pillars of strategic preparedness and response plan and associated key cost items

large number of low-income and middle-income procuring communications equipment (pillar 1), and
countries. This susceptible, exposed, infected, and providing motorcycles for contact-tracing teams (pillar 3;
recovered or removed (SEIR) model was calibrated on table 1). Another capital cost would be the provision of
confirmed deaths from the start of the COVID-19 outbreak handwashing stations for hygiene (pillar 6). In addition
up to June 26, 2020. Imperial College runs the model to capital costs, a series of one-time costs are included,
regularly for all countries, except those where low levels of such as the hiring of consultants to develop or adapt
reported COVID-19 deaths does not permit accurate guidance documents, prepare online training courses,
modelling. For this costing exercise, countries without document plans, design communications materials, and
projected COVID-19 epidemiology from the model were other related duties. All these components would be
China, Iran, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zimbabwe. For these scaled depending on the level of the epidemic and
countries, a separate SEIR model, provided by Imperial according to appropriate administrative scalars (eg, by
College as a script in the R programming language, was the number of subnational administrative units or
run by our research team using effective reproduction (Rt) number of health facilities per country).
values taken from the Centre for Mathematical Modelling
and Infectious Diseases Repository associated with the Calculating costs of commodities
London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (London, The essential supplies forecasting tool version 2 (ESFT2)12
UK).11 Rt values are commonly described as the number of was used to estimate the costs of key commodities and
contacts that a case infects. The model projected cases for supplies as part of the COVID-19 response. These
the 4 weeks and 12 weeks following June 26, 2020, under commodities and supplies included personal protective
three scenarios: status quo (maintain current trans­ equipment, single-use masks, diagnostic tests, supportive
mission), an increase in transmission by 50%, and a drugs (including dexamethasone), disposable supplies,
decrease in transmission by 50%. The increased and and oxygen for hospitalised patients. To estimate the
decreased transmission scenarios work through changes quantities of commodities needed for a country’s
in the Rt and the level of mobility in the epidemiological COVID-19 response, the ESFT2 combined the assump­
model. As the projections are made based on the current tions on the number of items related to each case with
state of the pandemic in each country, the results reflect a the number of cases, split by severity. Only 20% of cases
wide range of response strategies. We also report outputs (15% severe and 5% critical) were assumed to need
of the epidemiology modelling at the start and the end of hospitalisation.13 The prices of each item, although found
the period according to the Oxford Stringency Index, in the ESFT2, were updated using international market
which measures the level of COVID-19 mitigation prices.14
measures implemented at the country level.7 For diagnostics and testing, the ESFT2 assumed that all
hospitalised COVID-19 patients were tested, and that
Calculating capital and one-time costs there was a targeted testing strategy, where 10% of all
Capital costs included within the resource needs suspected cases were also tested. Testing was constrained
for COVID-19 response are intended for upgrading by a country’s diagnostic capacity, as determined by the
laboratories for diagnostic testing (pillar 5), buying field available diagnostic instruments and the number of
hospitals to expand capacity for treating COVID-19 laboratory technicians available to focus on COVID-19
patients (pillar 7), and repurposing health facilities to diagnostics and do the PCR-based tests. These supply-side
enable them to cope with non-COVID-19 patients who constraints were lifted partly by the purchase of automated
would otherwise have been treated in hospitals providing extraction platforms, expanding the working week for
care to COVID-19 patients (pillar 9) to lift the supply side laboratories from 5 days to 6 days, and adding another 8 h
constraint of hospital and intensive care unit beds, shift to laboratory operations.

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Number of countries Population* Oxford Number of Percentage Percentage infected at 4 weeks† Percentage infected at 12 weeks‡
(millions) Stringency daily infected
Index* contacts*
(median) (average)
Low Lower- Upper- Status Decrease Increase Status Decrease Increase
Income middle middle quo transmission transmission quo transmission transmission
income income 50% 50% 50% 50%
Rt category
<1 6 1 0 178 74·07 3·47 0·40% 0·50% 0·44% 0·62% 0·74% 0·45% 3·68%
1 to <1·5 11 10 9 3223 67·56 6·16 1·26% 2·87% 1·82% 3·70% 10·71% 1·92% 24·31%
1·5 to <2 10 13 11 2690 69·19 8·23 0·93% 7·51% 2·38% 10·70% 54·93% 3·59% 69·24%
≥2 0 2 0 8 78·94 8·85 0·82% 12·74% 3·21% 15·77% 66·50% 7·13% 72·28%

Data are n, unless stated otherwise. *At June 26, 2020. †At July 24, 2020. ‡At Sept 18, 2020.

Table 2: Epidemiological profile and projections for the 4-week and 12-week (after June 26, 2020) timeframes

Calculating human resource costs both increase and decrease in transmission of 50% were
To calculate health worker costs, the Health Workforce modelled. In addition, because providing incentives is a
Estimator tool (HWE)15 was used instead of ESFT, policy response that governments might choose to
because it went into greater detail in identifying the exercise, the costs are presented with (base case) and
time requirements of more cadres of workers needed in without the incentives. More details are available in the
treating people with COVID-19. As a result, the costing full technical documentation (appendix pp 11–12).
included cadres ranging from doctors to cleaners and
other patient support personnel. Baseline numbers of Role of the funding source
health workers were drawn from the Global Health Resources from WHO (funding for consultants and
Observatory.16 An assumption was made that a supply salaries of staff) were used to produce the estimates in
side constraint existed, and only a maximum of 60% of this paper. The authors (all from WHO except OW, who
the existing health workers could be prioritised for the is funded by the UK Foreign Commonwealth and
COVID-19 response. They continued to receive their Development Office) were solely responsible for the
salaries, and these are not included in the costing. design, conduct, analysis, and writing up of the study.
Incentives, both financial and non-financial (eg, paid The corresponding author had full access to the data and
sick leave including time spent in quarantine; took the decision to submit for publication.
occupational risk insurance or life insurance; ensuring
treatment for illness; provision of child or elder care Results
support; or accommodation near the health facility, At the start of the analysis on June 26, 2020, seven
transport, or relocation allowance, or all three), esti­ countries had an Rt of less than 1, two countries had an Rt
mated at 50% of the average monthly salary, were paid of 2 or more, but most countries had an Rt of 1–2 (table 2).
to all those working directly in the COVID-19 response Across the Rt categories, the median Oxford Stringency
in health facilities. Hazard pay at 25% of salary was paid Index, ranged from 67·56 to 78·94 (with 100 representing
to all those at increased risk, defined as those having the most stringent measures); the mean number of daily
close contact with a COVID-19-positive patient. To contacts, which is the number of personal interactions,
maintain essential health services, salaries were paid to ranged from 3∙47 to 8·85; and the percentage of the
new hires to replace half of the number of existing population infected, which is an estimate of cumulative
health workers prioritised for COVID-19 response, infections, ranged from 0∙40% to 1∙26%. At the end of
on the assumption that 100% replacement was not 4 weeks, the percentage infected was projected to increase
needed because non-urgent consul­tations and elective in the status quo, particularly in those with an Rt of 1·5
admissions are being postponed. The new hires were or greater, and much larger burdens were projected for
expected to come from the private sector, or from the 50% increase in transmission scenario. Under
retirees or soon-to-be graduates. Salaries were obtained the 50% decrease in transmission scenario, only a slight
from the WHO-CHOICE salary database17 and were increase in the percentage infected was projected. During
updated to 2020 US$. the 12-week timeframe, a similar pattern emerged,
and many more cases were projected in the status quo
Sensitivity analysis and 50% increased transmission scenarios, whereas in
To capture the main uncertainty in the cost of the pan­ the 50% decreased transmission scenario, the case burden
demic response that arises from the course of the pan­ remained relatively stable, except in countries where
demic itself and the policy responses of the governments, the Rt was 2 or greater.

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  Low income (population Lower-middle income Upper-middle income Total (population

685 066 000) (population (population 6 098 441 000)
2 920 000 000) 2 493 375 000)
  Total cost Cost per Total cost Cost per Total cost Cost per Total cost Cost per
(billions) capita (billions) capita (billions) capita (billions) capita
Total cost (4 weeks)
Status quo 2·25 3·28 24·74 8·48 25·46 10·21 52·45 8·60
Decrease transmission 50% 1·65 2·41 14·18 4·86 17·24 6·92 33·08 5·42
Increase transmission 50% 3·30 4·82 30·08 10·30 28·54 11·45 61·92 10·15
Total cost (12 weeks)
Status quo 6·20 9·06 80·97 27·73 66·69 26·75 153·86 25·23
Decrease transmission 50% 2·30 3·36 23·28 7·97 26·53 10·64 52·11 8·54
Increase transmission 50% 10·99 16·04 104·88 35·92 80·98 32·48 196·85 32·28

Costs are in 2020 US$.

Table 3: 4-week and 12-week (after June 26, 2020) cost of COVID-19 response by country income group

The costs of the COVID-19 response in low-income,

  Status quo Decrease Increase
lower-middle-income, and upper-middle-income countries scenario transmission 50% transmission 50%
after 4 weeks and 12 weeks under the different scenarios
  Cost Total Cost Total Cost Total
are shown in table 3. The total cost at this stage of the (billions) (%) (billions) (%) (billions) (%)
epidemic, if the status quo is maintained over 4 weeks, is
Pillar of the response
$52∙45 billion with a per-capita cost of $8∙60. If more
(1) Country-level coordination 0·05 0·1 0·05 0·1 0·05 0·1
measures to facilitate physical and social distancing, and to
(2) Risk communications and community 0·59 1·1 0·59 1·8 0·59 1·0
restrict movement were applied, and countries’ trans­ engagement
mission was reduced by 50%, the 4-week resource (3) Investigation, surveillance, and rapid 7·07 13·5 2·23 6·7 11·32 18·3
requirements would be reduced to $33∙08 billion response
($5·42 per capita). With 50% increased transmission, (4) Points of entry 0·04 0·1 0·04 0·1 0·04 0·1
under a scenario of relaxed restrictions, costs of (5) National laboratory system 0·54 1·0 0·43 1·3 0·56 0·9
$61∙92 billion ($10·15 per capita) over the same 4-week (6) Infection prevention and control 4·48 8·5 3·57 10·8 5·05 8·2
period would be generated. In the 12-week projection, (7) Case management 28·40 54·1 18·59 56·2 31·47 50·8
costs would more than tripled under the status quo and (8) Logistics and supply management 0·18 0·3 0·18 0·6 0·18 0·3
50% increased transmission scenarios. The costs of the (9) Maintaining essential services 11·09 21·2 7·39 22·4 12·65 20·4
50% decreased transmission scenario over 12 weeks is
equivalent to the cost of the status quo scenario at 4 weeks. Table 4: 4-week (after June 26, 2020) status quo cost of COVID-19 response for 73 countries by pillar of
response (2020 US$)
Most of the costs would be accrued in the middle-income
countries. The top ten countries (appendix p 21) would
account for 74% of the costs in the 1-month status quo the 50% increased and decreased transmission
scenario, and this pattern is stable across the different scenarios, except for a decrease in the proportion of
timeframes and scenarios. The dominance by a handful of costs in investigation in the 50% decreased transmission
countries is due to a combination of factors: larger scenario and an increase in the same costs under the
populations, higher prices, and a more widespread 50% increased transmission scenario, compared with
epidemic. the status quo scenario.
The distribution of the costs over the nine pillars are The costs by category for human resources,
shown at 4 weeks in table 4 (data for 12 weeks are commodities, capital, and other costs at 4 weeks and
provided in the technical documentation; appendix p 12 weeks for the status quo scenario are shown in table 5.
24). Under the status quo scenario, case management At 4 weeks, capital costs are nearly equivalent to human
would account for around 54% of the costs, 21% would resources costs; however, at 12 weeks, the costs of human
go to maintaining essential health services, and around resources becomes higher than all other categories, at
14% to investigation, surveillance, and rapid response. 63% of the total cost. Recurrent costs are primarily for
The building of handwashing stations, and procurement human resources, and secondarily for commodities.
of personal protective equipment and cloth masks Costs for human resources are high, at $21·83 billion at
within pillar 6 accounts for about 9% of the cost. These 4 weeks, and they are driven by salaries for newly hired
pillars would be the major cost drivers of implementing staff and incentives. The cost of the status quo scenario
an effective COVID-19 response. The pattern of the would decrease to $45 billion and $132 billion at 4 weeks
distribution of the costs is generally maintained under and 12 weeks, respectively, if incentives are not included.

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number of deaths20 indirectly caused by COVID-19. Social

  4-week status quo 12-week status quo
and economic21 disruptions can also be shortened.
Cost category* This analysis also shows the interconnectedness of the
HR 42% 63% nine pillars of the COVID-19 response. As the number of
Commodities 13% 17% cases increases, the share of costs found in case
Capital 41% 16% management (in pillar seven) and in maintaining
Other 4% 4% essential health services (in pillar nine) both increase.
HR costs (billions 2020 US$) Increases in the number of cases will also generate
Low income 0·27 2·02 increased demand for personal protective equipment,
Lower-middle income 10·29 51·58 hospitalisation and attendant costs, and contact tracing.
Upper-middle income 11·27 43·23 However, it is important to note that, for preparedness,
Total 21·83 96·84 all countries must invest in more handwashing stations,
HR cost components† and better risk communication and community engage­
Salaries 51% 68% ment, even with low numbers of cases.
Hazard pay 15% 9% The predicted resource needs for a full response for
Incentives 34% 23% 12 weeks continue to be onerous burdens for countries
with a high expected number of cases. However, some of
HR=human resources. *Percentage of total. †Percentage of total HR.
the resource requirements can be decreased by
Table 5: Composition of costs for the COVID-19 response for 4 weeks examining where efficiencies or cost savings can be
and 12 weeks (after June 26, 2020) made. The analysis described in this Article has used
international market prices that are readily obtainable for
many commodities. However, some items can be locally
Discussion produced, such as personal protective equipment
As of June 26, 2020, the costs of the full, nine-pillar (including gloves and cloth masks),22 some medicines,
response to COVID-19 in 73 low-income and middle- and single-use supplies. Testing kits might be able to be
income countries after 4 weeks, on July 24, 2020, were produced at a lower price in countries with local
projected to be approximately $52 billion, assuming that manufacturing capacity, and good quality assurance and
the Rt was unchanged and the status quo continued. regulatory capacity.
Costs are estimated to be more than three times that For human resources needed to respond to COVID-19
amount after 12 weeks on Sept 18, 2020, under a status and maintain essential health services, perhaps the
quo scenario. The costs were projected to be greater at current workforce is capable of providing enough surge
4 weeks and 12 weeks if transmission values increased by capacity, and together with approaches such as tele­
50%. This analysis shows that the cost of responding to a medicine, task shifting, and quick upskilling through
pandemic with 50% decreased transmission at 12 weeks intensive training and supervision, there will be no need
is coinci­dentally equivalent to the cost at 4 weeks under to replace the health workers directly engaged in the
the status quo scenario. COVID-19 response, and the large resource requirement
The per-capita cost of the response under the status this implies. However, the assumption of spare capacity
quo scenario for 4 weeks is $3∙28 for low-income within the health workforce in low-income and middle-
countries and $8∙48 to $10∙21 in lower-middle-income income countries should be questioned. The health
and upper-middle-income countries. For 12 weeks, the system response to COVID-19 has been shown to have a
costs per capita are $9∙06 for low-income countries and negative impact on the delivery of other services, from
about $27 for middle-income countries. To put this in immunisation23 to non-communicable diseases,24 with
context, the health expenditure per capita in 2017, for a decreased coverage rates, substantiating the need to at
whole year, in low-income countries was $41, and from least partially replace health workers prioritised to the
$130 to $371 in lower-middle-income and upper-middle- COVID-19 response. Aside from hiring new health
income countries.18 The potentially huge opportunity workers and paying salaries, hazard pay and incentives
costs within the health sector in not responding rapidly should be provided to workers in direct contact with
are clearly evident. The benefits of acting early and patients diagnosed with COVID-19. Countries might
comprehensively, like in Vietnam,19 are a clear lesson that choose whether they will provide incentives, but hazard
can be drawn from this costing exercise. pay for arduous conditions is consistent with legally
An early and rapid response will not only mitigate future binding conventions of the International Labor Office.25
COVID-19 costs, but more importantly, it will be able to A more effective approach to reduce the costs will be to
mitigate future COVID-19 costs because of a lower number decrease the transmission of the virus and have fewer
of COVID-19 infections, and a corresponding lower cases to respond to, from the implementation of
number of deaths and long-term consequences among interventions such as contact tracing and subsequent
survivors. A strong pillar 9 response on maintaining effective quarantine or isolation,26 use of cloth masks27 by
essential health services can also potentially decrease the the general population, and increased availability of hand

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washing stations. All these individual-level measures low-income and some middle-income countries. This gap
have been fully costed within this exercise, but their in the resources can be partly filled by development
slowing of the transmission of the virus has not been partners and the private sector. To facilitate modelling,
taken into account, as each country’s Rt is fixed at the costing, and priority setting, WHO will be releasing a
start for the period of analysis. As such, the true costs for country level costing tool based on this exercise. It will be
countries would probably be lower than those estimated made available through the COVID-19 Partners Platform,32
per scenario. This difference highlights the need for where countries and partners can interact in real time to
more dynamic28 and more frequent modelling and prepare for and respond to the COVID-19 pandemic.
costing to get a more accurate estimate. Finally, this study highlights that while fully implementing
The precision of the modelling used and the scope of a COVID-19 response will entail significant resource
the study have some limits. The first is that the costing needs, the impact of such an early and comprehensive
is primarily driven by the epidemiological model used. response in limiting the spread of the virus will markedly
Running an epidemiological model and making projec­ reduce the resources needed to respond to a more
tions for many countries is fraught with uncertainty, widespread pandemic just a few weeks later.
especially given the assumption that the Rt remains fixed Contributors
over the 4-week and 12-week timeframes. In this exercise, TT-TE, OH, AM, GL, LLB, and AS conceptualised the Article. TT-TE,
to cope with this uncertainty, scenarios with different OH, AM, GL, and OJW reviewed articles, contacted experts, and
collected data. TT-TE, OH, AM, PV, and OJW ran the analysis. TT-TE,
transmission levels were projected to provide higher and OH, and AM wrote the first draft of the Article and revised it based on
lower bounds to the base case estimate. feedback from co-authors. All authors reviewed and approved the Article.
In terms of scope, this costing exercise did not include Declaration of interests
the isolation or quarantine costs of people with mild to We declare no competing interests.
moderate COVID-19, and their contacts who are unable Acknowledgments
to successfully isolate or quarantine themselves in their We acknowledge the modelling group from the MRC Centre for Global
own homes, and where mass quarantine shelters or Infectious Disease Analysis at Imperial College London (Azra Ghani,
facilities would need to be set up. This could potentially Patrick Walker, and Charlie Whittaker) for providing up to date
epidemiological projections. We also acknowledge Justin Graves,
be a large cost, but it is usually borne by local governments Luke Baertlein, Zachary Panos, and Owen Demke from the Clinton
or ministries of social welfare. The use of international Health Access Initiative for their technical support with the use of
market prices, without freight, insurance, and import essential supplies forecasting tool version 2, and technical inputs on
tariffs also underestimates the costs. However, countries diagnostic testing. Finally, we acknowledge expert contributions from
staff at various departments at WHO (Juana Paola Bustamante,
have been known to allow time-bound, tariff-free entry Hong Anh Chu, Giorgio Cometto, Bruce Gordon, Fiona Gore,
for supplies and medicines for COVID-19.29 In addition, Lisa Hedman, Sara Hollis, Teena Kunjumen, Ben Lane,
countries would have to bear costs of waste management Margaret Montgomery, Pryanka Relan, Teri Reynolds, Cris Scotter,
Adriana Velazquez, and Lara Vojnov).
of the COVID-19 response, primarily for non-durable
personal protective equipment, which are not included in References
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