No.

2 July 2008

www.cvbd.org
®
CVBD DIGEST
A challenge for the practitioner –
co-infection with
vector-borne pathogens in dogs
Cutting-edge information brought to you by the CVBD® World Forum
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CVBD DIGEST No. 02 July 2008
A challenge for the practitioner – co-infection with vector-borne pathogens in dogs

Introduction

When Bayer Animal Health called for the 1st International CVBD® Symposium
in 2006, this was the first and initial step to address the global threat of canine
vector-borne diseases (CVBD). This was based on the belief that vector-borne
diseases of the dog should be treated as one topic and dealt with on a global
level and in an interdisciplinary way. Especially with increasing international
travel and emerging climate change, CVBD have become a global issue and
even sparked public interest. Many of the parasite-transmitted diseases affect
humans as well as animals. The dog as man’s best friend plays an important
role – being affected to a high extend by and serving as a host for some of the
zoonotic pathogens.

At the first symposium, the participants agreed to form the CVBD® World
Forum. Besides gathering knowledge, the main task for this group of inter-
national experts has been to raise awareness for the specific regional risks of
CVBD and to foster preventative measures. For this reason, the CVBD® World
Forum created a website (www.cvbd.org) to provide the veterinary practitioner
with cutting-edge and clinically relevant scientific information on CVBD.

In CVBD® Digest, relevant findings from the International CVBD® Symposia are
presented periodically to veterinary practitioners. While the first edition was on
“asymptomatic leishmaniosis in dogs”, the second edition is about co-infection
with CVBD-causing pathogens. During the three symposia so far, it became clear
that beside the transmission of multiple pathogens by one vector, high
attention has to be paid to co-infection with pathogens arising from different
vectors, like ticks and sand flies. Furthermore, the difficulties in clinical diag-
nosis and the complex interaction of different infectious agents, e.g. via the
canine immune system, make co-infection with CVBD-causing pathogens a
substantial concern for veterinarians throughout the world.
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No. 02 July 2008
A challenge for the practitioner – co-infection with vector-borne pathogens in dogs CVBD DIGEST 3

Cutting-edge information brought to you by the CVBD® World Forum

A challenge for the practitioner –

co-infection with
vector-borne pathogens in dogs

Author: Friederike Krämer Predisposing factors

Institute for Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine
Hannover, Germany
Concerning living conditions and handling, some ex-
ternal factors are discussed that predispose dogs to
Blood-feeding arthropods can transmit a plethora of
infections with two or multiple vector-transmitted
pathogens to dogs. These canine vector-borne
pathogens:
diseases (CVBD) vary in their clinical appearance.
Often more than one pathogen is transmitted to the 1. Living in areas that are highly endemic for several
host by the same or different vectors, resulting in vector-borne pathogens.
double or even multiple infections. These vector-
2. Maintenance of animals predominantly outdoors,
borne co-infections have important implications for
thus facilitating enhanced vector transmission.
diagnosis, therapy and prognosis of the patient.
In endemic areas, they should always be considered 3. Irregular or missing use of ectoparasiticides.
and ruled out in dogs showing unspecific clinics.
Control and prevention can be achieved by con- Besides these, a suppressed immune response, due
tinuous use of ectoparasiticides that inhibit blood- to old age, underlying infection or immunosuppres-
feeding. sive therapy can promote an infection that might
have been controlled in immunocompetent dogs,
Ectoparasites referred to as vectors – such as ticks, and thus is suspected to be a major predisposing
fleas, sand flies and mosquitoes – can transmit bacte- internal factor.
ria, protozoa, viruses or helminths to dogs. These
transmitted pathogens may lead to a variety of The impairment of the immune response can be
serious infections, e.g. leishmaniosis, babesiosis, a consequence of an immunosuppressive effect
ehrlichiosis or heartworm disease. Some of these of other co-infections. This has been shown for
vectors, esp. ticks, are capable of transmitting more Leishmania infantum infections, where immun-
than one pathogen, and a single vector can harbor suppression or promotion of an abnormal immune
more than just one type of pathogen. Moreover, response can result
similar clinical signs of different CVBD complicate from an imbalance
the problem of simultaneous infection causing between cell-based
diagnostic, therapeutic and prognostic implications Th-1 and Th-2 re-
for the veterinary practitioner, and subsequently the sponses.1,2 Further-
individual patient. more, it may be
caused by a path-
ogen challenging Fig. 1: Anaplasma phagocytophilum
morula in a neutrophilic
the host’s immune granulocyte (® photo by Institute
system in general, for Comparative Tropical Medicine and
Parasitology, LMU Munich, Germany)
like it is discussed
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4 CVBD DIGEST No. 02 July 2008
A challenge for the practitioner – co-infection with vector-borne pathogens in dogs

for the infection with Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Bartonella spp.

(Fig. 1) and Borrelia burgdorferi 3 (Fig. 2). In these may be more fre-
cases, the initiation of two different lines of defense quent than previ-
(humoral and cell-based adaptive immune response) ously realised.4 One
may lead to apparent clinical signs. Finally, impair- of the best studied
ment of the immune response can be the result of combinations, Ana-
an immunosuppressive therapy due to other under- plasma phagocyto-
lying diseases. Remarkably, most hosts appear to be philum and Borrelia
spp., share the same Fig. 3: Adult Ixodes ricinus (Castor
Bean tick), a known vector
tick vector (e.g. in for Borrelia spp., Anaplasma
Europe Ixodes rici- phagocytophilum and
Rickettsia spp.
nus, Fig. 3). Equally, (® photo by Bayer HealthCare AG)
this also applies for
some Rickettsiae. Another example of a shared
vector is Rhipicephalus sanguineus, which can
harbor Babesia spp., Ehrlichia canis, A. platys and
Rickettsia conorii.

Fig. 2: Borrelia burgdorferi (dark field microscopy);

typical helical shaped structure of spirochaetes visible Many of the diseases caused by these tick-borne
(® photo by Bayer Animal Health) pathogens possess a wide variety of clinical features
and share non-specific signs such as wasting, weight
able to support chronic infection with vector-borne loss, fever and poor appetite or anorexia, all in all
pathogens for months or even years without display- challenging the veterinary practitioner in stating a
ing obvious deleterious effects.4 definite diagnosis.5

However, in co-infections with pathogens that have

Co-infection with tick-borne pathogens different clinical signs, the extent to which different
infections might influence each other’s patho-
Among the vectors, which are transmitting disease- physiology still is not clear. Experimental studies in
causing pathogens, ticks are the most important mice 7 and humans 8 have already demonstrated more
ones, as they harbor the largest number of different severe and complex clinical signs in co-infections.
entities (Tab. 1). Investigations have even shown that A recent study of Beall and colleagues 9 found dogs,
there is a co-evolution between ticks and some which were positive for antibodies of A. phagocy-
pathogens, which lost the capability of a direct host- tophilum and B. burgdorferi, to be nearly twice as
to-host transmission over the time. Ticks are likely to have clinical signs similar to anaplasmosis
especially suitable for pathogen transmission, by and/or borreliosis, when compared to dogs that
attaching securely to their hosts and facilitating were seroreactive to
effective transmission of infectious pathogens over only one of these
a couple of days. pathogens. In a sub-
group of dogs ex-
As shown in table 1, different pathogens can share hibiting illness com-
the same tick vector for transmission. Double or even patible with ana-
triple infections not only with different species of the plasmosis or borre-
same genus, but also with completely different liosis, antibodies to
Fig. 4: Beagle with acute forelimb
pathogens have been reported.6 Serologic and only A. phagocyto-
lameness
molecular evidence indicates that co-infection in philum were de- (® photo by Straubinger R.K.,
Leipzig, Germany)
dogs with Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, Babesia, Rickettsia tected in 29%, to
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No. 02 July 2008
A challenge for the practitioner – co-infection with vector-borne pathogens in dogs CVBD DIGEST 5

only B. burgdorferi in 9% and to both pathogens in Co-infection with pathogens of

43% of the dogs. A cardinal sign of borreliosis, lame- different arthropods
ness (Fig. 4), was found to be more often associated
with co-infection (in 32 from 38 seropositive dogs) Canine leishmaniosis is one of the major vector-
than with single B. burgdorferi-infection (in 5 out of borne diseases in dogs. The clinical features of this
8 seropositive dogs). sand fly-transmitted protozoal disease can vary

TICK SPECIES PATHOGEN TICK DISTRIBUTION

Ixodes spp. Anaplasma sp.
Borrelia spp.
some Rickettsia spp.
Hepatozoon canis
Ixodes ricinus Anaplasma phagocytopilum1 Central Europe, Northern Africa
(Castor Bean tick) Borrelia spp.
Rickettsia spp.
Ixodes pacificus Anaplasma phagocytopilum1 Western North America
(Western black-legged tick) Borrelia burgdorferi
Ixodes scapularis Anaplasma phagocytopilum1 Eastern North America
(Black-legged Deer tick) Borrelia burgdorferi
Dermacentor spp. Babesia spp.
Rickettsia rickettsii 2
Ehrlichia chaffeensis
Dermacentor marginatus Babesia canis Central Europe, China, Iran, Afghanistan
Dermacentor reticulatus Babesia canis Central and Southern Europe
(Marsh tick or Ornate Cow tick)
Dermacentor variabilis Rickettsia rickettsii 2 North and Central America
(American Dog tick) E. chaffeensis
suspected additional vector for
Ehrlichia canis 3
Rhipicephalus spp. Babesia spp.
Ehrlichia canis 3
Anaplasma platys 4
Rickettsia spp.
Hepatozoon canis
Rhipicephalus sanguineus Babesia spp. Worldwide, more commonly in warmer
(Brown Dog or Kennel tick) Ehrlichia canis 3 climates; can be established inside buildings
Anaplasma platys 4
Rickettsia conorii
Hepatozoon canis
Amblyomma spp. Ehrlichia chaffeensis
Ehrlichia ewingii 5
Rickettsia rickettsii 2
Hepatozoon americanum
Amblyomma americanum Ehrlichia chaffeensis America
(Lone Star tick) Ehrlichia ewingii 5
Rickettsia rickettsii 2
Amblyomma maculatum Hepatozoon americanum North America
(Gulf Coast tick)
Haemaphysalis spp. Babesia spp.
Ehrlichia canis 3
Haemaphysalis leachi Babesia canis rossi Southern Africa
Ehrlichia canis 3
Haemaphysalis longicornis Babesia gibsoni 6 East Asia (Japan, Korea)
1 canine granulocytic anaplasmosis; 2 Rocky Mountain spotted fever; 3 canine monocytic ehrlichiosis (CME); 4 canine cyclic thrombocytopenia;
5 mild form of canine granulocytic ehrlichiosis (CGE); 6 also confirmed from dogs in Europe, USA, and Australia (via unknown vector transmission or direct infection)

Tab. 1: Canine tick-borne pathogens. Listed are genus and species of transmitting ticks, important transmitted pathogens and their
endemic regions. Many of these pathogens are also causing diseases in humans.
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6 CVBD DIGEST No. 02 July 2008
A challenge for the practitioner – co-infection with vector-borne pathogens in dogs

widely and are often • show atypical clinical signs of the suspected
non-specific, such as disease;
chronic wasting, weight • live in endemic areas for years without any signs
loss, poor appetite, fe- of disease and suddenly fall ill with a suspected
ver, anemia, non-pruri- mono-infection of a CVBD.
tic alopecia and skin
erosions or ulcerations. Anamnesis and searching for typical clinical-patho-
Variation is expected logical findings, accompanied by laboratory results,
to be a consequence are key clinical diagnostic approaches. However,
Fig. 5: Inclusion bodies of of pathogen- or host- these findings might be mimicked and altered by
Ehrlichia canis from a co-infection as it is suspected for epistaxis. It has
dog also infected with specific factors, but
Leishmania infantum can also be related to long been thought and taught a cardinal sign in
(® photo by Roura X.,
co-infection with other ehrlichiosis, but is possibly caused by an underlying
Barcelona, Spain)
vector-borne pathogens Bartonella infection in E. canis-positive dogs 4 (Fig. 6).
in some individuals.10 An increasing number of pub- Thus, it may become very difficult to attribute the
lications report on simultaneous infections with clinical signs and hematological and/or biochemical
additional vector-borne pathogens in Leishmania- abnormalities to a single specific pathogen. Never-
infected dogs 11–13, like Ehrlichia (Fig. 5), Anaplasma, theless, the veterinary practitioner should follow a
Babesia, Bartonella, Rickettsia and Hepatozoon spe- standard examination procedure: detailed anam-
cies as well as mosquito-transmitted Dirofilaria repens. netic report, profound clinical and laboratory exam-
ination, including search for typical signs, and
Even though some authors do not expect concurrent additional serological and molecular identification
infections e.g. with L. infantum to substantially in- of multiple patho-
fluence the clinical course and final outcome of gens, which offer a
chronic canine ehrlichiosis11, others presume the more successful di-
immunosuppression caused by cutano-visceral leish- agnostic approach
maniosis to promote the occurrence of co-infection apart from only
with other pathogens14 and discuss a synergism clinical and labora-
between leishmaniosis and ehrlichiosis in altering tory parameters. It
platelet function by different pathways.15 Likewise, should be consid-
an epidemiological study from Italy found Neospora ered, however, that
caninum seroreactivity to represent a major risk molecular or sero- Fig. 6: Labrador retriever referred
logical evidence of for evaluation of chronic
factor for L. infantum seroreactivity.16 polyarthritis, seizures, epis-
a pathogen alone, taxis and endocarditis. The
without any clini- dog was co-infected with
Ehrlichia canis and Bartonella
Diagnosis of vector-borne co-infections cal signs, does not vinsonii subspecies berkhoffii.
represent a proof (® photo by Breitschwerdt, E.B.,
Raleigh, USA)
The clinical signs of dogs infected with more than one for a disease.
pathogen are often non-specific and very variable.
Thus, when approaching a dog, e.g. with leish-
maniosis, any clinical sign of the patient should be Control of vector-borne co-infections
investigated and co-infection should be clarified
in dogs that The different infection scenarios with vector-
borne pathogens in dogs call for a comprehensive
• lack response to conventional treatment (e.g., control program. Sequential transmission, concur-
persistence of hypergammaglobulinemia, per- rently or over a time, by ticks and other vectors such
sistence of high antibody titer); as mosquitoes (Dirofilaria spp. transmission) and
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No. 02 July 2008
A challenge for the practitioner – co-infection with vector-borne pathogens in dogs CVBD DIGEST 7

especially sand flies (L. infantum / L. chagasi trans- feeding if possible. Broad-spectrum ectoparasiticides
mission) has to be taken into account. Furthermore, with repellent properties, such as the synthetic
epidemiological studies revealed new distribution pyrethroid permethrin, are ideal compounds to reach
patterns of vectors, so that previously non-endemic this goal 17, as they prevent the biting of different
regions may be endemic today. As a consequence, vectors like ticks, fleas, sand flies and mosquitoes
veterinary practitioners are advised to bear in mind and therefore minimize the host-parasite inter-
differential diagnoses of diseases formerly not action, thus resulting in a decreased risk of disease
occurring in the respective region. transmission. A regular treatment with these com-
pounds during the transmission period, e.g. in form
Prevention of arthropod bites is mainly achieved by of monthly spot-on applications, is crucial for the
preventing the attachment and thus further blood- prevention of single as well as multiple CVBD.

References

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transmission: higher infectivity amongst naturally infected dogs to sand flies is associated with lower proportions of
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* Member of the CVBD® World Forum

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CVBD DIGEST No. 02 July 2008
A challenge for the practitioner – co-infection with vector-borne pathogens in dogs

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