CHAPTER THREE

ENERGY & FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Learning Objectives
1. Introduce the concept of energy and define its various forms.
2. Discuss the nature of internal energy.
3. Define the concept of heat and the terminology associated with
energy transfer by heat.
4. Define the concept of work, including electrical work and several
forms of mechanical work.
5. Introduce the first law of thermodynamics, energy balances, and
mechanisms of energy transfer to or from a system.
6. First Law of Thermodynamics for Closed System
7. First Law of Thermodynamics for Open System/Control Volume
 3.1. Forms of Energy
Energy: can be viewed as the ability to cause changes
Energy can exist in varies forms such as; thermal, mechanical,
kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear.

Total Energy: the sum of all forms of energy

Notation
• The total energy of a system is denoted as E
• The total energy on a unit mass basis is denoted as e,
E
e
m
Energy Differences are Important
• Thermodynamics does not provide a means to evaluate the
absolute value of the total energy
• In common engineering problems, we only need to know the
change in the energy of a system during a process, DE
 3.1. Forms of Energy
Two forms of Total Energy:
1. Macroscopic
• Those forms of energy that a system possesses as a whole with
respect to some outside reference frame
e.g., kinetic, potential, and electromagnetic energies
2. Microscopic
• Those forms of energy related to the molecular structure of a
system and the degree of molecular activity
• They are independent of outside reference frames
Internal Energy
• Sum of all forms of microscopic energy
• Denoted, U
 3.1. Forms of Energy
Internal Energy Portions;

Sensible energy:
• The portion of the internal energy of a system
associated with the kinetic energies of the molecules

Latent energy:
• The internal energy associated with the phase of a
system

Chemical energy:
• The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds
in a molecule
Nuclear energy:
• The tremendous amount of energy associated with the
strong bonds within the nucleus of the atom itself
 3.1. Forms of Energy
 The microscopic energy of a system is related to motion & external
effects; such as gravity, magnetism, electricity and surface tension.
Kinetic Energy
• The energy a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to
some reference frame 1
KE  mV 2
Potential Energy 2
• The energy a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a
gravitational field
PE  mgz
Total Energy
• In the absence of magnetic, electric, and surface tension effects, the
total energy can be expressed as,
1
E  U  KE  PE  U  mV 2  mgz
2
 3.1. Forms of Energy
 Stationary Systems
• Closed systems whose velocity and elevation remain constant
during a process
• The kinetic or potential energies of these systems never change
• As a result, the total energy change can be expressed as
DE  DU
 Flowing fluids
• The energy of a flowing fluid (for open system) is often expressed
in terms of an energy flow rate (energy per unit time), E kJ/s or kw

E  me
Where m is the mass flow rate of the fluid (mass per unit time)
 3.2. Energy Transfer
 Energy can cross the boundary of a closed
system in two forms: heat and work

1. Heat Transfer
• The form of energy that is transferred between
two systems (or a system and its surroundings)
by virtue of a temperature difference
• An energy interaction is heat only if it takes
place because of a temperature difference, i.e.,
no heat transfer can take place between two
bodies at the same temperature
• Heat is energy in transition – it is recognized
only as is crosses the
boundary of a system
 3.2. Heat Transfer
Notation associated with Heat
• Heat is a form of energy transfer, and thus has energy units; kJ
• The amount of heat transferred between two systems during a
process that moves one system from state 1 to state 2 is denoted
Q12, or just Q
• Heat transfer per unit mass is denoted q = Q / m
• Heat transfer rate is denoted Q  Q t 
• The amount of heat transferred during a process is given by
Q   Q  t dt
t2

t1
• When Q remains constant during process
Q  Q (t 2  t 1)
 3.2. Heat Transfer
Adiabatic Process
• A process during which there is no heat transfer

How is a process adiabatic?

1. The system is well insulated so that only a negligible amount of
heat can pass through the boundary
2. Both the system and the surrounding are at the same temperature
and therefore there is no driving force for heat transfer

500C
500C
 3.2. Energy Transfer by Work
2. Work
• The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance
• If the energy crossing the boundary of a system is not heat … it must
be work
• Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system and its
surroundings

Notation associated with Work

• Work is a form of energy transfer, and thus has energy units; kJ
• The work done during a process between state 1 to state 2 is denoted
W12, or simply W
• The work done per unit mass is denoted w
• The work done per unit time is called power and is denoted W
 3.2. Energy Transfer by Work
Direction of Heat and Work
• Heat and work are directional quantities;
• Hence, a complete description of a heat or work interaction requires
the specification of both its magnitude and direction

Formal Sign Convention

• Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive
• Heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are
negative

Negative (–) Positive (+)

Q Q

W
System
W
 3.2. Energy Transfer by Work
Alternative Sign Convention
• Use the subscripts in and out to
indicate a direction;
E.g., work input = Win,
heat loss = Qout

Relationship Between Sign Conventions

•W = Wout – Win
•Q = Qin – Qout
 3.2. Energy Transfer by Work
Characteristics of Heat and Work
• A quantity that is transferred to or from a system during a process is
NOT a property since the amount of such a quantity depends on
more than just the state of the system
• Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a system
and its surroundings
Similarities Between Heat and Work
1. Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the
boundaries, i.e., both heat and work are boundary phenomena
2. Systems possess energy, but not heat or work
3. Both are associated with a process, not a state
4. Both heat and work are path functions, i.e., their magnitudes depend
on the path followed during a process as well as the initial and final
states
 3.2. Energy Transfer by Work
Types of Functions

Path Functions Point (State) Functions

1. Their magnitude depends on 1. They depend on the state
the path followed during a only, and not how a system
process as well as the initial reaches that state
and final states 2. Exact differentials,
2. Have Inexact differentials, designated by the symbol d
designated by the symbol d 3. E.g., volume, pressure,
3. E.g., heat, work, distance internal energy, displacement
 3.2. Energy Transfer by Work
Example of Path vs. Point Function
• The volume change during a process 1 → 2 is always the volume at
state 2 minus the volume at state 1, i.e., DV = V2 – V1, regardless of
the path followed
• In contrast, the total work is obtained by following the process path
and adding the differential amounts of work, dW, done along the
process path
2
1
dV  V2  V1  DV

2
 1
d W  W12  W

• Note that the expression DW = W2 – W1 (i.e., the work at state 2

minus the work at state 1) is meaningless since work is NOT a
property and systems do not possess work
 3.2. Energy Transfer by Work
Examples
1. A candle is burning in a well insulated
room. Take the room (the air plus the
candle) as the system, determine:
(a) if there is any heat transfer during this
burning process?
(b) if there is any change in the internal
energy of the system?

2. A well-insulated electric oven is being

heated by its heating element. It is to be
determined whether this is a heat or work
interaction.
 3.2. Energy Transfer by Work
Electrical Work
• In an electric field, electrons in a wire move under the effect of
electromotive forces, doing work

We  VN

We  VI
• Both V and I vary with time
2
Electrical power in terms of resistance R
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑉𝐼𝑑𝑡
1
• When both V and I are constant: 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑉𝐼Δ𝑡 kJ
We → electrical work
We → electrical power
V → voltage
N → quantity of electric charge
I → current
 3.2. Mechanical Forms of Work
Mechanical Work
• The work done by a constant force F on a body displaced a distance
s in the direction of the force is given by,
W = Fs
• If the force is not constant,
2
W   Fds
1

• The work done by an external force acting in the direction of motion

is negative
• The work done by a system against an external force acting in the
opposite direction to motion is positive
 Requirements for a Work Interaction Between a System and its
Surroundings
1. There must be a force acting on the boundary
2. The boundary must move
 3.2. Mechanical Forms of Work
Spring Work
• When the length of a spring changes by a differential amount dx
under the influence of a force F, the work done is,
dWspring = Fdx
• To determine the total work, we need to know the functional
relationship between F and x
• For a linear elastic spring, the displacement x is proportional to the
force F,
F = kx
k → spring constant
• The total work done for a linear elastic spring is then,

Wspring   kxdx  12 k  x22  x12 

2

1
 3.2. Non-mechanical Forms of Work
Non-mechanical Work
• Some work modes encountered in practice are not mechanical in
nature
• Mon-mechanical work modes can be treated in a similar manner by
identifying a generalized force F acting in the direction of a
generalized displacement x
• The differential work is determined from
dW = Fdx
Examples
Nonmechanical Generalized Generalized
Work Mode Force Displacement
Electical Voltage Electrical charge
Magnetic Magnetic field Magnetic dipole
strength moment
 3.3. The First Law of Thermodynamics
First Law of Thermodynamics
• The first law provides a basis for studying the relationships among
the various forms of energy and energy interactions
• It is based on the conservation of energy principle: energy can be
neither created nor destroyed, it can only change form
• A consequence of the first law is the existence and the definition of
the property total energy E

Energy Balance
• The net change (increase or decrease)
in the total energy of a system during
a process is equal to the difference
between the total energy entering and
the total energy leaving the system
during that process
 3.3. The First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy Balance (cont.)

Ein  Eout  DEsystem

• This relation is referred to as the

energy balance
• The relationship is valid for any
system undergoing any process
 3.3. The First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy Change of a System
• The energy change is the difference in total energy between the final
and initial state of the system

DEsystem  Efinal  Einitial  E 2  E1

• Energy is a property, and the value of a property does not change
unless the state of the system changes
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as internal (sensible, latent,
chemical, and nuclear), kinetic, potential, electric, and magnetic, and
their sum constitutes the total energy E of a system
• In the absence of electric, magnetic, and surface tension effects (i.e.,
for simple compressible systems), the change in total energy of a
system during a process is the sum of the changes in its internal,
kinetic, and potential energies
 3.3. The First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy Change of a System (cont.)

DE  DU  DKE  DPE

DU  m  u2  u1 

DKE  m V2  V1 
1 2 2

2
DPE  mg  z2  z1 
Stationary Systems
• Systems in which changes in kinetic and potential energies are zero
(DKE = DPE = 0) and therefore the energy change relation reduces to
DE = DU
 3.3. The First Law of Thermodynamics
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout
• Energy can be transferred to a system in three forms:
 heat (Q)
 work (W)
 mass flow (Emass)
• Energy interactions are recognized at the boundary
• Taking the three forms of energy transfer into account, the energy
balance can be written as
Ein  Eout  Qin  Qout   Win  Wout   E mass, in  E mass, out   DEsystem

• Or, more compactly as

Ein  Eout  DEsystem

Net energy transfer Change in internal, kinetic,

by heat, work, and mass potential, etc. energies
 3.3. The First Law of Thermodynamics
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout (cont.)
• In the rate form
E in  E out  DE system

Rate of net energy Rate of change in

transfer by heat, internal, kinetic,
work, and mass potential, etc. energies

• Per mass ein  eout  Desystem

• Per unit time

• Differential form dEin  dEout  dEsystem

 Example-1
Water is being heated in a closed pan on top of a range while being
stirred by a paddle wheel. During the process, 30 kJ of heat is
transferred to the water, and 5 kJ of heat is lost to the surrounding
air. The paddle-wheel work amounts to 500 N · m. Determine the
final energy of the system if its initial energy is 10 kJ.

Answer: 35.5 kJ
 Example-2
The lighting needs of a classroom are met by 30 fluorescent lamps,
each consuming 80 W of electricity. The lights in the classroom are
kept on for 12 hours a day and 250 days a year. For a unit
electricity cost of 7 cents per kWh, determine annual energy cost of
lighting for this classroom. Also, discuss the effect of lighting on the
heating and air-conditioning requirements of the room.

Answer: 504 Birr

Lightning power? Power consumed per lamp*No. of lamps

Operating hours?
Lighting energy? Lightning power*Operating hours
Lighting cost? Lighting energy*lighting cost
 Example-3
A classroom that normally contains 40 people is to be air-
conditioned with window air-conditioning units of 5kW cooling
capacity. A person at rest may be assumed to dissipate heat at a rate
of about 360 kJ/h. There are 10 light-bulbs in the room, each with a
rating of 100 W. The rate of heat transfer to the classroom through
the walls and the windows is estimated to be 15,000 kJ/h. If the
room air is to be maintained at a constant temperature of 21°C,
determine the number of window air-conditioning units required.

Answer: 2 units

Required: the total cooling load of the room?

3.4. First Law of Thermodynamics for Closed Systems
Moving Boundary Work
• Form of mechanical work, associated with
the expansion or compression work.

• Consider compression or expansion of gas

in a piston cylinder device where the inner
face of the piston (part of system boundary)
moves back and forth, thus, is called
moving boundary work

• Simply known as Boundary or PdV work

• Commonly encountered in automobile engines,

compressors, e.t.c.
 3.4. Moving boundary work
For real engines(compressors):-

– The process is very fast consequently, the process

path can not be specified

– Work, being a path function, cannot be determined

analytically without a knowledge of the path

– Thus, the boundary work can not be predicted

exactly from thermodynamics alone.
 3.4. Moving boundary work
• For quasie-quilibrium process, a process
during which the system remains nearly in
equilibrium at all times,

• If the piston allowed to move a distance ds,

the differential work done at initial pressure
of gas P, total volume V and cross-sectional
area of A; the boundary work is:-

• The Total Boundary Work during the entire

process is:-
 3.4. Moving boundary work
+ Ve during expansion process , sine ∆V is +Ve
• The B.W.
- Ve during compression process, since ∆V is - Ve
• P is the absolute pressure, whcich is always positive
• If, P = f(V) , which is the equation of the process path on a P-V
diagram, is known, can be obtained from the integral
 3.4. Moving boundary work
• Since work is a path function,
different paths followed by the
system b/n two states associates
with different work
• E.g., Car engines, power plants

• A cyclic process will have a net

work out put
– Area under A: work done by the
system (Expansion)
– Area under B: work done by the
system (Compression)
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑾𝑨 − 𝑾𝑩
 3.4. Moving boundary work
Polytropic Process
• A process by which P and V of a gas during
compression and expansion processes for
actual processes are related by:-
𝒏 −𝒏
𝑪
𝑷𝑽 = 𝑪 𝒐𝒓 𝑷 = 𝑪𝑽 = 𝒏
𝑽
*n is the polytropic index, and C is a constant
a) If n=1? b) if n ≠1? c) for an ideal gas?
• And the vales of C? for each…?

• For Polytropic process 𝑾𝒃 will be:-

 3.4. Moving boundary work
EXAMPLES
1. A rigid tank contains air at 500 kPa and 150°C. As a result of
heat transfer to the surroundings, the temperature and pressure
inside the tank drop to 65°C and 400 kPa, respectively.
Determine the boundary work done during this process.
2. A piston–cylinder device initially contains 0.4 m3 of air at 100
kPa and 80°C. The air is now compressed to 0.1 m3 in such a
way that the temperature inside the cylinder remains constant.
Determine the work done during this process.

TablelA-1

𝑻𝒄𝒓 = 𝟏𝟑𝟐. 𝟓𝑲
𝑷𝒄𝒓 = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟕𝑴𝑷𝒂
 3.4. Moving boundary work
3. A piston–cylinder device contains 0.05 m3 of a gas initially at 200
kPa. At this state, a linear spring that has a spring constant of 150
kN/m is touching the piston but exerting no force on it. Now heat is
transferred to the gas, causing the piston to rise and to compress the
spring until the volume inside the cylinder doubles. If the cross-
sectional area of the piston is 0.25 m2, determine:
a) the final pressure inside the cylinder,
b) the total work done by the gas, and
c) the fraction of this work done against the spring to compress it.
3.4. Energy Balance for Closed System
• Energy balance for any system undergoing any kind of
process:-

• In rate from

• Per unit mass basis

• In differential form
3.4. Energy Balance for Closed System
• For a closed system undergoing a cycle:-

• Thus the energy balance becomes

• The energy added to be net heat transfer to the closed system and
the energy leaving the closed system to be net work done by the
closed system.
• The general energy balance equation considering the sign
convention ( the first law of thermodynamics) will be:-
3.5. Enthalpy, Internal Energy and Specific heats
Enthalpy (H):
• It is a property and defined as the sum of the internal energy U and
the pressure-volume product, PV.

i.e., 𝐇 = 𝐔 + 𝐏𝐕
• The enthalpy divided by the mass, m; is the specific enthalpy:

𝟏
(𝐇 = 𝐔 + 𝐏𝐕)
𝐦

𝒉 = 𝒖 + 𝑷𝒗
3.5. Enthalpy, Internal Energy and Specific heats
Specific heats:
• It is the energy required to raise the
temperature of unit mass of a substance by
one degree

• This energy depends on how the processes

is executed

• If the process is executed as the volume is

maintained constant , it will be specific heat
at constant volume; 𝑪𝒗

• If the process is executed as the pressure is

maintained constant , it will be specific heat
at constant pressure; 𝑪𝒑
3.5. Enthalpy, Internal Energy and Specific heats
Specific heats:
1. At constant pressure, P=constant: for example piston cylinder
device
𝟏 δQ
𝑪𝑷 =
𝒎 𝒅𝑻 𝑷
From first law of thermodynamics:
dU= δQ - δW
dU= δQ - PdV
δQ = dU+PdV dH = dU+PdV δQ = dH
Substitute to the above equation:
d𝒉
𝑪𝑷 =
𝒅𝑻 𝑷
3.5. Enthalpy, Internal Energy and Specific heats
Specific heats:
2. At constant volume, V =constant: for example a rigid tank adding
heat to a substance, measure the temperature at one degree
𝟏 δQ
𝑪𝑽 =
𝒎 𝒅𝑻 𝑽
From first law of thermodynamics:
dU= δQ - δW but δW = 0, because δW = PdV = 0
dU= δQ
Substitute to the above equation:

d𝒖
𝑪𝑽 =
𝒅𝑻 𝑽
??? For ideal gas and the relationship between 𝑪𝑽 and 𝑪𝒑
??? For solids and liquids
3.5. Enthalpy, Internal Energy and Specific heats
Some points about 𝑪𝑽 and 𝑪𝑷

• Since 𝑪𝑽 and 𝑪𝑷 are expressed in terms of other properties, they

must also be properties themselves.

• Hence they are property relations and thus are independent of the
type of processes

• 𝑪𝑽 is a measure of the variation of internal energy of a substance

with temperature, and 𝑪𝑷 is a measure of the variation of
enthalpy of a substance with temperature
• 𝑪𝑷 >𝑪𝑽 : why?
• Because, some of the heat will spent to move the piston,. But for
rigid tank the heat is added only to the substance.
 Energy Balance for Closed System
EXAMPLE
• A piston–cylinder device contains 25 g of saturated water vapor that
is maintained at a constant pressure of 300 kPa. A resistance heater
within the cylinder is turned on and passes a current of 0.2 A for 5
min from a 120-V source. At the same time, a heat loss of 3.7 kJ
occurs. (a) Show that for a closed system the boundary work Wb and
the change in internal energy U in the first-law relation can be
combined into one term, H, for a constant pressure process. (b)
Determine the final temperature of the steam.
 Energy balance for closed system

EXAMPLE

• A rigid tank is divided into two equal parts by a partition.

Initially, one side of the tank contains 5 kg of water at 200 kPa
and 25°C, and the other side is evacuated. The partition is then
removed, and the water expands into the entire tank. The water
is allowed to exchange heat with its surroundings until the
temperature in the tank returns to the initial value of 25°C.
Determine
a) the volume of the tank,
b) the final pressure, and
c) the heat transfer for this process.
 First Law of
Thermodynamics
for an Open System
First Law of Thermodynamics for an Open System
Conservation of Mass
In addition to the heat and work crossing the system
boundaries, mass carries energy with it as it crosses the
system boundaries.
Thus the mass and energy content of the open system may
change when mass enters or leaves the control volume.
Mass, like energy, is a conserved property, and it cannot
be created or destroyed during a process.
However, mass (m) and energy (E) can be converted to
each other according to the well-known formula proposed
by Albert Einstein.
𝑬 = 𝒎𝑪𝟐 𝑪 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟕𝟗 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔
It suggests that the mass of a system changes when its energy changes
 Conservation of Mass
Mass Flow Rate
• The amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit time
• Denoted, m
General Analysis
• The mass flow rate through a differential
area dAc is
d m  Vn dAc
•  → density of fluid
Vn → velocity of fluid normal to the
cross-sectional area
• Mass flow rate through entire cross-
sectional area
m   Vn dAc
Ac
 Conservation of Mass
In a general compressible flow, both ρ and Vn vary
across the pipe.

In many practical applications, however, the density is

essentially uniform over the pipe cross section.

Velocity, however, is never uniform over a cross section

of a pipe because of the fluid sticking to the surface and
thus having zero velocity at the wall (the no-slip
condition).

Rather, the velocity varies from zero at the walls to

some maximum value at or near the centerline of the
pipe.
 Conservation of Mass
Uniform Flow
• In many practical applications, we can
make the following approximations:
1. One-dimensional flow
2. All properties are uniform at any cross-
section normal to the flow direction
3. Properties have the bulk average values
over the cross-section

• These assumptions lead to

m  Vavg Ac
•  → density of fluid
Vavg → mean velocity of fluid normal to the cross-sectional area
Ac → cross-sectional area normal to flow direction
 Conservation of Mass
Volumetric Flow Rate
• The volume of a fluid flowing through a cross-sectional area per unit
time is

V   Vn dAc
Ac

V  Vavg Ac
• The mass and volume flow rates are related by

m  V
V
m
v
 Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Mass Principle
• One of the most fundamental principles in nature
• The net mass transfer to or from a control volume (CV) during a
process is equal to the net change (increase or decrease) in the total
mass of the control volume during that process

• Or min  mout  DmCV

d
• In rate form min  mout  mCV
dt
• These expressions are referred to as mass balances
• The expressions are valid for any system undergoing any process
 Conservation of Mass
Mass Balance Expressions for Multiple Inlets and Outlets

 m   m  Dm
in out
CV

d

in
m   m  mCV
out dt
• When the properties at the inlets and exits as well as within the
control volume are not uniform, the mass flow rate can be expressed
in the differential form

d m  Vn dAc
 Conservation of Mass
Mass Balance for Steady Flow Processes
 Steady flow; is the total amount of mass entering a CV is equal
to the total amount of mass leaving CV.
 During steady flow process the total amount of mass contained
in the control volume does not change with time.
 For a steady flow process, mCV = constant
 The conservation of mass principle simplifies to

 m   m For multiple inlets and outlets

in out
 Conservation of Mass
Many engineering devices such as nozzles, diffusers, turbines,
compressors, and pumps involve a single stream (only one inlet
and one outlet).
For these cases, it is denoted that inlet state by the subscript 1 and
the outlet state by the subscript 2, and drop the summation signs. for
single-stream steady-flow systems:

Incompressible Flow ( = constant)

For an incompressible fluid, the conservation of mass principle

V  V
simplifies to

in out
For single-stream steady-flow systems it becomes:
 Conservation of Mass
Example:
A garden hose attached with a nozzle is used to fill a 10-gal bucket.
The inner diameter of the hose is 2 cm, and it reduces to 0.8 cm at
the nozzle exit as shown the figure below. If it takes 50 s to fill the
bucket with water, determine:
(a) the volume and mass flow rates of water through the hose, and
(b) the average velocity of water at the nozzle exit.
1 gal = 3.8 L
 Flow Work and the Energy of a Flowing Fluid
Flow Work/Flow Energy
• The work required to push a mass into or out of a control volume
• Necessary for maintaining a continuous flow through a control
volume

• Force applied on the fluid element by the imaginary piston

F = PA
 Flow Work and the Energy of a Flowing Fluid

• To push the entire fluid element into the control volume, this force
must act through a distance L
• The work done in pushing the fluid element across the boundary
(flow work) is then
Wflow = FL = PAL = PV
• The flow work per unit mass is then
wflow = Pv
• The flow work is the same whether the fluid is pushed into or out of
the control volume
 Flow Work and the Energy of a Flowing Fluid
Flow Work

• Unlike other work quantities, flow work is expressed in

terms of properties

• For this reason, flow work can be viewed as a combination

property, transport energy

• As a result, the flow energy can be considered part of the

energy of a flowing fluid

• This greatly simplifies energy analysis of control volumes

 Flow Work and the Energy of a Flowing Fluid
Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid
• The total energy of a simple compressible system consists of three
parts: internal, kinetic, and potential energies for closed system
1 2
e  u  ke  pe  u  V  gz non flowing fluid
2
• A fluid entering or leaving a control volume possesses an
additional form of energy, the flow energy, Pv
• The total energy of a flowing fluid is then,

  Pv  e  Pv  u  ke  pe
• This expression can be simplified by recalling that the enthalpy h
is given by h = u + Pv
1 2
  h  ke  pe  h  V  gz flowing fluid
2
 Flow Work and the Energy of a Flowing Fluid
Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid (cont.)
• By using the enthalpy instead of the internal energy to represent
the energy of a flowing fluid, one does not need to be concerned
about the flow work
• The energy associated with pushing the fluid into or out of a
control volume is automatically taken care of by the enthalpy
 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy Balance

Ein  Eout  DEsystem

• This relation is referred to as

the energy balance
• The relationship is valid for
any system undergoing any
process
 Energy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems
Steady-flow process
• A process during which a fluid flows through a control volume
steadily
• No intensive or extensive properties within the control volume
change with time
• The total volume V, the mass m, and the total energy content E of
the control volume remain constant

Wb = 0

Q  constant

W  constant
 Energy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems
Steady-flow process (cont.)
• The boundary work is zero for steady flow systems (VCV = const.)
• The total mass or energy entering the control volume must be
equal to the total mass or energy leaving it (since, mCV = const. and
ECV = const.)
• The heat and work interactions between a steady-flow system and
its surroundings do not change with time

Wb = 0

Q  constant

W  constant
 Energy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Systems

m  m
in out

 VA   VA
in out

For a single stream (one inlet and one outlet),

m1  m2
1V1 A1  2V2 A2
 Energy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems
Energy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems

• During a steady-flow process, the total energy content of a control

volume remains constant, and thus DECV = 0
• Therefore, the total amount of energy entering a control volume must
be equal to the amount of energy leaving it

Ein  Eout  DECV  0

E in  E out
 Energy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems
Energy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems
Qin  Win   m  Qout  Wout   m
in out

  h  ke  pe
Qin  Win   m  h  12 V 2  gz   Qout  Wout   m  h  12 V 2  gz 
in out

Using the formal sign convention,

Q  W   m  h  12 V 2  gz    m  h  12 V 2  gz 
out in

For a single stream (one inlet (1) and one outlet (2)),
 V22  V12 
Q  W  m  h2  h1   g  z2  z1  
 2 
 Energy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems
Energy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems (cont.)

Q  W   m  h  12 V 2  gz    m  h  12 V 2  gz 
out in

• Q → Rate of heat transfer between the control volume and its

surroundings
negative → CV is losing heat
adiabatic → Q  0
• W → Power
positive → CV is doing work on surroundings
• h → Enthalpy of flowing fluid
2
• 12 V → Kinetic energy of flowing fluid
• gz → Potential energy of flowing fluid
 Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices
Nozzles
• Devices that increase the
velocity of a fluid at the
expense of pressure

Diffusers
• Devices that increase the
pressure of a fluid by
decreasing its velocity

General Characteristics
• Typically, W  0

  0 Dpe  0
Q
• Usually, ,
• Large changes in velocity
Dke  0
 Problem 5-38
Carbon dioxide enters an adiabatic nozzle steadily at 1 MPa and
500 oC with a mass flow rate of 6000 kg/h and leaves at 100 kPa
and 450 m/s. The inlet area of the nozzle is 40 cm2. Determine:
(a) the inlet velocity and
(b) the exit temperature.
 Problem 2
#2. Refrigerant-134a enters a diffuser steadily as saturated vapor at
800 kPa with a velocity of 120 m/s, and it leaves at 900 kPa
and 40°C. The refrigerant is gaining heat at a rate of 2 kJ/s as it
passes through the diffuser. If the exit area is 80 percent greater
than the inlet area, determine:
(a) the exit velocity and
(b) the mass flow rate of the refrigerant.
𝑄

𝑃1 = 800𝐾𝑃𝑎
𝑉1 = 120𝑀/𝑆 𝑃1 = 800𝐾𝑃𝑎
𝑇1 = 40℃
𝐴2 = 1.8𝐴1
 Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices
Turbine
• In gas, steam, or hydroelectric power plants, the
device that drives the electric generator
• A turbine produces work, W  0

Compressors, Pumps, and Fans

• Devices used to increase the pressure of a fluid
• Work is supplied to these devices, W  0
Fan
• Increases the pressure of a gas slightly
• Mainly used to mobilize a gas
Compressor
• Capable of compressing a gas to very high pressures
Pumps
• Like compressors except that they handle liquids
instead of gases
 Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices
General Characteristics of Turbines and Compressors
• Usually, Q  0 , Dpe  0

• Often, Dke ≈ 0, except turbines and fans, however often

|Dh| >> |Dke| in turbines and fans making Dke negligible

𝑬𝒊𝒏 =𝑬𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑬𝒊𝒏 =𝑬𝒐𝒖𝒕

𝑾𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 𝑾𝒊𝒏 = 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏
 Problem 3
#3. Argon gas enters an adiabatic turbine steadily at 900 kPa and
450°C with a velocity of 80 m/s and leaves at 150 kPa with a
velocity of 150 m/s. The inlet area of the turbine is 60 cm2. If
the power output of the turbine is 250 kW, determine the exit
temperature of the argon.
 Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices
Throttling Valves
• Any kind of flow-restricting device that causes a significant
pressure drop in the fluid
• The pressure drop is often accompanied by a large drop in
temperature
• The following assumptions can often be made,
q ≈ 0, w ≈ 0, Dpe ≈ 0, Dke ≈ 0
• Based on these assumptions, the conservation of energy equation
for a single-stream steady-flow device reduces to
h2 ≈ h1
• For this reason, a throttling valve is sometimes called an
isenthalpic device
 Problem 5
#5. Refrigerant-134a at 800 kPa and 25°C is throttled to a temperature
of -20°C. Determine the pressure and the internal energy of the
refrigerant at the final state.

𝑃1 = 800𝐾𝑃𝑎
𝑇1 = 25℃ 𝑇2 = −20℃
 Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices
Mixing Chamber
• The section where a mixing process takes place
• The following assumptions can often be made,
q ≈ 0, w ≈ 0, Dpe ≈ 0, Dke ≈ 0
 Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices
Heat Exchangers
• Devices where two moving fluid streams exchange heat without
mixing
• Typical characteristics of heat exchangers,
w ≈ 0, Dpe ≈ 0, Dke ≈ 0

Double Shell (tube and shell)

•Composed of two concentric pipes of different diameters
 Problem 8
#8. Refrigerant-134a at 1 MPa and 90°C is to be cooled to 1 MPa and
30°C in a condenser by air. The air enters at 100 kPa and 27°C
with a volume flow rate of 600 m3/min and leaves at 95 kPa and
60°C. Determine the mass flow rate of the refrigerant.
 Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices
Pipe and Duct Flow

Used for the transport of liquids or gases

Pipe or duct flow may involve more than one form of work at the
same time

The energy balance may be depend on the given criterias.

 Worksheet Two
#1. A piston–cylinder device initially contains 0.07 m3 of nitrogen gas
at 130 kPa and 120°C. The nitrogen is now expanded
polytropically to a state of 100 kPa and 100°C. Determine the
boundary work done during this process.

#3. A gas is compressed from an initial volume of 0.42 m3 to a final

volume of 0.12 m3. During the quasi-equilibrium process, the
pressure changes with volume according to the relationP=aV+b,
wherea=-1200 kPa⁄m^3 and b = 600 kPa. Calculate the work done
during this process (a) by plotting the process on a P-V diagram
and finding the area under the process curve and (b) by
performing the necessary integrations.
 Worksheet Two
#6. A piston–cylinder device contains steam initially at 1 MPa, 450°C,
and 2.5 m3. Steam is allowed to cool at constant pressure until it
first starts condensing. Show the process on a T-v diagram with
respect to saturation lines and determine (a) the mass of the steam,
(b) the final temperature, and (c) the amount of heat transfer.

#8. A 4-m × 5-m × 6-m room is to be heated by a baseboard resistance

heater. It is desired that the resistance heater be able to raise the air
temperature in the room from 7 to 23°C within 15 min. Assuming
no heat losses from the room and an atmospheric pressure of 100
kPa, determine the required power of the resistance heater.
Assume constant specific heats at room temperature.