Basic Mechanical

Engineering
(ME10003)
Lecture 3
Module 1
Concepts of Thermodynamics
Dr. Santosh Kumar Nayak
 Forms of energy

Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal,

mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic,
chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total
energy E of a system.

Thermodynamics provides no information about the

absolute value of the total energy. It deals only with the
change of the total energy, which is what matters in
engineering problems.

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Forms of energy
Thermodynamic concept of Energy

Energy in Storage Energy in Transit or

 Point function transfer
 Path function
 Energy is stored either macroscopically  Boundary phenomena
by virtue of motion, position by system
i.e. kinetic and potential energy.
Work Transfer Heat Transfer
 Or microscopically related to the
molecular structure of a system and the  Not stored in a system only
degree of the molecular activity. The comes when two systems interact
sum of all the microscopic forms of with each other.
energy is called the internal energy of  Recognized at the system
a system and is denoted by U. boundary as they cross it.
 Heat transfer by virtue of
 Total Energy, E = U+KE+PE temperature difference. And all
other forms of energy transfer are
work transfer.
 Energy transfer / Energy in Transit

Energy can cross the boundary of a

closed system in two distinct forms:
heat and work.
Heat is defined as the form of energy
that is transferred between two
systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature difference.
Heat is energy in transition. It is recognized only as it
crosses the boundary of a system.
Therefore, if the energy crossing the boundary of a closed
system is not heat, it must be work.
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 Forms of energy
 Note that a quantity that is transferred to or from a system during an
interaction is not a property since the amount of such a quantity
depends on more than just the state of the system.
 Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a system
and its surroundings, and there are many similarities between them:
1. Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they
cross the boundaries. That is, both heat and work are
boundary phenomena.
2. Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
3. Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike
properties, heat or work has no meaning at a state.
4. Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the
path followed during a process as well as the end states).

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 Path and point function

 Path functions have inexact differentials

designated by the symbol δ. Therefore, a
differential amount of heat or work is represented
by δQ or δW, respectively, instead of dQ or dW.

 Properties, however, are point functions (i.e., they

depend on the state only, and not on how a system
reaches that state), and they have exact
differentials designated by the symbol d. A small
change in volume, for example, is represented by
dV, and the total volume change during a process
between states 1 and 2 is:

 All system properties (P, T, V, U, H, and S) are

point functions; but heat and work are path
functions (their magnitudes depend on the path
followed).

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 First law of thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics, is also known as the conservation

of energy principle.
It states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a
process; it can only change forms.

Energy Balance: Ein  Eout  Esystem Esystem

Ein
Eout
Applicable for both close and open system

Where Ein = Total energy entering to the system

Eout = Total energy leaving from the system

ΔEsystem = Change in total energy content of the system

 First law of thermodynamics

Energy can be transferred to or from a system in three forms:

heat, work, and mass flow.
Net energy transfer by heat, work, and mass
Ein  Eout   Qin  Qout   Win  Wout    Emass ,in  Emass ,out 
Energy change of a system
Esystem  U  KE  PE

Where,

 Q2  Q3  Q1   W4  W1  W2  W3   Esystem
 First law of thermodynamics for close system

Energy can be transferred to or from a close system only by

heat and work.

Net energy transfer by heat and work

Ein  Eout  Esystem
  Qin  Qout   Win  Wout   U  KE  PE
if Q = net heat input = Qin  Qout
and W = net work out put = Wout  Wout
Reduced form of equation can be written:
Q  W  U  KE  PE
 First law of thermodynamics for close system undergoing a cycle

For a closed system undergoing a cycle, the initial and final

states are identical, and thus

Ein  Eout  Esystem

Here, Esystem  E2  E1  0
Hence, Ein  Eout  0

For example: If this system undergoes a

cyclic process
Ein  Eout  0
 Ein  Eout
 Q2  Q3  W4  W1  Q1  W2  W3
 Q2  Q3  Q1  W2  W3  W4  W
  Qnet  Wnet  only applicable for cyclic process 
Numerical

Air at 200 kPa and 30oC is contained in a cylinder-piston

arrangement with initial volume 0.1 m3. The inside pressure
balances the ambient pressure of 100 kPa plus an externally
imposed force on piston that is proportional to V0.5. The heat is
transferred to the system till the final pressure is 225 kPa. Find the
final temperature and work interaction in the process.
Numerical

A container contains air at 5 bar pressure and 100oC temperature. The

volume is 2 m3 . Some air is leaked so that the final pressure drops to 2 bar
and temperature is managed constant. Calculate the mass interaction.
 Numerical
A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled
while being stirred by a paddle wheel. Initially, the
internal energy of the fluid is 800 kJ. During the
cooling process, the fluid loses 500 kJ of heat, and
the paddle wheel does 100 kJ of work on the fluid.
Determine the final internal energy of the fluid.
Neglect the energy stored in the paddle wheel.

Try this

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 Solution
A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled
while being stirred by a paddle wheel. Initially, the
internal energy of the fluid is 800 kJ. During the
cooling process, the fluid loses 500 kJ of heat, and
the paddle wheel does 100 kJ of work on the fluid.
Determine the final internal energy of the fluid.
Neglect the energy stored in the paddle wheel.

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Numerical

Try this

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 Solution

Solution:
Ein  Eout  Esystem 
Q12  W12  U  KE  PE

 Q12  W12  U 2  U1
 U 2  U1  21.85 kJ
The internal energy of gas
decreased by 21.85 kJ
09-02-2024 16
Numerical

Example:
Solution
Numerical
Example:
Solution
Numerical
Example:
Solution
Numerical
Example:
Solution
Numerical
Example:

(a) Find the magnitude of the heat interaction.

(b) How much does the internal energy of the system increase?
Solution
Numerical
A fluid is confined in a cylinder by a spring loaded frictionless piston so that the
pressure in the fluid is a linear function of the volume (p = a + bV). The internal
energy of the fluid is given by the following equation: U = 34 + 3.15 pV where U
is in kJ, p in kPa, and V in m3. If the fluid changes from an initial state of 170
kPa, 0.03 m3 to a final state of 400 kPa, 0.06 m3, with no work other than that
done on the piston, find the direction and magnitude of the work and heat
transfer.

Try this
Numerical
A stationary fluid system goes through a cycle comprising of the following
processes:
(a) Process 1-2 isochoric heat addition of 235 kJ/kg.
(b) Process 2-3 adiabatic expansion to its original pressure with loss of 70 kJ/kg
in internal energy.
(c) Process 3-1 isobaric compression to its original volume with heat rejection of
200 kJ/kg.

Verify the first law of thermodynamics for the cyclic process i.e.

 Q  W
cycle cycle

Try this
Numerical
Example:
Solution
Numerical
Example:

A fluid contained in a cylinder receives 150 kJ of mechanical energy by means of

a paddle wheel , together with 50 kJ in the form of heat . At the same time, a
piston in the cylinder moves in a such way that the pressure remains constant at
200 kN/m2 during the fluid expansion from 2 m3 to 5 m3. What is the change in
internal energy and in enthalpy?
Moving boundary work

 The quasi-equilibrium expansion

process described is shown on a P-V
diagram.
 The area under the process curve on a
P-V diagram represents the boundary
work.

 Boundary Work for a Constant-Pressure Process

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 Moving boundary work

 Boundary Work for Isothermal Compression of an Ideal Gas

 Temperature remains constant.

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 Moving boundary work

 Boundary Work for Polytropic Process: During actual expansion

and compression processes of gases, pressure and volume are often
related by
 where n and C are constants.
 Thus boundary work can be obtained in following way:

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 Specific heats
 The specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree.

 In general, this energy depends on how the process is executed. In

thermodynamics, we are interested in two kinds of specific heats:
specific heat at constant volume cv and specific heat at constant
pressure cp.

 Physically, the specific heat at constant volume cv can be viewed as

the energy required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a
substance by one degree as the volume is maintained constant.

 The energy required to do the same as the pressure is maintained

constant is the specific heat at constant pressure cp.
09-02-2024 36
 Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of ideal gases
Ideal gas equation:
PV  nRuT
n  number of moles, and Ru  Universal gas constant
m Ru
Again, PV  nRuT  RuT  m T  mRT
M M
V
 PV  mRT  P  RT  Pv  RT
m
where, m  mass of gas, M  molar mass of gas
R
R  Characteristic gas contant  u
M
8.3143
For example, for oxygen, R  = 0.262 kJ/kg-K
32
8.3143
for air, R  = 0.287 kJ/kg-K
28.96
09-02-2024 37
 Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of ideal gases
For an ideal gas the internal energy is a function of the
temperature only. So following expressions can be obtained

Where, h = specific enthalpy, u = specific internal energy, v =

specific volume, T = Temperature, P = Pressure, and R =
characteristic gas constant

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Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of ideal gases

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First law of thermodynamics for open system
Energy can be transferred to or from a open system only by
heat, work and mass.
Conservation of mass equation
 min   mout  mCV
in out

dmCV
In rate form:  m in   m out 
in out dt
Net energy transfer by heat, work and mass
Ein  Eout  Esystem
  Qin  Qout   Win  Wout    Emass ,in  Emass ,out   U  KE  PE

Unlike closed systems, open systems involve mass flow

across their boundaries,

Some work is required to push the mass into or out of the open
system. This work is known as the flow work, or flow energy.
 Flow work or flow energy
Consider a fluid element of volume V
and force F is applied to enter into the
control volume by distance L.

If P is the fluid pressure and the cross-

sectional area of the fluid element is A.

Thus, the work done in pushing the

fluid element across the boundary
W flow  FL  PAL  PV
Flow energy per unit mass: w flow  Pv
Then the total energy of a flowing fluid per unit mass (denoted
by emass) becomes: emass  Pv  u  ke  pe  h  ke  pe
Where, ke = specific kinetic energy, and pe = specific potential
energy
First law of thermodynamics for open system

Energy for close (Nonflowing system) and open system (flow

system)
First law of thermodynamics for open system

Energy transport by mass:

2
V
Emass  memass  m(h   gz )
2

Total energy transported by mass through an inlet or exit (min

emass,in and mout emass,out ) is obtained by integration.
 Vin
2

Emass ,in  e mass ,in  min    hin 

min 
2
 gzin   min

min 
 Energy balance for open system
Energy equation in rate format
dE
Ein  E out  system
dt
 1 2 
d  U  mV  mgz 

 Q in  Q out   Win  Wout    E mass ,in  E mass ,out   
2
dt


 1 2 
d  U  mV  mgz 
   

 Q in  Q out   Win  Wout    m  h  V  gz    m  h  V  gz   
in 
1 2
2  out 
1 2
2 
2
dt


Steady flow energy equation:

Ein  E out  0
 
 Q in  Q out  Win  Wout    E mass ,in  E mass ,out   0
   
  
in



 Qin  Qout   m  h  V  gz   Wout  Win    m  h  V  gz 
1 2
2 
 
out


1 2
2 
 Some steady-flow engineering devices

Many engineering devices operate essentially under the same

conditions for long periods of time.
Ex: Nozzles, Diffusers, Turbines, Compressors, Throttling
Valves, Mixing Chambers.

1. Nozzles and Diffusers

Nozzles and diffusers are commonly
utilized in jet engines, rockets,
spacecraft, and even garden hoses.
A nozzle is a device that increases
the velocity of a fluid at the expense
of pressure.
A diffuser is a device that increases
the pressure of a fluid by slowing it
down.
09-02-2024 45
2. Turbines and Compressors
In steam, gas, or hydroelectric power plants, the device that
drives the electric generator is the turbine. As the fluid passes
through the turbine, work is done against the blades, which are
attached to the shaft. As a result, the shaft rotates, and the
turbine produces work.

Turbine is a work producing device.

Compressors, as well as pumps and fans, are devices used to

increase the pressure of a fluid. Work is supplied to these
devices from an external source through a rotating shaft.
Therefore, compressors involve work inputs.

Compressor is a work consuming device.

Numerical

Try this

09-02-2024 47
Solution

09-02-2024 48
Solution

 h2  h1  V12 2
 c pT2  c pT1  V12 2 (c p is constant for air i.e. 1.005 kJ/kg K)
 T2  303K

The enthalpy of an ideal gas depends on temperature only

09-02-2024 49
Numerical

Air flows steadily at the rate of 0.5 kg/s through an air compressor
entering at 7 m/s velocity, 100 kPa, and 0.95 m3/kg and leaving at 5
m/s velocity, 700 kPa, and 0.19 m3/kg The internal energy of the air
leaving is 90 kJ/kg greater than that of air entering. Cooling water in
the compressor jackets absorbs heat from the air at the rate of 58 kW.
Determine; (a) rate of shaft work input to the air in kW, (b) ratio of the
inlet pipe diameter to outlet pipe diameter.

Try this
Numerical

In a steady flow apparatus, 135 kJ of work is done by each kg of

fluid. The specific volume of the fluid, pressure, and velocity at the
inlet are 0.37 m3/kg, 600 kPa, and 16 m/s. The inlet is 32 m above
the floor, and the discharge pipe is at the floor level. The discharge
conditions are 0.62 m3/ kg, 100 kPa, and 270 m/s. The total heat
loss between the inlet and discharge is 9 kJ/kg of fluid. In flowing
through this apparatus, does the specific internal energy increase or
decrease, and by how much?

Try this
Numerical

In a gas turbine the gas enters at the rate of 5 kg/s with a velocity of 50
m/s and enthalpy of 900 kJ/kg and leaves the turbine with a velocity of
150 m/s and enthalpy of 400 kJ/kg . The loss of heat from the gases to
the surroundings is 25 kJ/kg. Assume for gas R = 0.285 kJ/kg.K and cp =
1.004 kJ/kg.K and the inlet conditions to be at 100 kPa and 27 oC.
Determine the power output of the turbine and the diameter of the inlet
pipe.

Try this
Numerical

Air enters a compressor operating at steady state at a pressure of 1 bar,

a temperature of 290 K, and a velocity of 6 m/s through an inlet with an
area of 0.1 m2. At exit, the pressure is 7 bar, the temperature is 450 K,
and the velocity is 2 m/s. Heat transfer from the compressor to the
surroundings occurs at the rate of 180 kJ/min. Employing the ideal gas
model, calculate the power input to the compressor. Take cp = 1.005
kJ/kg.K

Try this
Numerical

Air enters an insulated diffuser operating at steady state with a pressure

of 0.7 bar, a temperature of 5.7 oC and a velocity of 200 m/s. At the exit
the pressure is 1 bar. The exit flow area is 20% greater than the inlet flow
area. Potential energy effects can be neglected. Determine the air exit
temperature and the velocity. Take cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K and R = 0.287
kJ/kg.K

Try this