University of Technology & Applied Science - Al Musanna

Department of Engineering

Diploma I
CHEM1100: Fundamentals of Chemistry

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 Index

Chapter 1 Matter 3 -8

Chapter 2 Chemical reactions 9 - 16

Chapter 3 Redox reaction 17 - 20

Chapter 4 Mole concept 21 - 22

Chapter 5 Chemical kinetics 23 - 27

Chapter 6 Solutions 28 - 33

Chapter 7 Chemical bond 34 - 39

Chapter 8 Hydrocarbons 40 - 47

Chapter 9 Extraction of metals 48 - 50

Chapter 10 Acids and bases 51 - 54

Chapter - 1
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 Matter

Matter is anything that occupies space & has a mass.

Example: air, water, earth, planets, satellites, plants, animals & man

Solids, Liquid, Gas

Classification of matter
Element, Compound, Mixtures

Atom: is the smallest particle of an element having the chemical properties of the element
 Atom is made up of three subatomic particles: Proton, Neutron, Electron.
 Protons & neutrons join together to form the nucleus, the central part of the atom
 Atom is electrically neutral because no. of proton & no. of electron are always
equal.
 Nucleus has a positive charge because it has protons & neutrons. As the protons are
positively charged & neutrons have no charge on it.

Particle Location in atom Charge Mass Scientist name

Proton In the nucleus Positive charge 1 amu J.J. Thomson
Neutron In the nucleus No charge 1 amu James Chadwick
Electron Outside the nucleus Negative charge 1/2 amu J.J. Thomson
Nucleus Centre of the atom Positive charge Rutherford

Molecule: is formed when two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds
 A molecule is the smallest particle of compound that has the chemical properties of
compound.
 Molecules are also electrically neutral.

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Ions
The electrically charged atom. The atom gets the charge because the number of electrons
is not equal the number of protons in the atom.
Neutral Negatively Charged Positively Charged
No. of p+ = No. of e- No. of p+ < No. of e- No. of p+ > No. of e-

6 protons 5 protons 6 protons

6 neutrons 6 neutrons 6 neutrons
6 electrons 6 electrons 5 electrons

Atom Anion Cation

Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons or number of electrons in an atom.

Mass Number (A): Sum of the number of protons & neutrons in an atom.

A = p+ + n0

Element representation

A 23 Protons=11
Symbol Na Neutrons =12
Z 11 Electrons = 11

Electronic Configuration of an element:

Aufbau’s principle states that electrons always fill orbital of lower energy first.

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The order for filling in the sublevels : 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d,
6p, 7s, 5f, 6d,7p.

The electronic configurations of some elements to illustrate the above rules

Hydrogen (Z=1): 1s1 Helium (Z=2): 1s2
Lithium (Z=3): 1s2 2s1 Beryllium (Z=4) 1s2 2s2
Boron (Z=5): 1s2 2s2 2p1 Carbon (Z=6): 1s2 2s2 2p2

Exception looking configurations:

The electronic configuration of certain elements such as chromium (Z= 24), Copper (Z=
29), Molybdenum (Z=42) and Silver (Z=47) do not follow the general rules

Cr (Z=24) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d4

Cr (Z=24) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5

Cu (Z= 29) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d9

Cu (Z= 29) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10

Mo (Z= 42) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d4
Mo (Z= 42) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s1 4d5

Ag (Z= 47) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d9
Ag (Z= 47) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s1 4d10

In each case, one of the electrons expected to go to 4s orbital has gone to 3d orbital. In this
way, all the 3d orbitals have got exactly half filled in chromium and molybdenum and
completely filled in copper and silver.

The reason is that electronic configurations in which orbitals of the same sub shell are
exactly half filled or completely filled (p3, p6, d5, d10, f7, f14) have lower energy or in other
words, extra stability

Electronic Configurations of Ions:

• Electronic configuration of a positive ion (CATION), remove electron from the
highest energy level.
Na → Na+
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 → 1s2 2s2 2p6

Ca → Ca2+
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 → 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

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 • Electronic configuration of a negative ion (ANION), add electron in the highest
energy level
Cl → Cl ─
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p → 1s 2s 2p6 3s2 3p6
2 2 6 2 5 2 2

O → O2-
1s2 2s2 2p4 → 1s2 2s2 2p6

• Electronic configuration of a Transition metal (center element), remove electron

from the highest energy level
Cr → Cr 3+
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3

Zn → Zn 2+
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10

Fe → Fe 3+
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p6 4s2 3d6
2 2 6 2
1s 2s 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5
2 2

Exercise
Tick the correct answer:
1. Which of the following shows the correct number of protons, neutrons and electrons in
a Cesium atom?
(a) 55 p+, 55 n0, 55 e─ (c) 55 p+, 78 n0, 55 e─
+ 0 ─
(b) 55 p , 78 n , 78 e (d) 79 p+, 55 n0, 79 e─
2. Which of the following pair is correct?
(a) Na, sodium (c) Co, copper
(b) F, iron (d) Mg, manganese
3. An electron is outside the nucleus. An electron
(a) Is larger than a proton and has no charge
(b) Has less mass than a proton and has a negative charge
(c) Is smaller than a proton and has no charge
(d) Has a positive charge
4. Which of the following element have the same number of electrons?
K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, S2-, Ar
+ 2+ 2+ 2-
(a) K , Mg , Ca , S (c) K+, Ca2+, S2-, Ar
(b) K+, Mg2+, Ar, S2- (d) K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, S2-, Ar

5. Which formula represents a compound:

(a) Fe (b) Cl (c) KF (d) Xe

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6. Which of the following are true for an element?
(i) Z = p+ + e─
(ii) A = p+ + n0
(iii) A = p+ = n0
(iv) Z = p+ = e─

(a) (i) and (ii) (c) (i) and (iii)

(b) (ii) and (iii) (d) (ii) and (iv)

7. The sum of the numbers of the protons and neutrons in the atom of an element is
known
(a) Mass Number (c) Atomic Number
(b) Isotope Number (d) Molecular Weight

8. An element in which the number of neutron lesser than the number of protons is
(a) U (b) Li (c) He (d) H
9. The element has a mass number of 27 and has 14 neutrons. The element forms ion and
get a +3 charge. What is the number of electrons in the ion?
(a) 13 (b) 10 (c) 14 (d) 16

10. Which one is the electronic configuration of a potassium ion (K+)?

(a) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 (c) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
(b) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 (d) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
11. How many electrons are in the outermost energy level of the calcium atom?
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 7
12. What is the atomic number of elements whose outermost electrons is 3p5?
(a) Cl (b) P (c) Ar (d) O

Short question answers:

1. Draw the structure of an atom representing its subatomic particles, nucleus and energy
levels.
2. Explain the meaning of each term in the symbol AZX
3. Give the number of protons and electrons in each of the following common ions: Na+,
Ca2+, Al3+, Fe2+, I-, S2-, N3- .
4. Which of these symbols provides more information about the atom: 23Na or 11Na?
5. What is the symbol for an ion with 63 protons, 60 electrons and 88 neutrons?

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6. Write the electronic configuration (s, p, d, f), electronic arrangement (K, L, M, N) for
the following atom and ions: Zr4+, Cd, Cu+, S2-
7. Write the electronic configuration of chromium and determine the following:
(a) Number of electrons in the d atomic orbitals
(b) Number of electrons in the p atomic orbitals

8. An atom of an element contains 29 electrons and 35 neutrons. Calculate

(a) The number of protons
(b) The electronic configuration of the element

9. Identify the subatomic particle that has the following characteristics:

(a) Has no charge
(b) Is located outside nucleus
(c) Has mass of 1/2 amu
(d) Has the smallest mass
(e) Has a mass about the same as a neutron?
(f) Carries a positive charge
(g) Is electrically neutral
(h) Is found in the nucleus

Long question answers:

1. The table gives numbers of electrons, protons, and neutrons in atoms or ions of a
number of elements.
(a) What are the chemical symbols for all the elements/ions?
(b) Write the symbols with electrical charge on it.
(c) Which of the elements are neutral?
(d) Which are negatively charged?
(e) Which are positively charged?

Atoms or Ion of the element A B C D E F G

Number of electrons 5 10 18 28 36 5 9
Number of protons 5 7 19 30 35 5 9
Number of neutrons 5 7 20 36 46 6 10

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 Chapter - 2
Chemical Reactions

Elements in the Periodic Table are arranged according to the Atomic Number, which
increases from left to right across the Periodic Table.

Classification of periodic table

 Metals
 Good conductor of heat and electricity.
 Solids at room temperature except mercury is liquid.

 Nonmetals
 Poor conductor of heat and electricity.
 Solid and gas at room temperature except bromine is liquid.

Periods in the Periodic Table

 A horizontal row in the Periodic Table is called a period.
 Each row is counted from the top of the table as Period 1 to Period 7.

Period 1
Period 2

Period 3

 The number of electron shells of an element will determine its Period in the
Periodic Table.

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Groups in the Periodic Table
 A vertical column in the Periodic Table is called a group.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 8 or 0

 Eight group in the periodic table (numbers as 1A - 8A or with Roman numerals

IA – VIIIA).
 Centre of the periodic table is known as transition metals, representing the “B“
family.
 The number of outer electrons of an element will determines its Group in the
Periodic Table.

 Elements in the same Group:

 Have similar chemical and physical properties.
 Have the same number of outer electrons.
 Usually form ions with same charge.
Group 1 : X+ (Example: Na+, Li+)
Group 2 : X2+ (Example: Ca2+, Mg2+)
Group 6 : X2- (Example: O2-, S2-)
Group 7 : X- (Example: I-, Cl-)

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Valency:
The number of Hydrogen atoms that an element can combine.

Example:
 Lithium, Sodium and Potassium have a valency of one as they combine with one
Hydrogen atom.
 Beryllium, Magnesium and Calcium all have a valency of two as they combine with
two Hydrogen atoms.

Note that the valences of all these atoms are equal to the number of outer electrons that
these elements have.

 Boron and Aluminum combine with three Hydrogen atoms - their valences are 3: they
have three outer electrons.
 Carbon and Silicon combine with four Hydrogen atoms. The valency of these elements
is 4

Valency is the combining capacity of an atom. It is equal to the number of electrons

the atom loses, or gains or shares when it combines with one or more atoms.

Depending on whether the atom loses, gains or shares electrons, the valency may be
positive, negative, or neutral respectively. Example: Valency of sodium is + 1, because it
can lose one electron. Valency of chlorine is – 1, because it gains 1 electron.
If two or more atoms combine by sharing electrons i.e., not losing or gaining electrons,
then the valency numbers are neither positive nor negative. Example: In carbon dioxide,
carbon and oxygen atoms, do not, lose or gain electrons, and their valency are 4 and 2
respectively.

Chemical Formula of a compound is a symbolic representation of its composition.

Writing a chemical formula:

 The valency or charges on the element should be written
 Then the valency of the combining atom must be crossover.

Ionic Compound: a compound consists of a metal and a non-metal

 The name or symbol of the metal is written first & then the nonmetal as -ide

Example: Calcium oxide (CaO), magnesium chloride (MgCl2), where oxygen, chlorine,
are non-metals and are written on the right, whereas calcium, magnesium are metals, and
are written on the left.

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 Calcium oxide CaO Magnesium chloride MgCl 2
Symbol Ca O Symbol Mg Cl
Valency +2 -2 Valency +2 -1

Covalent compound: a compound consists of two nonmetals.

 Name each element & end the last element in -ide.
 Add prefixes to show more than 1 atom.
Prefixes Atom
Mono 1
Di 2
Tri 3
Tetra 4
Penta 5
Hexa 6

Example:
CO: Carbon monoxide PCl3: Phosphorus trichloride
CCl4: Carbon tetrachloride HCl: Hydrogen chloride
CO2: Carbon dioxide N2O4: Dinitrogen tetraoxide

Compounds with polyatomic ions:

Compounds having the polyatomic ion then the ion is enclosed in a bracket before writing
the number to indicate the ratio.

Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4

Symbol Na CO3 Symbol NH4 SO4
Valency +1 -2 Valency +1 -2

Calcium hydroxide Ca (OH) 2

Symbol Ca OH
Valency +2 -1

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Chemical Equation
A chemical equation is a brief representation of a chemical change in terms of the symbols
and formulae of the reactants and the products.

Rules for a chemical equation

1. It should be balanced i.e. the number of atoms of each element on the two sides of the
equation must be equal.
2. When balancing the chemical equation, use coefficient, small whole number placed at
the front of chemical formula. Never change the subscript.

3. The reactant should be on the left hand side & product on the right hand side
separated by an arrow.
4. It should be molecular. Thus elementary gases like H, N, O, Cl, F, I, Br should be
written as H2, N2, O2, Cl2, F2, I2, Br2
5. Indicate the state of matter- Solid(s), Liquid (l), Gas(g), Aqueous(aq)

Writing Chemical Equation: 2 ways

 Word Equation: Aluminum combines with oxygen to form aluminum oxide
 Formula Equation: Al + O2 → Al2O3
 Balancing : 4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3

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 Exercise

Tick the correct answer:

1. Which of the following pairs is incorrect?
(a) NH4Br, Ammonium bromide (c) K2CO3, Potassium carbonate
(b) BaPO4, Barium phosphate (d) CaSO4, Calcium sulphate

2. Number of groups and periods in the periodic table are

(a) 8 groups and 6 periods (c) 18 groups and 7 periods
(b) 7 groups and 18 periods (d) 6 groups and 7 periods

3. Element X forms a chloride with formula XCl2. X would be in the same group of the
periodic tables as
(a) Na (b) Mg (c) Al (d) Si

4. Sulphate ion is
(a) S2- (b) SO2 (c) SO2−¿
4
¿
(d) SO2−¿
3
¿

5. How many electrons are there in the valence shell of the O2- ion?
(a) 2 (b) 8 (c) 10 (d) 16

6. What is the formula of the compound formed between magnesium and oxygen?
(a) MgO (b) Mg2O (c) Mg2O3 (d) MgO2

7. In a chemical reaction K2Cr2O7 + X H2SO4 + Y SO2 → K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + Z H2O,

what is the value of X, Y, Z?
(a) 1, 3, 1 (b) 4, 1, 4 (c) 3, 2, 3 (d) 2, 1, 2

8. The element with atomic number 26 will found in group

(a) 2 (b) 8 (c) 6 (d) 10

9. An atom with 3 protons and 4 neutrons have a valency of

(a) 3 (b) 7 (c) 1 (d) 4

Short question answer:

1. Give the symbol of the element described by the following:

(a) Group 4A, Period 2 (c) Group 15, Period 3
(b) Group 2, Period 4

2. Each of the following compounds is named incorrectly. What is wrong with each
name, and what is the correct name for each compound?

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 (a) MgCl2 is dimagnesium chloride (c) NO2 is dinitrogen monoxide
(b) CaO is calcium monoxide (d) Al2S3 is dialuminium trisulphide

3. Write the chemical formula of the following compound: Aluminum sulphate,

Magnesium carbonate, Ammonium phosphate, Sulphur trioxide, Potassium sulfide,
Magnesium phosphate, Boron trichloride, Strontium chlorite, Magnesium chloride, ,
Gallium iodide, Dioxygen difluoride, Disulphur dichloride, Carbon tetraiodide,
Selenium tetra bromide, Calcium iodide, Nitrogen trichloride, Carbon disulphide,
Disulphur dichloride, Dihydrogen monoxide

4. What is the chemical name of CaCO3, K3PO4, MgSO4, HBr, Li2CO3, K2Cr2O7,
NH4NO2, PF3, P4O6, SrSO4, Al (OH) 3, Na2CO3, ClO2, PCl5, SO2,
S4N4, NaH, Li3N, BF3, CBr4, Na2O, CsF, LiH, GaBr, N2O5, Na2SO3, P2S5.

5. Write the balanced equation for the following chemical reactions

(a) Hydrogen + Chlorine → Hydrogen chloride.
(b) Barium chloride + Aluminum sulphate → Barium sulphate + Aluminum chloride.
(c) Ammonium sulphate + Barium chloride → Ammonium chloride + Barium sulphate
(d) Sulphur tetrafluoride + Water → Sulphur dioxide + Hydrogen fluoride.
(e) Calcium hydroxide + Carbon dioxide → Calcium carbonate + Water.

6. Write the balanced chemical equation with symbols for the following reactions:
(a) Hydrogen gas combines with nitrogen to form ammonia.
(b) Potassium metal reacts with water to give potassium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
(c) Chlorine gas is bubbled into a solution of potassium bromide, forming bromine
liquid and potassium chloride solution.

7. What is the formula of the compound corresponding to the combination of each of the
following pairs?
(a) Al and S (c) ClO3- and Co3+
(b) PO43- and Mg2+ (d) Nitrogen and lithium

8. Identify the group or period number described by each of the following statements:
(a) Contains the elements C, N and O (c) Begins with helium
(b) Ends with neon (d) Contains Na, K and Rb

Long Question answer:

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1. The ion with the symbol X2+ formed from an element
(a) What is the group number of the element?
(b) If X is in period 2, what is the name of the element?
(c) What is the formula of the compound formed from X and nitride ion?
(d) Name the compound.

2. Use the periodic table to answer the following questions.

(a) Two element with five electrons in the outer subshell.
(b) Two element that would tend to lose two electrons.
(c) Name the group having non-metal, liquid at the room temperature.
(d) Three elements with filled outermost shells
(e) Two shells, both of which are completely filled with electrons?
(f) A total of three shells, with four electrons in its valence shell?
(g) Twice as many electrons in its second shell as in its first shell?

Chapter - 3

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 Redox Reaction
Definitions
 Oxidation:
 loss of electrons Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-
Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e-
Sn2+ → Sn4+ + 2e-
 Reduction:
 gain of electrons Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
Fe3+ + e- → Fe2+
Hg2+ + e- → Hg +

Further, in a chemical reaction, there is no net loss or gain of electrons. Therefore, loss
and gain of electrons from one substance to another must take place simultaneously. In
other words, in a chemical reaction, a substance can gain electrons only if another
substance that can lose electrons is also present in the reaction. Similarly, a substance can
lose electrons only if another substance that can gain electrons is also present in the
reaction. This means oxidation can take place only if reduction also takes place at the
same time and vice-versa.

Therefore, oxidation and reduction always occur side by side. For Example, let us
consider reaction between sodium metal and chlorine to form sodium chloride.
2Na(s) + Cl2 (g) → 2NaCl(s)
No. of electrons lost = no. of electrons gain
2Na → 2Na+ +2e- (oxidation half)
- -
Cl2 + 2e → 2Cl (reduction half)

2Na+ Cl2 → 2NaCl (Redox reaction)

Thus, the overall reaction involves the transfer of electrons from sodium metal to chlorine.
It means, that sodium metal gets oxidized to Na+ ion while chlorine gets reduced to Cl-
ions so that overall reaction involves oxidation and reduction and is known as REDOX
Reaction

REDOX reaction is the sum of an oxidation half-reaction in which electrons are lost and a
reduction half- reaction in which electrons are gained.

Oxidation number

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It is the number that tells the extent to which an element has been oxidized or reduced in a
compound or ion.

Rules for assigning oxidation number

1. Atoms in its elemental form is always zero.
 A substance is elemental if only one kind of atom is present and charge = 0
e.g. Cl2, O3, S8: the oxidation number of Cl, O, S =0
Al, Na, Ba, Fe: the oxidation number = 0
2. The oxidation number of a monatomic ion = charges of the monatomic ion
e.g. Oxidation numbers of Fe2+ = +2, Al3+ = +3, S2- = -2, N3- = -3
3. The oxidation number of group 1A metals = + 1 (unless elemental)
4. The oxidation number of group 2A metals = + 2 (unless elemental)
5. The oxidation number of Fluorine is always -1 (unless elemental)
6. Hydrogen is usually +1 (with nonmetal like HCl) and -1 (with metal like NaH, CaH 2).
7. The oxidation number of Group 7A (Chlorine, bromine, and iodine) is usually –1.
8. The oxidation number of Oxygen is always -2, but in peroxides (H2O2, Na2O2) is -1.
9. The sum of the oxidation numbers for a neutral compound is zero
10. The sum of the oxidation numbers of a polyatomic ion = charge on the polyatomic ion

Redox reaction in terms of Oxidation number

An atom undergoes oxidation when it increases its oxidation number. It undergoes

reduction when its oxidation number decreases. Since the no. of electrons in a chemical
reaction remains the same, reduction of one atom must accompany the oxidation of
another. Therefore, any reaction involving changes in oxidation numbers is redox reaction.

Sn is converted to Sn2+ by losing two electrons and is oxidized. On the other hand, H+ ion
gains electron and is reduced. The oxidation number of Sn increases from 0 to 2+ when it
gets oxidized. The oxidation number of H decreases from 1+ to 0 when it gets reduced.

Oxidizing and Reducing agent:

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An Oxidizing agent is a substance, which undergoes decrease of oxidation number of one
or more of its constituent atoms. Likewise, a Reducing agent is a substance, which
undergoes increase of oxidation number of one or more of its constituent atoms.
In the reaction above, HCl acts as oxidizing agent while Sn acts as reducing agent.

Exercise

Tick the correct answer:

1. What is the oxidation number of phosphorus in KH2PO4?
(a) -6 (b) -2 (c) 0 (d) +5
2. Mg + PbCl2 → MgCl2 + Pb. Which statement correctly describes the oxidation and
reduction that occur?
(a) Mg is reduced and Cl─ is oxidized (c) Mg is reduced and Pb+2 is oxidized
(b) Mg is oxidized and Pb+2 is reduced (d) Mg is oxidized and Cl─ is reduced
3. In the reactions Sn+2 + 2 Fe+3 → Sn+4 + 2 Fe+2, the reducing agent is
(a) Sn+2 (b) Fe+2 (c) Fe+3 (d) Sn+4
4. As an element is oxidized, its oxidation number
(a) Increases as electrons are lost (c) decreases as electrons are gained
(b) Decreases as electrons are lost (d) increases as electrons are gained
5. Which one of the following reactions does not involve either oxidation or reduction
+¿ ¿
(a) VO2 → V2O3 (c) Na →Na+
(b) CrO 2−¿¿
4 → Cr 2 O2−¿¿
7 (d) Zn2+ → Zn
6. The oxidation number and valency of C in C12H22O11 is
(a) +4 and 4 (c) +3 and 0
(b) +2 and 4 (d) 0 and 4
7. The correct decreasing order of oxidation number of oxygen in compounds BaO2,O3,
KO2, OF3 is
(a) OF2 > O3>KO2 > BaO2 (c) BaO2 > KO2 > O3 > OF2
(b) BaO2 > O3 > OF2 > KO2 (d) KO2 > OF2 > O3 > BaO2
8. In which of the following reactions there is no change in oxidation number?
(a) SO2 + 2 H2S →2H2O (c) 2Na +O2 → Na2O2
(b) Na2O + H2SO4 →Na2SO4 +H2O (d) 4KClO3 → 3KClO4 + KCl
Short question answer:
1. Calculate the oxidation number to the underlined elements in each of the following
compounds: NaH2PO4, NaBH4, H2S2O7, KAl(SO4)2, MoO42-, ClF3, SbF6- C2O42-

2. Identify the substance oxidized, reduced, oxidizing agent and reducing agent for each
of the following reactions:
(a) 2Na + H2 → 2NaH (g) 2Al +3I2 → 2Al I3
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(b) CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O (h) Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
(c) 4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O (i) H2S + Cl2 → 2HCl + S
(d) PbO + CO → Pb + CO2 (j) SiCl4 + 2H2O → 4HCl + SiO2
(e) NaOH + HCl → NaOH + H2O (k) CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
(f) Cl2 +2Br─ → 2Cl─ + Br2 (l) Co +Ni2+ → Co2+ + Ni

Chapter - 4
. Mole concept
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Mole: A mole is simply a unit of measurement or a unit of the amount of substances.
The atomic masses or the molecular masses when expressed in grams is called mole
Units: moles

Given mass
Number of moles = Atomic mass∨molecular mass

Molecular mass of a compound

 The sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a compound.
 It can be determined by adding the individual masses of each atom in the
compound.
 It is calculated in amu (atomic mass unit)

Molecular Mass of Carbon monoxide

• The formula for carbon monoxide is composed of one atom of carbon and one atom
of oxygen
• Atomic mass of C = 12.01 (from Periodic Table)
Atomic mass of O = 16.00 (from Periodic Table)
Molecular Mass for carbon monoxide = atomic mass carbon + atomic mass oxygen
= 12.01 + 16.00
   = 28.01amu

Expressing Concentration of Solution

The concentration of a solution refers to the relative amounts of a solute and solvent
present in the solution.

Molarity: the number of moles of a solute dissolved per liter of a solution

Number of moles of solute
Molarity = Volume of solution ∈litres

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 Exercise

1. How many moles are present in 36 g of carbon?

2. Calculate mass of 4 mole of sodium chloride?
3. How many moles of hydrogen are required to react with 2.5 mole of oxygen to
produce water?
4. What mass of carbon dioxide is produced by the complete combustion of 100 g of the
hydrocarbon pentane C5H12?
5. Calculate the Molarity of 25 g of KBr dissolved in 750 mL of water.
6. How many grams of KMnO4 are needed to make 500 mL of a 0.2 M solution?
7. A 10 g of acetic acid (CH3COOH) is dissolved in 500 mL of solution. What is
Molarity?

22 Version 4
 Chapter - 5
Chemical Kinetics

The study of rate of reaction and their mechanism is called as chemical kinetics.

Rate of a reaction
A rate is a change of quantity with time.
The rate of reaction is the change in concentration of any of the reactants or products
per unit time.

change∈concentration of reactant∨ product

Rate of reaction =
time

For example, a reaction in which one mole of A decompose to form one mole of C and D
A→C+D
The rate of the reaction is expressed as
Decrease∈ concentration of A
Rate of reaction =
time taken

Increase∈concentration of C
= =
time taken
Increase∈concentration of D
time taken

Since for every mole of A that reacts, one mole of the product C (or D) is formed,
therefore, the rate at which any one of the reactants disappears is equal to the rate at which
any of the products is formed
Rule of writing the rate of the reaction:

1. Concentration of the reactant or product is represented by a square bracket i.e. the

symbol or formula of the substance is written in square bracket.
2. Concentration is expressed in moles per liter (mol/L).
3. Unit of rate of reaction is mol/L sec.
4. The change, Δ is assigned a negative sign when rate is expressed in terms of change of
concentration of reactants because their concentration decreases with time. Δ is
assigned a positive sign when rate is expressed in terms of change of concentration of
products because their concentration increases with time.

−∆ [ A] ∆[C ] ∆[ D]
Example: A → C + D Rate of reaction = = ∆t = ∆t
∆t

23 Version 4
 −∆ [PCl5 ] ∆[ P Cl3 ]
PCl5 → PCl3 + Cl2 Rate of reaction =
∆t
= ∆t
=
∆[Cl 2]
∆t

5. For a given reaction: A + B → 2C in which the balancing co-efficient of different

substance in the reaction are not equal. In this reaction, the rate of disappearance of A
is equal to the rate of disappearance of B but is half of the rate of formation of C.
Therefore, the rate of reaction is made equivalent by dividing the rate expression by
the stoichiometric coefficient in the balanced equation for the reaction.

−∆ [ A] −∆ [B] ∆[C ]
Example: A + B → 2C Rate of reaction = = ∆t = 2∆t
∆t

−∆ [ HI ] ∆[ H 2 ] ∆[ I 2 ]
2HI → H2 + I2 Rate of reaction =
2∆t
= ∆t
= ∆t

Factors, which influence the rate of reaction, are:

1. Effect of chemical nature of the reactants

Generally, a reaction-taking place between the ionic compounds is faster than the
reaction-taking place between the covalent carbon compounds.

For example:
The reaction between NaCl and AgNO3 (both ionic compounds) in solution to give
AgCl precipitate and NaNO3 occurs very fast.
NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) → AgCl + NaNO3 (aq)

The reaction between ethyl alcohol and acetic acid (both covalent compounds) to form
ethyl acetate and water occurs slowly
C2H5OH (l) + CH3COOH (l) → CH3COOC2H5 (l) + H2O (l)

The reactions taking place between covalent carbon compounds involve breaking of
the covalent bonds existing among the atoms of the reactants and forming of the new
covalent bonds, among the atoms that form the products. Hence, these reactions are
slow. In ionic reactions however no such breaking and forming of bonds is necessary.
Hence, these ionic reactions are faster than the covalent reactions.
2. Effect of concentration of reactants
Concentration refers to how much solute is dissolved in a solution. If a greater
concentration of reactant atoms and molecules is present, there is a greater chance that

24 Version 4
 collisions will occur among them. More collisions mean a higher reaction rate. Thus,
increasing the concentration of the reactants usually results in a higher reaction rate. At
lower concentrations, there is less chance for collisions between particles. This means
that decreasing the concentrations of the reactants results in a lower reaction rate.

3. Effect of temperature
The rate of reaction generally increases with increase in the temperature of the
reaction. At higher temperatures, the increase in kinetic energy makes the reacting
molecules move faster, so that they collide with each other more frequently and with
more energy. Thus, the higher the temperature, the greater the rate of reaction. If you
decrease the temperature, the opposite effect occurs. The particles move more slowly,
colliding less frequently and with less energy. In this case, the rate of reaction
decreases.

4. Surface area
It is the measure of how much area of an object is exposed. For the same mass, many
small particles have a greater total surface area than one large particle. For example,
steel wool has a larger surface area than a block of steel of the same mass. This allows
oxygen molecules to collide with many more iron atoms per unit of time. The more
surface contact between reactants, the higher the rate of reaction. The less surface
contact, the lower the reaction rate.

5. Effect of catalyst
Reactions that take place slowly at room temperature are fastened by adding another
substance generally in small amounts to the reaction mixture. This substance is called
catalyst. The catalyst involved in the reaction but is not consumed in the reaction.
Catalysts reduce the amount of energy required to break and form bonds during a
chemical reaction. When catalysts are used, a reaction can proceed although less
energy is added during the reaction. For example, enzymes are catalysts that allow
chemical reactions to occur at relatively low temperatures within the body

25 Version 4
 Exercise

Tick the correct answer:

1. Which of the following statement is correct?

(a) The rate of a reaction decreases with time as the concentration of reactants decrease
(b) The rate of a reaction is same at any time during the reaction.
(c) The rate of a reaction is independent of temperature change.
(d) The rate of reaction decreases with increase in concentration of reactants.

2. For the given reaction 2NH3 Platnium

→
N2 + 3H2. Platinum is acting as a
(a) Reactant (c) Product
(b) Catalyst (d) None

∆[ R]
3. For the reaction P + 3Q → 2R, the rate of appearance of R given by may also be
∆t
expressed as
∆ [ R] ∆ [ P] ∆ [ R ] −3 ∆ [ Q ]
(a) = (c) =
∆t ∆t ∆t 2∆t

∆[ R] −2 ∆[Q] ∆[ R] −∆ [P]
(b) = (d) =
∆t 3∆t ∆t 2∆t

4. The unit of rate of reaction are

(a) L /mole. s (c) L2 / mole2.s
(b) s-1 (d) mole/ L.s

5. For the reaction 5Br ─ + BrO3─ + 6H+ → 3Br2 + 3H2O at a particular time, ∆ ¿ ¿ = 1.5
x 10-2 mole/L.s. What is ∆ ¿ ¿ at the same instant?
(a) 13 mole/L.s (c) 7.5 x 10-2 mole/L.s
(b) 1.5 x 10-2 mole/L.s (d) 3 x 10-2 mole/L.s

Short question answer:

−∆ [ R ] + ∆ [ P ]
1. For a chemical reaction R → S, the rate of reaction is represented by or .
∆t ∆t
∆ [ R] ∆ [ P]
Why a negative sign is placed before and not before ?
∆t ∆t

2. When NH3 is heated with O2, its rate of disappearance is 3.5 x 10-2 mole/L.s during a
measured time interval. Calculate the rate of appearance of NO and H2O.

26 Version 4
3. When nitrogen reacts with hydrogen, it forms ammonia.
(a) Express the rate of reaction.
(b) Name the type of reaction.

4. How would each of the following change the rate of the reaction shown here?
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2SO3 (g)

(a) Adding SO2 (c) Raising the temperature

(b) Adding the catalyst (d) Removing some O2

5. Why are reactions between ions in solution usually very much faster than reactions
between covalent substances?
6. What are the factors affecting the rate of reaction? Explain them.

Long question answers:

1. For the reaction : 4HBr + O2 →2Br2 + 2H2O.Write the rate of reaction in terms of
(a) Rate of formation of Br2
(b) Rate of disappearance of HBr
(c) Rate of disappearance of O2
(d) Also, show the relationship in between these expressions.
(e) If the rate of disappearance of HBr is 2.8 x 10-4mole/L.s during a measured time
interval. Find the rate of disappearance of O2 and the rate of appearance of H2O.

27 Version 4
 Chapter – 6
Solution

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two substances: a solute and a solvent.

 Solute: substance being dissolved; present in lesser amount.

 Solvent: substance doing the dissolving; present in larger amount.
 Solutes and solvents may be of any form of matter: solid, liquid or gas.

Solubility:
Maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specific
temperature.

 Depends upon the nature of solute and solvent as well as temperature and pressure.

Based on solubility, the types of solutions are:

(1) Saturated solution
 contains the maximum amount of solute in a given solvent at a specific temperature.
 a solution in equilibrium with undissolved solute.

(2) Unsaturated solution

 contains less solute than it has the capacity to dissolve.
 a solution not in equilibrium with dissolved solute.
 more solute can be dissolved.

(3) Supersaturated solution

 contains more solute than is present in a saturated solution.
 unstable solution.
 Preparation : heat solution to high temperature, then slowly cool.

Factors affecting the Solubility:

 Pressure effects: pressure has little effect on the solubilities of solid or liquids; it does
significantly increase the solubility of a gas. Carbonated drinks for example, are
28 Version 4
 always bottled at high pressures of carbon dioxide to ensure the high concentration of
carbon dioxide in the liquid. The fizzing that occurs when you open a can of soda
results from the escape of gaseous of carbon dioxide because under these condition the
pressure of CO2 above the solution is now much lower than that used in the bottling
process

 Temperature effect: the dissolving of a solid occurs more rapidly at higher

temperatures, but the amount of solid that can be dissolved may increase or decrease
with increasing temperature. The effect of temperature on the solubility in water of
several solids is shown in solubility curve graph.

Note:
 Solubility of most solids (not all) in water increases with temperature,
 Example of exceptions where the solubilities of substance decreases with
increase in temperatures
CaSO4, Ca (OH) 2, Ce2 (SO4) 3
 The solubility of a gas in water always decrease with increasing temperature for
example SO2, NH3

29 Version 4
 Exercise
Tick the correct answer:
1. The solubility of KClO3(s) in water increases as the
(a) temperature of the solution increases
(b) temperature of the solution decreases
(c) pressure on the solution increases
(d) pressure on the solution decreases
2. Under which conditions of temperature and pressure is a gas most soluble in water?
(a) high temperature and low pressure
(b) high temperature and high pressure
(c) low temperature and low pressure
(d) low temperature and high pressure
3. A student adds solid KCl to water in a beaker. The solution is stirred until no more
solid KCl dissolves. Some solid KCl is still visible in the beaker. The solution in the
beaker is
(a) saturated (b) supersaturated (c) unsaturated (d) none

4. Solubility data for four different salts in water at 60°C are given in the table below
Salt Solubility in water at 60°C
A 10 g in 50 g of water
B 20 g in 60 g of water
C 30 g in 120 g of water
D 40 g in 80 g of water
Which salt is most soluble at 60°C?
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D

Short question answer:

1. Define solute, solvent and solution by describing the process of dissolving a solid in a
liquid.
2. Explain saturated, unsaturated and supersaturated solution.

30 Version 4
Long question answer:
1. Answer the questions based on the solubility curve

(a) Points that collectively make up the solubility curve (points ON the curve)
represent ________________, BELOW the curve represents
__________________, and ABOVE the curve represents _________________
solution.

(b) Which is more soluble NaNO3 or KCl?

(c) How many grams of NH4Cl will dissolve in 100 grams of 90°C Water?
(d) How many grams of NH4Cl will dissolve in 50 grams of 90°C water?
(e) How many grams of KClO3 will dissolve in 300 grams of 30°C water?
(f) How would you make a saturated solution of KNO3 at 60°C in 50 grams of water?

31 Version 4
 (g) A saturated solution of NH3 in 100 grams of water at 10°C. How many grams of
NH3 gas would bubble out of the solution if you raise the temperature to 80°C?
(h) A saturated solution of KNO3 in 400 grams of water at 50°C is cooled to 10°C.
How much KNO3 will come out of the solution as crystals?

2. Answer the questions based on the solubility curve

(a) 100 grams of water is saturated with NH4Cl at 50 oC. If the temperature is lowered
to 10 oC, what is the total amount of NH4Cl that will precipitate?
(b) A student uses 200 grams of water at a temperature of 60 °C to prepare a saturated
solution of potassium chloride, KCl.
1. Identify the solute in this solution.
2. According to the solubility graph, how many grams of KCl must be used to
create this saturated solution?
3. This solution is cooled to 10 °C and the excess KCl settles out. The resulting
solution is saturated at 10 °C. How many grams of KCl settle out of the solution?
(c) At room temperature, the solubility of which solute in water would be most
affected by a change in pressure?
Methanol (l) / sugar (s) / carbon dioxide (g) / sodium nitrate (s)
32 Version 4
 (d) Which substance forms an unsaturated solution when 80 grams of the substance is
dissolved in 100 grams of H2O at 10°C? KI / KNO3 / NaNO3 / NaCl
(e) A temperature change from 60°C to 90°C has the least effect on the solubility of
SO2 / NH3 / KCl / KClO3
3. Answer the questions based on the solubility curve

(a) A solution of KClO3 has 20 grams of the salt dissolved in 100 grams of water at
70 ºC. Approximately how many more grams of the salt can be added to the
solution before reaching the saturation point?
(b) Which of these salts decreases in solubility as the temperature increases?
(c) When 20 grams of KClO3, is dissolved in 100 grams of water at 80 ºC, the
solution can be described as Saturated / Supersaturated / Unsaturated
(d) A beaker containing 80 grams of Pb (NO3)2 in 100 grams of water have a
temperature of 30 ºC. How many grams of the salt are undissolved, on the bottom
of the beaker?

(e) At approximately what temperature does the solubility of sodium chloride, NaCl,
match the solubility of potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7?

33 Version 4
 Chapter - 7
Chemical Bond

Chemical bonds are the attractive forces that hold atoms together in a compound.
In the chemical bond, the atoms of various elements combine with on another by
undergoing electronic rearrangement so as to have 8 electrons in the outermost shell
(except hydrogen have 2 electrons) and thus acquire stable noble gas configuration. This is
known as Octet Rule.

Only the electrons called valence electrons, which are present in the outermost shell,
called valence shell can participate in bond formation. This is because the outermost
electrons are the farthest away from the nucleus and are therefore not very firmly bound to
the nucleus. They are easy to remove.

Dot & Cross Structure

 It consists of an element symbol surrounded by the dots or cross.
 The dot or cross represents the valence electron & 8 electrons is the maximum

Types of Chemical Bonding:

Ionic Bond
 Transfer of one or more electrons from the valence shell of one atom to
valence shell of another atom.

34 Version 4
  It is formed when a metal (forms cation) transfer electrons to an nonmetal (forms
anion)
 The atom which loses the electron acquires the positive charge(called cation)& the
atom which accept the electron acquires the negative charge (called anion) .

1.Formation of NaCl

An electron is transferred from the 3s orbitalof the sodium to the 3p orbital of the chlorine,
both the atom ends up with the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas.Sodium
attains the electronic configuration of neon & chlorine attains the electronic configuration
of argon

2. Formation of Al2O3

3. Formation of Na2S

35 Version 4
4. Formation of CaS

Reference: https://www.topperlearning.com/answer/give-electron-dot-structure-of-following-ionic-
compounds-1-al2o3-2-na2s-3-cas/zok41b333

Other examples are KCl, Na2O, and CaO etc.

Covalent Bonding
Formed by sharing of an electrons between two nonmetals in Group IV, V, VI, VII
The sharing of electrons between the two atoms takes place in such a way that both the
atoms acquire the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas.

+ 2

+ 3
36 Version 4
Types of covalent bond:
1. Single Covalent Bond: is to be formed when one electron pair is shared between
two bonded atoms. The electron pairs is indicated by a single line between the two
atoms.

2. Double Covalent Bond: is to be formed when two electron pairs are shared between
two bonded atoms. The electron pairs are indicated by a two line between the two
atoms.

3. Triple Covalent Bond: is to be formed when three electron pairs are shared between
two bonded atoms. The electron pairs are indicated by a three line between the two
atoms.

Lone pair and Bond pair electrons

Valence electrons of the atoms are distributed as BOND PAIRS and LONE PAIRS.

Lone Pair

Bonded Pair
Shapes of Molecules

Methane (CH4)

 H-C-H bond angle is 109o

 Tetrahedral shape
 Four bonding pair and zero lone pair
 Example of Tetrahedral shape: CCl4, SiH4, SiF4

37 Version 4
 Ammonia (NH3)

 H-N-H angle is less than109°i.e.107°because the lone

pair likes to spread out as much as possible.
 Three bonding pair and one lone pair
 Trigonal shape
 Example of Trigonal shape: NF3, BF3, SO3, PF3, PCl3

Water (H2O)

 H-O-H angle is even less than109°i.e.104.5°because the

two lone pair like to spread out as much as possible
 Two bonding pair and two lone pair
 Angular shape
 Example of Angular shape: H2S, F2O, SCl2

Exercise
Tick the correct answer:
1. Which compound formed the ionic bond?
(a) SiCl4 (b) LiF (c) B2H6 (d) CCl4
2. Which of the element will NOT combine with oxygen to form a covalent bond?
(a) Si (b) S (c) C (d) Mg
3. How many bonded pair and lone pair of Boron in BF3 molecule?
(a) 1 bonded pair and 3 lone pair (c) 2 bonded pair and 2 lone pair
(b) 3 bonded pair and 0 lone pair (d) 0 bonded pair and 3 lone pair
4. Elements X, Y, Z have atomic number 6, 9 and 12 respectively. Which element has
four electrons in its valence shell?
(a) X (b) X, Y (c) Y (d) Z
5. In a compound XY2, atom X give one electron to each Y atom. What is the nature of
bond in XY2
(a) Ionic bond (b) Covalent bond (c) Both (a) & (b) (d) None

Short question answers:

38 Version 4
1. Draw the dot or cross symbols for the following atoms and ions: H, H+, H─, I-, P3─,
Mg2+, Al3+, Ca, Xe, Ge, Te.
2. Why the bond angle in water is less than that of ammonia?
3. How many lone pairs are on the underlined atoms in HBr, H2S, and CH4 compound?
4. Draw the shapes of CH4 and NH3 with their shape name and bond angle
5. Give the electron dot structures of N2, CaO, AlCl3, Cl2, C2H2, HCl and CO2.Also
predict the type of the chemical bonding in the these molecules.

6. Draw the dot structure of the following:

(a) Period 2, group 4A element
(b) Period 3, group 2A element
(c) Period 4, group 6A element
7. There are three elements A, B, C with atomic number 19, 8 and 17 respectively.
(a) Classify the elements as metals and nonmetals.
(b) Give the chemical formula of the molecules formed in between A and C, A and B
only B, only C
(c) Predict the type of chemical bond in these molecules.

Long question answer:

1. A compound has the formula H2Y (Y is a nonmetal). Answer the following questions
(a) Valence electrons in Y
(b) Valency of Y
(c) Chemical bonding in H2Y
(d) The chemical formula of the compound formed in between calcium and Y
(e) Chemical bonding in between calcium and Y

2. Explain the chemical bonding in between

(a) K and S (b) Al and N (c) C and Cl4

39 Version 4
 Chapter - 8
Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are the compounds made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms bonded to each
other by covalent bonds

Two types of hydrocarbons:

1. Saturated hydrocarbon: have only single covalent bond between carbon atoms.
These hydrocarbons are classified as alkane.
Alkane: hydrocarbons with single covalent bond having a general formula Cn H2n+2
and used in petroleum, petrol, diesel oil.

IUPAC rules for Naming Alkanes

1. Find the parent (the longest continuous carbon chain). It does not matter whether the
chain is straight or bend.

40 Version 4
2. If there are two chains of equal length, select the chain with more substituents.

3. Numbering alkanes with substituents: number the carbon chain to give the
substituent the lowest number.

2. Unsaturated hydrocarbon: have double or triple covalent bond between carbon

atoms.
a) Alkenes: have a double covalent bond in carbon atoms having a general formula
Cn H2n and are used in polyethene.

b) Alkynes: have a triple covalent bond in carbon atoms having a general formula
Cn H2n-2 and are used in welding purpose (gas is acetylene)

41 Version 4
IUPAC rules for Naming Alkenes and Alkynes
1. Select the longest carbon chain containing the double bond or triple bond
2. Name the longest chain. The name is obtained by dropping the final –ane from the
name of the corresponding alkane, and adding the ending —ene if alkene, ─ yne if
alkyne
3. The chain is numbered from the end that gives lower number to the first carbon atom
of the double bond or triple bond

4. Alkyl groups and other substituent’s are numbered ,named and placed as prefixes in
alphabetic order

Preparation of alkane:

1. From unsaturated hydrocarbons: Hydrogen gas adds to alkenes and alkynes in the
presence of catalysts like platinum, palladium or nickel to form alkane. This process
is called hydrogenation.

CH2 = CH2 + H2 Pt→/¿ CH3 — CH3

Ethene Ethane

CH3 — CH = CH2 + H2 Pt /¿ CH3 — CH2 — CH3

→
Propene Propane

CH3─ C ≡ C — H + 2H2 Pt→/¿ CH — CH2 — CH3

Propyne Propane

2. From alkyl halides: Alkyl halides (except fluorides) on reduction with zinc and dilute
hydrochloric acid give alkane.

CH3 — Cl + H2 Zn CH4 + HCl

→
Chloromethane Methane

C2H5 — Cl + H2 Zn C2H6 + HCl

→
Chloroethane Ethane

42 Version 4
Hydrocarbon reactions: they undergo three types of reaction

1. Combustion reaction: hydrocarbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and
water.
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
C2H4 + 3O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
2C2H2 + 5O2 → 4CO2 + 2H2O

2. Substitution reaction:
 Only saturated hydrocarbon (alkane) undergoes substitution reaction.
 Halogens, nitro group and sulphonic acid group can replace one or more hydrogen
atoms of alkane.
 Halogenation takes place either at higher temperature (573-773 K) or in the
presence of sunlight

Halogenation:
CH4 + Cl2 hv
→
CH3Cl + HCl
Chloromethane

CH3Cl + Cl2 hv
→
CH2 Cl2 + HCl
Dichloromethane

CH2Cl2 + Cl2 hv
→
CHCl3 + HCl
Tri chloromethane

CHCl3 + Cl2 hv
→
CCl4 + HCl
Tetra chloromethane

3. Addition reaction: Only unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reaction. Alkenes

and alkynes react with halogen and hydrogen halides

CH2 = CH2 + HCl → CH3 — CH2Cl

Ethene Chloroethane

CH ≡ CH + HBr → CH2 = CH Br
Ethyne Bromoethene

CH2 = CH2 + Cl2 → CH2Cl — CH2Cl

Ethene Dichloroethane

CH ≡ CH + Cl2 → CHCl = CHCl + Cl2 → CHCl2 — CHCl2

Ethyne Dichloroethene Dichloroethane
43 Version 4
Markovnikov Rule: The rule states that negative part of the adding molecule gets
attached to that carbon atom which possess lesser number of hydrogen atoms
Or
When an unsymmetrical alkene reacts with a hydrogen halide to give an alkyl halide, the
hydrogen adds to the carbon that has the greater number of hydrogen substituents, and the
halogen to the carbon having the fewer number of hydrogen substituents

H3C—CH=CH2 + H—Br → H3C—CHBr —CH3

Isomerism: Difference in the arrangement of atom in the molecule i.e., the isomers have
different structure

Butane (C4H10)

Butene (C4H8)

Pentane (C5H12)

Pentene (C5H10)

44 Version 4
Functional groups: is the group which largely determines the chemical properties of a
compound, e.g. CH3OH, C2H5OH, C3H7OH are all collectively called alcohols as the
common reactive group in all these is -OH

Importance of Functional Groups:

1. Functional groups serve as a basis for nomenclature of organic compounds.
2. These make the identification of organic compounds easy
3. The properties and nature of a newly synthesized organic compound can be
established on the basis of functional groups present in it.

Name of the family Functional group Example

Alkenes ˃C=C˂ CH2= CH2
Alkynes —C ≡ C— CH≡CH
Alcohols R—OH C2H5OH (Ethanol)
Aldehydes —CHO CH3CHO (Acetaldehyde)
Ketones ˃C = O CH3COCH3 (Acetone)
Carboxylic acids —COOH CH3COOH (Acetic acid)
Alcohols
Alcohols are compounds in which a hydroxyl group (—OH) is bonded to a saturated
carbon. Example: Ethyl alcohol (CH3CH2OH), Propyl alcohol (CH3CH2CH2OH)
Aldehydes
Aldehydes are compounds in which the carbonyl group (C=O) is bonded to an organic
group and hydrogen.
Example: Formaldehyde (H—C—H), Acetaldehyde (CH3—C—H)
‖ ‖
O O
Ketones
Ketones are compounds in which the carbonyl group (C=O) is bonded to two organic
groups.
Example: Acetone (CH3—C—CH3)
‖
O
Carboxylic Acid
Carboxylic acids are compounds which contain the carboxyl group (—COOH)

45 Version 4
 Exercise
Tick the correct answer:
1. A hydrocarbon that contains a triple bond is
(a) Alkene (b) Alkane (c) Alkyne (d) All of them

2. The shape of methane is

(a) Linear (b) Trigonal (c) Tetrahedral (d) Square
3. Which one of the following compounds does not give addition reactions
(a) Alkanes (b) Alkenes (c) Alkynes (d) None

4. Which represents an alkane?

(a) C5H8 (b) C8H6 (c) C9H10 (d) C7H16

5. Which of the following gases is used for welding?

(a) Methane (b) Ethane (c) Acetylene (d) Ethene

6. Which hydrocarbon is most reactive?

(a) C ≡ C (b) C ═ C (c) C ─ C (d) All of these
7. The homologue of Ethyne is
(a) C2H4 (b) C2H6 (c) C3H8 (d) C3H4

8. The propene reacts with HBr to form

(a) Ethane (b) Ethyne (c) 1 bromo propane (d) 2 bromo propane
9. Which hydrocarbon is having a general formula CnH2n-2?
(a) Alkanes (b) Alkenes (c) Alkynes (d) None

10. An organic compound that has the functional group ─ OH is

(a) Alkyne (b) Alcohol (c) Carboxylic acid (d) Ketone

Short question answer:

1. Explain the classification of hydrocarbons
2. What are the types of bond presents in alkenes and alkynes respectively?
3. Explain the method of preparation of alkane from Alkyne
4. What is Markownikoff’s rule? Explain with the help of example
5. Explain the halogenations of methane with the help of reaction and name the products
formed in the reaction.
6. What do you understand by the term functional group? Give the structures and names
of the four functional groups.
7. Draw the isomers of pentene with their name.

46 Version 4
8. Draw a structural formula for each of the following compounds.
(a) 2,4-dibromopentane (g) 2- methyl propane
(b) 2,3-dimethyl butane (h) 2, 2, 4-Trimethylpentane
(c) 2-Chloro-2-methylpropane (j) 1- Butyne
(d) 1-chloro-2- butane (k) 4-methyl 1-pentyne
(e) 2- butene (l) 2,3 dichloro 2-pentene

9. Write the names for each of the following compounds:

_________________ _______________ _______________

_________________ ________________ ________________

_______________

__________________ _________________ _________________

__________________ ___________________ __________________

______________ _____________

10. What is wrong with the following names? Give the correct name for each compound
(a) 2 - ethyl propane (d) 4- methyl 3- pentene
(b) 1-ethyl 1- methyl propene (e) 2- ethyl butane
(c) 2-chloro 2- butyne (f) 1-methyl propane

47 Version 4
 Chapter – 9
Extraction of Metals

Metals are extracted from its ore by electrolytic process.

Electrolysis is the chemical decomposition of a compound by passing an electricity
through its aqueous solution or fused state.
Example: When fused NaCl is electrolyzed, it decomposes into sodium and chlorine gas

2NaCl (fused) current

→
2Na + Cl2

The process of electrolysis is carried out in a vessel known as electrolytic tank which
contains aqueous solution of the electrolyte. Two metallic plates or rods known as
electrodes are dipped into the solution of electrolyte. One electrode is connected to the
positive terminal and is called anode. The other electrode is connected to the negative
terminal and called cathode.

When an electrolyte is dissolved in water, it produces a positively charged and negatively

charged particles called ions. These ions move here and there in the solution. On passing
electric current, the ions start moving towards oppositely charged electrodes. The
positively charged ions move towards cathode and are called cations while negatively
charged ions move towards the anode and are called anions. As these ions reach the
respective electrodes, a chemical reaction takes place.

Reactions taking place at cathode is always reduction, which involves the gain of
electrons by the cation. Reactions taking place at anode is always oxidation, which
involves the loss of electrons by a substance.

48 Version 4
Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride: Molten sodium chloride contains free moving
Na+ and Cl- ions. On passing electric current through the molten sodium chloride

At the cathode: 2Na+ + 2e- → 2Na(s) (reduction)

At the anode: 2Cl─ - 2e- → 2Cl (g) (oxidation)
Cl (g) + Cl (g) → Cl2 (g)
Overall reaction: 2NaCl(s) →2Na + Cl2

Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis

Faraday’s First law: The mass of the substance liberated or deposited at any electrode
during the electrolysis of an electrolyte is directly proportional to the quantity of
electricity passing through the electrolyte.
Atomic mass ×current × time
Mathematically, Mass = valency ×96500

Faraday’s Second Law: The amounts of different substances liberated or deposited by the
same quantity of electricity passing through the electrolyte are proportional to their
equivalent weight.
Massof A Equivalent weight of A
Mass of B
= Equivalent weight of B

Suppose three cells containing H2SO4, CuSO4 and AgNO3 solutions are connected in series. If the
same quantity of electricity is passed through these cells, then the amount of hydrogen, silver and
copper deposited at the respective cathodes is in the ratio of their equivalent mass.

Amount of substance liberated Massof hydrogen Massof copper

= = =
Equivalent mass of the substance Eq. mass of hydrogen Eq. mass of copper
Mass of ¿ ¿ ¿
Eq . mass of ¿

Amount of substance liberated Massof hydrogen Massof copper Mass of ¿ ¿

= = = 107.88
Equivalent mass of the substance 1.008 31.78
49 Version 4
 Exercise
Tick the correct answer:
1. An electric current is passed through a solution of lithium bromide. Which pair of
electrode and ions is correct?
(a) Cathode: Lithium, Anode: Bromine (c) Cathode: Bromine, Anode: Lithium
(b) Cathode: Lithium, Anode: Lithium (d) Cathode: Bromine, Anode: Bromine
2. The process of decomposition of an electrolyte by passing electric current through its
solution is called as__________
(a) Electrolyte (c) Electrode
(b) Electrolysis (d) Electrochemical cell

3. During the electrolysis of an electrolyte, the number of ions produced is directly

proportional to the
(a) Time consumed (c) Atomic equivalent
(b) Quantity of electricity passed (d) Mass of electrons

4. The chemical reaction-taking place at the anode of a cell is

(a) Ionization (c) Reduction
(b) Oxidation (d) Hydrolysis

Short question answer:

1. State the Faraday’s law of electrolysis.
2. Explain the electrolysis of the sodium chloride.

3. A solution of CuSO4 is electrolyzed for 10 min with a current of 1.5 A. What is the
mass of copper deposited at the cathode?
4. A current of 0.965 A is passed through an aqueous solution of AgNO3 for 10 min
during electrolysis. Calculate the mass of Ag deposited at the Cathode.
5. A 9.65 amp current is passed through molten AlCl3 for 1 min 40 sec during
electrolysis. The mass of Al deposited is 0.09 g at the cathode. What is the valency of
Al?
6. Calculate the current in amperes required to deposit electrolytically 10 g Ag in 2 hrs
from Ag NO3 aqueous solution
7. How much time is required for current of 2A to decompose electrolytically 18 g of
water? Valency of water is +2
8. How many grams of chlorine can be produced by the electrolysis of molten NaCl by a
current of 10 A for 5 min?

50 Version 4
 Chapter -10
Acid & Bases
ARRHENIUS theory
Acid: a substance that produce hydrogen ions (H+)
HCl  H+ + Cl-
H2SO4  2H+ + SO42-
CH3COOH  H+ + CH3COO-

Base: a substance that produce hydroxide ions (OH–)

NaOH  Na+ + OH–
KOH  K+ + OH–
Ca (OH) 2  Ca2+ + 2OH-

BRONTED-LOWRY CONCEPT
Acid: donates hydrogen ion (H+) (proton donor)
Base: accept hydrogen ion (H+) (proton acceptor)

HA + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + A–
Acid Base Conjugate acid Conjugate Base

The conjugate acid is formed when the proton is transferred to the base.
A conjugate base is everything that remains of the acid molecule after a proton is lost.
A conjugate acid-base pair consists of two substances related to each other by the donating
and accepting of a single proton.
In above equation there are two conjugate acid-base pairs: HA and A- and H2O and H3O+

All ions with +ve charge called acid

All ions with –ve charge called base

HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl-

Acid Base Conjugate acid Conjugate Base

CH3COOH + H2O → CH3COO– + H3O+

Acid Base Conjugate acid Conjugate Base

NH3 + H2O → OH– + NH4+

Base Acid Conjugate acid Conjugate Base

Water is called amphoteric substances because it act as acid and base

51 Version 4
Strength of acids: Acids are the ionic compounds that break apart in water to form a
hydrogen ion. The strength of an acid is based on the concentration of H + ions in the
solution. The more the hydrogen ion (H+) the stronger the acid

Example: HCl (Hydrochloric acid) in water

Physical Properties of acid

1. Acid are sour in taste
2. Acid change litmus from blue to red
3. Strong acid are dangerous and can burn the skin

Examples of acid

Strong acid
1. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) in car batteries

Weak acid
1. Vinegar (acetic acid: CH3COOH) used in cooking
2. Citrus fruits (grapes, lemon, orange etc) having citric acid
3. Sting of bee (formic acid: HCOOH)
4. Carbonic acid (H2CO3) in carbonated drinks like Pepsi, 7 UP

Bases: Bases are ionic compounds that break apart to form a negatively charged ion
(OH-) in water. The strength of a base is determined by the concentration of hydroxide
ions (OH-). The greater the concentration of OH- ions the stronger the base

Example: NaOH (Sodium Hydroxide-a strong base) in water

Physical Properties of base:

Hydroxides of alkali metals (group IA) and alkaline earth metals (Group II A) such as
LiOH, NaOH, KOH, Ca (OH) 2 are bases.

Water solution of bases are called alkaline solution or basic solution

1. Base are bitter in taste
2. They are slippery in feeling
3. Turns litmus paper from red to blue
4. Strong bases are very dangerous and can burn your skin

52 Version 4
Example bases
Weak base
1. Sodium bicarbonate(baking soda): NaHCO3
2. Ammonium hydroxide: NH4OH

Strong base
1. Lye(NaOH: Sodium hydroxide also called caustic soda)used in soap manufacturing
2. KOH(Potassium hydroxide also called caustic potash)

Other bases are

1. Milk of magnesia(magnesium hydroxide: Mg(OH) 2 used as antacid)

SALTS
Salts are ionic compound
Acids react with base to form salt and water is called as Neutralization reaction
Acid + base salt + water
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

pH Scale
The strength of an acid or base in a solution is measured on a scale called a pH scale.
pH is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion (H+) or (OH-)concentration
pH = - log[H+] or [H+] = 10-pH
pOH = - log[OH-] or [OH-] = 10-pOH
pH + pOH = 14

The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14

pH = less than 7 is an acidic solution.

pH = 7 is a neutral solution (neither acidic or basic).
pH = greater than 7 is a base .

0 is the strongest acid and 14 is the strongest base

53 Version 4
 Exercise
Tick the correct answer
1. Bases is defined as:
(a) proton acceptors (c) proton donors
(b) electron acceptors (d) electron donors
2. Which substance is an Arrhenius acid?
(a) HCl (b) NaCl (c) LiOH (d)KOH
3. The pH of acids is:
(a) greater than 7 (b) equal to 7 (c) less than 7 (d) 0
4. Which solution will change red litmus to blue?
(a) HCl (b) NaCl (c) CH3OH (d) NaOH
5. A hydrogen ion (H+), is the same as
(a) Neutron (b) electron (c) proton (d) hydroxide ion
−¿¿
6. Which is the conjugate acid of NH 2 ?
+¿¿
(a) NH2─ (b) NH3 (d) NH 4 (d) H+

Short question answer:

1. A solution has a pOH of 11.76. What is the pH of this solution?

2. How do the Brønsted definitions differ from Arrhenius’s definitions of acids and
bases?
3. For each of the following reaction, identify the acid, the base, the conjugate acid, and
the conjugate base
(a) H2O + H2CO3 ⇌ H3O+ + HCO3-
(b) C5H5NH+ + H2O ⇌ C5H5N + H3O+
(c) HSO4─+ H2O ⇌ H3O+ + SO4-2
(d) HCO3─ + C5H5NH+ ⇌ H2CO3 + C5H5N
4. What is a neutralization reaction? Give example.

Long question answer:

1. The pH of a sample is 7.41 at 250C. Calculate pOH, [H+] and [OH-] for the sample.

2. Calculate the [H+] having the [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-7 M. Identify each solution as neutral,
acidic or basic.

54 Version 4
 Valency of Elements and Ions
Valency Elements Cations Anions
Valency = 0 Group VIII elements
Helium, Neon, Argon,
Krypton, Xenon and Radon

Valency = 1 Group I & VII H+ Hydrogen ion Cl- Chloride ion

Monvalent Metals: Lithium, Sodium, Li+ Lithium ion Br- Bromide ion
Potassium Na+ Sodium ion F -
Fluoride ion
Nonmetals: Hydrogen, K+ Potassium ion I- Iodide ion
Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Ag + Silver ion -
NO3 Nitrate ion
Iodine Cu+ Cuprous ion
OH- Hydroxide ion
Hg + Mercurous ion -
NH4+ Ammonium ion HCO3 Bicarbonate ion
HSO3- Bisulphate ion
MnO4- Permanganate ion
ClO3- Chlorate ion
-
AlO2 Aluminate ion
NO2- Nitrite ion
CH3COO- Acetate ion

Valency = 2 Group II & VI Be2+ Beryllium ion O2- Oxide ion

Divalent Metals: Beryllium, Mg2+ Magnesium ion S2- Sulphide ion
Magnesium, Calcium, Ca2+ Calcium ion SO42- Sulphate ion
Strontium, Barium Ba2+ Barium ion C2O42- Oxalate ion
Nonmetals: Oxygen, Sulphur Sr2+ Strontium ion 2-
CO3 Carbonate ion
Ni2+ Nickel ion
SO32- Sulphite ion
Fe2+ Ferrous ion
Cu2+ Cupuric ion O22- Peroxide ion
Sn2+ Stannous ion MnO42- Manganate ion
CrO42- Chromate ion
S2O32- Thiosulphate ion

Valency = 3 Group III & V Al3+ Aluminium ion N3- Nitride ion
Trivalent Metals: Aluminium, Boron, Sb3+ Antimony ion PO43- Phosphate ion
Gallium, Indium As3+ Arsenic ion P3- Phosphide ion
Nonmetals: Nitrogen, Bi 3+ Bismuth ion BO33- Borate ion
Phosphorous, Arsenic, Fe3+ Ferric ion
Antinomy

Valency = 4 Group IV Sn4+ Stannic ion

Tetravalent Nonmetals: Carbon, Silicon, Pt4+ Platinum ion
Germanium

Valency = 5 Group V
Pentavalent Nonmetals: Phosphorous,
Arsenic, Antinomy

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