Commercial Kitchen Ventilation

Related Commercial Resources
CHAPTER 34
KITCHEN VENTILATION
COMMERCIAL KITCHEN VENTILATION ............................ 34.1 HVAC System Design ............................................................. 34.31
Commissioning......................................................................... 34.2 Exhaust Systems ..................................................................... 34.32
Ventilation Design ................................................................... 34.2 Exhaust Fans .......................................................................... 34.33
System Integration and Design ................................................ 34.3 Fire Safety .............................................................................. 34.34
Energy Considerations ............................................................ 34.6 System Commissioning and Air Balancing ............................ 34.38
Thermal Comfort...................................................................... 34.9 Operations and Maintenance ................................................. 34.39
Commercial Exhaust Hoods .................................................. 34.10 RESIDENTIAL KITCHEN VENTILATION............................ 34.41
Cooking Effluent Generation and Control............................. 34.21 Exhaust Systems ..................................................................... 34.41
Replacement (Makeup) Air Systems....................................... 34.25 RESEARCH ............................................................................ 34.43
T HIS chapter focuses primarily on commercial kitchen ventila-

tion (CKV) systems in restaurants and institutional food service
facilities, and incorporates the research and experience (including all
of personnel working in the kitchen and of other building occupants.
Comfort criteria often depend on the local climate, because some
kitchens are not air conditioned. Kitchen ventilation ensures safety
steps of the design process) amassed by TC 5.10 over the past two by providing the means to remove heat, smoke, and grease (cooking
decades. Although a brief section on residential kitchen ventilation effluent) produced during normal cooking operations.
Licensed for single user. © 2019 ASHRAE, Inc.
has been retained, only minor updates have been incorporated over HVAC system designers are most frequently involved in commer-
the history of this chapter. Given ongoing debate on residential cial kitchen applications, in which cooking effluent contains large
range hood performance, TC 5.10 anticipates sponsoring research to amounts of grease or water vapor. Residential kitchens typically use
provide a basis for enhanced design of residential kitchen ventilation a totally different type of hood. The amount of grease produced in
(RKV) systems. residential applications is significantly less than in commercial appli-
To provide a means for codifying critical CKV items as well as cations, so the health and fire hazard is much lower.
provide expertise to code-writing authorities, TC 5.10 sponsors The centerpiece of almost any kitchen ventilation system is an
Standing Standard Project Committee (SSPC) 154, Ventilation for exhaust hood(s), used primarily to remove cooking effluent from
Commercial Cooking Operations. SSPC-154’s scope includes pro- kitchens. Effluent includes gaseous, liquid, and solid contaminants
viding the most complete design guidance available on commercial produced by the cooking process, and may also include products of
kitchen ventilation components and systems. Specific areas include fuel and even food combustion. These contaminants must be
kitchen hoods, exhaust systems, and replacement air systems. removed for both comfort and safety; effluent can be potentially life-
SSPC-154 relies on the significant field experiences of the man- threatening and, under certain conditions, flammable. Finally, note
ufacturers, designers, and users of kitchen ventilation systems. that the arrangement of food service equipment and its coordination
ASHRAE Standard 154 is intended to serve as a template for stan- with the hood(s) can greatly affect the energy used by these systems,
dardization, harmonization, and ongoing revision of related model which in turn affects kitchen operating costs. Quite often, the hood
and adopted codes and to bring consistency to design requirements selection and appliance layout is determined by a kitchen facility
and applications of commercial kitchen ventilation systems. designer. To minimize energy use and ensure a properly designed
kitchen ventilation system, the HVAC engineer should reach out to
1. COMMERCIAL KITCHEN the kitchen designer and share the practices and ideas presented in
VENTILATION this chapter.
Kitchen ventilation is a complex web of interconnected HVAC sys- Sustainability

tems. The main components typically include (1) cooling to address Kitchens are some of the most intensive users of energy for a given
heat from cooking appliances, (2) replacement air to provide proper floor area when compared to other commercial or institutional occu-
pressurization during cooking operations, and (3) exhaust to remove pancies. In addition to energy used during cooking, the kitchen ven-
heat and effluent generated by cooking appliances. System design tilation system must address the large amount of heat emitted or
includes aspects of air conditioning, fire safety, ventilation, building convected into the kitchen from the cooking equipment, and supply
pressurization, refrigeration, air distribution, and food service and condition the replacement air needed to support the cooking
equipment. Kitchens are in many buildings, including restaurants effluent exhaust system as well as ensure acceptable indoor environ-
and retail malls (see Chapter 2), hotels (Chapter 7), hospitals mental quality (IEQ). An additional factor to be considered is the
(Chapter 9), single- and multifamily dwellings (Chapter 1), educa- cooking effluent, and any treatments that may be required before it
tional facilities (Chapter 8), and correctional facilities. Each building is discharged into the atmosphere.
type has special requirements for its kitchens, but many basic needs Given these factors, it is imperative that the kitchen ventilation
are common to all. This chapter provides an understanding of the system be designed with careful consideration of both first costs and
different components of kitchen ventilation systems and where they operating costs. Maintenance costs should also be considered,
can be applied. Additionally, background information is included to including scheduled equipment service and replacement (e.g., hoods
provide an understanding of the history and rationale behind these and exhaust duct cleaning, hood filter cleaning, fire protection
design decisions. system inspection, charging, refusing), any corresponding labor, and
Kitchen ventilation has at least two purposes: (1) to provide a any production downtime as a result of the maintenance.
comfortable environment in the kitchen and (2) to ensure the safety
To ensure all of these criteria are accounted for in the kitchen ven-
tilation design, the integrated building design approach described in
The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 5.10, Kitchen Ventilation. Chapter 60 is recommended.
34.1
Copyright © 2019, ASHRAE This file is licensed to Timothy Green ([email protected]). Copyright ASHRAE 2020.
34.2 2019 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications
1.1 COMMISSIONING iii. Cooking fire suppression

b. Maintenance schedule
Because CKV systems are very complex operational environ-
c. Recommissioning plan
ments, it is strongly recommended that ASHRAE Standard 202 and
the guidance in Chapter 44 be followed for any commercial kitchen d. Consequences of any revision/remodel (e.g., changing
ventilation project. Sections of this chapter contain the technical cooking equipment)
information necessary to address all four phases of commissioning.
Addressing the following topics is recommended when developing 1.2 VENTILATION DESIGN
and executing any commissioning plan: Design Process
1. Owners project requirements (OPR) Designing a CKV or even a high-end residential kitchen ventila-
a. System manual outline tion system requires a different design approach and process than
i. System selection: specific kitchen ventilation use re- for most traditional HVAC systems. Design considerations include
quirements (by owner or design team) large replacement air requirements, large internal heat gains,
ii. Type of facility (e.g., commissary, quick service, full kitchen workers’ comfort, minimizing HVAC system energy use,
service, institutional) and fire safety, all of which are equally high priorities that must be
iii. Cooking appliances selection based on menu, type of addressed during system design.
cooking, and special/unusual considerations Necessary steps to design the ventilation systems for a commer-
iv. Other considerations cial kitchen are as follows. Details for each step can be found in the
1. System cost subsequent sections in this chapter, or in the other Handbook chap-
2. Kitchen space comfort targets ters.
3. Energy use and sustainability targets
4. Replacement air requirements 1. Kitchen facilities design (including cooking menu and appli-
5. Cooking exhaust ance selection and placement). This design is typically per-
a. Duct routing and egress formed by the food service consultant (FSC). Additionally,
b. Effluent control requirements determine which appliances require an exhaust hood.

c. Air discharge and outlet restrictions 2. Exhaust hood selection, including exhaust air rates. Often over-
6. Other mechanical services looked, but one of the most critical design decisions for any CKV
a. HVAC equipment location system: hood selection directly affects exhaust rates, the corre-
b. Utility services sponding replacement air requirements, CKV system heat gain
7. Future expansion and loss calculations, and the system’s overall energy use. Con-
8. Ongoing maintenance requirements siderations include
2. Design phase a. Appliance duty rating, fuel type (e.g., gas, solid fuel, electric,
a. Systems manual outline (i.e., design intent): the engineer’s combination), cooking emission, and thermal plume
response to the OPR character
b. Hood selection based on appliance line up (very critical b. Type I or Type II, based on appliance use or process
because it affects exhaust rate) c. Hood style (e.g., canopy, island, back shelf)
c. Replacement air method, and kitchen air movement d. Energy saving options (e.g., side panels, extra overhang,
d. Accounting for kitchen equipment heat gains demand control kitchen ventilation)
e. System control strategies, including demand-controlled e. Life-cycle cost analysis
kitchen ventilation (DCKV) systems 3. CKV system integration and design. Determine exactly what
f. Exhaust effluent control measures the CKV system should accomplish, and how to holistically inte-
g. Energy saving measures grate it into the building.
h. Exhaust system requirements 4. Replacement air design. Addresses the need for delivering the
i. Fire safety replacement air into the kitchen. Considerations include
j. Codes and standards a. Transfer air, comfort supply air, or direct makeup air (or any
i. NFPA Standard 96 combination)
ii. ASHRAE Standard 154 b. ASHRAE Standard 62.1 compliance
iii. IMC (ICC 2018) c. Adjacent zone air classifications
iv. UL Standard 710 d. Replacement and supply air delivery systems
v. UL Standard 762 5. CKV system controls. Maintain pressurization and comfort for
3. Construction phase the kitchen, dining area, and if applicable any adjoining zones.
a. Submittal review and coordination with all disciplines Accommodate any demand control systems, including DCKV
b. Installation and execution with end use in mind and adjacent zones’ demand-controlled ventilation (DCV) sys-
c. Exhaust duct construction tem(s).
d. Air outlet and inlet locations and adjustments 6. Heat gain and loss calculations
e. Technical commissioning of the following: a. Appliance heat gains
i. System controls for replacement air and exhaust air, b. Replacement air
including DCKV systems 7. Exhaust system design
ii. Cooking effluent control equipment a. Duct type selection
iii. Cooking fire suppression systems b. Fire safety
iv. Air system testing, balancing, and adjustment c. Air discharge
4. Occupancy and operations d. Effluent control devices
a. Owner and user training of systems e. Fire suppression
i. Exhaust and replacement air controls, including DCKV 8. HVAC system design
systems a. Equipment selection
ii. Cooking effluent control b. Diffuser and return grille layout (very critical)
This file is licensed to Timothy Green ([email protected]). Copyright ASHRAE 2020.

Kitchen Ventilation 34.3
9. Hood and replacement air commissioning specifications These conditions can be achieved with even distribution and
(e.g., air balancing, troubleshooting) thorough circulation of air in each zone by an adequate number
of registers sized to preclude high air velocities. If there are
Note: the CKV design engineer is recommended to engage the noticeable drafts or temperature differences, dining customers
FSC during steps 1 and 2 to identify areas where both designs can be will be uncomfortable and facility personnel are generally less
harmonized for optimal CKV performance. comfortable and less productive.
1.3 SYSTEM INTEGRATION AND DESIGN Both design concepts and operating principles for proper integra-
tion and balance are involved in achieving desired results under vary-
Ideally, system integration and balancing bring the many venti- ing conditions. The same principles are important in almost every
lation components together to provide the most comfortable, effi- aspect of food service ventilation.
cient, and economical performance of each component and of the In restaurants with multiple exhaust hoods, or hoods with de-
entire system. In commercial kitchen ventilation, the replacement mand control systems, exhaust airflow volume may vary throughout
air system(s) must integrate and balance with the exhaust system the day. Replacement air must be controlled to maintain proper
and/or facility HVAC system(s). Even optimal system designs re- building and kitchen differential pressures to ensure the kitchen
quire field testing and balancing once installed. It is important to remains negative to adjacent areas at all operating points. The more
verify compliance with design, and equally important to confirm variable the exhaust, or the smaller and more numerous the zones
that the design meets the needs of the operating facility. Air balance involved, the more complex the design, but the overall pressure
is a critical step in any CKV commissioning process. relationship principles must be maintained to provide optimum
The following fundamentals should be considered and applied to comfort, efficiency, and economy.
all food service facilities, including restaurants, within the constraints A different application is a kitchen with one side exposed to a
of the particular facility and its location, equipment, and systems. larger building with common or remote dining. Examples include a
food court in a mall or a small restaurant in a hospital, airport, or
Principles similar building. Positive pressure at the front of the kitchen might
Although there are exceptions, the following are the fundamental cause some cooking grease, vapor, and odors to spread into the
principles of integrating and balancing food service facility systems common building space, which would be undesirable. In such a
for comfort, control, and economical operation: case, the kitchen area is held at a negative pressure relative to other
common building areas as well as to its own back room storage or
• The building should always be slightly positively pressurized office space. Such spaces that include direct-vent appliances, such
(e.g. +0.005 in. of water) compared to atmosphere to prevent infil- as gas-fired water heaters, must maintain the pressure required for
tration of outdoor air. Infiltrated air contains contaminants and safe appliance operation.
insects, and adds to the heat load.
• Every kitchen should always be slightly negatively pressurized Design Best Practices
(–0.001 in. of water) to adjacent rooms or areas immediately sur- Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCC). As with any engineering
rounding it to help contain odors in the kitchen and to prevent design, many considerations must be taken into account to ensure the
odor migration out of the kitchen. CKV system operates properly and with the best interest of end users
• System HVAC design should prevent air supplied to the kitchen in mind. Life-cycle cost analysis compares the real cost of owning
from being returned and supplied to non-kitchen areas. Odor con- and operating two or more systems over a given period of time (typ-
tamination is an obvious potential problem. In addition, in condi- ically 10 to 20 years). For each system, the total life-cycle cost can be
tions such as seasonal transitions, when adjacent zones may be in calculated using Equation (1) (Fuller and Peterson 1996):
different modes (e.g., economizer versus air conditioning or heat-
ing), comfort may be adversely affected. Ideally, the kitchen LCC = I + Repl – Res + E + W + OM&R (1)
HVAC system should be separate from all other zones’ HVAC where
systems. Three situations to consider are the following: LCC = Total LCC in present-value dollars of given alternative
- During seasonal transitions, the kitchen zone may require air I = Present-value investment costs
conditioning or may be served by ventilation air only, while Repl = Present-value replacement costs
dining areas require heating. Even in kitchens that require Res = Present-value residual (scrap) costs
E = Present-value energy costs
cooling when the adjacent dining areas require heating, it is still
W = Present-value water costs
important to maintain the pressure differential between these OM&R = Present-value, nonfuel, operating, maintenance and repair costs
spaces and continue transfer of dining-area air into the kitchen.
For the kitchen ventilation systems covered in this chapter, the
- To limit kitchen personnel discomfort, it is important to lifetime is typically longer than 10 years; if 10 years is used as the
control the low-temperature MUA set point and prevent drastic span of the analysis, the replacement costs and scrap costs are zero.
temperature variations between the kitchen space and MUA For ventilation systems, energy costs could include items such as
being introduced. If dedicated kitchen MUA requires heating, hood lights, exhaust fans, and the associated HVAC energy to con-
thermostatic control of the MUA heating source should ideally dition supply air; water costs could include heating hot water (if
be based on kitchen space temperature rather than outdoor air applicable) used for hoods with wash or mist systems; OM&R could
temperature. MUA heating should be interlocked with kitchen include maintenance items, the costs to remove and clean the pri-
HVAC cooling to prevent simultaneous heating and cooling. mary grease extractors in the hood, and periodic replacement of fil-
Location of HVAC thermostats in kitchens must account for ters in pollution control systems.
the potential conflicting temperatures. For CKV systems, the analysis is typically a comparison of the
- Ideally, will should be no perceptible drafts in dining areas, and first cost of the equipment to the operating costs. For CKV systems,
temperature variations of no more than 1°F. Kitchens might not the primary operating costs are for conditioning the outdoor air used
be draft free; however, velocities at or near exhaust hoods as replacement air for the kitchen hood exhaust. As such, different
should be no greater than 75 fpm. Kitchen comfort is greatly climates may yield different LCA values for identical designs.
impacted by radiant heat in work areas, but it is desirable to It is recommended that LCAs be performed on the following
maintain sensible temperatures within 5°F of design conditions. items:

• Hoods, including size, type, and options (e.g., increased over- mended limitations on distance from VFD to motor. Be reasonably
hangs and side panels); in some instances, even different manu- conservative, but remember the risk of motor failure always exists.
facturers may yield different results. - 230 V AC motors: up to 200 ft from VFD to motor
• Exhaust fans. - 460 V AC motors: up to 70 ft from VFD to motor
• Makeup air/replacement air designs (comparing untempered to - 575 V AC motors: up to 40 ft from VFD to motor
tempered makeup air). - If VFD-to-motor wiring distances exceed these limits, then
• Cooking effluent reduction technologies to duct cleaning costs. output reactors are recommended
• For new construction and retrofit projects where the motor is
An example of LCA for a kitchen is selecting the exhaust fan. replaced, consider the following limitations on distance from
Table 1 lists several fans that can perform the required, duty. If first VFD to motor:
cost is considered, the physically smallest (fan A) is the best choice.
However, when applying a LCA, the larger fan C is the best option. - New motors should comply with NEMA Standard MG1 Part
31, which states that the motor winding insulation must be able
Incorporating Variable-Frequency Drives (VFDs) for to withstand voltage spikes of 1600 V peak-to-peak in 0.1 µs.
Exhaust Fan Control - Totally enclosed fan-cooled (TEFC) motors should be used if
they fit in the housing of the existing fan.
Many kitchen exhaust fans, especially those that are part of a
- Open dripproof (ODP) motors may be used where TEFC
DCKV system, use VFDs to control their speed. If applicable, the
motors do not fit.
VFD will be supplied by the DCKV system supplier, and it should
- Where the nominal AC voltage is 575 V (e.g., Canada), new
be installed adjacent to the exhaust hood it serves. If the building in
motors must have insulation able to withstand 1700 V p-p.
which it is installed has the exhaust fans located a considerable dis-
- Limitations on VFD-to-motor distance when the motor is new
tance away, as in tall buildings, the following must be taken into
and known to meet the standards of NEMA Standard MG-1
consideration:
Part 31 are
• VFDs should have a separate conduit from the VFD to motor. In • 230 V AC motors: up to 500 ft from VFD to motor
some cases, VFD output circuits may share conduit for short dis- • 460 V AC motors: up to 200 ft from VFD to motor
tances (e.g., in a cable tray, through a roof penetration), for up to • 575 V AC motors: up to 100 ft from VFD to motor
15 ft. • If VFD-to-motor wiring distance exceeds these limits, then
• If VFD output circuits share conduit for more than 15 ft, then out- output reactors are recommended
put reactors should be installed on every VFD. Dedicated Fan Versus Manifold Exhaust Systems. Whether to
• No more than two VFD output circuits should share a single con- connect each exhaust hood to its own dedicated exhaust fan is typ-
duit for more than 15 ft. ically dictated by the physical constraints of the building into which
• Longer VFD-to-motor distances increase the probability that the the CKV system is being installed. The duct shaft space needed to
motor will see higher voltage spikes, which can lead to the motor install multiple exhaust ducts is not permitted on most projects, es-
burning up. The issue gets worse with higher voltages. Methods to pecially for any multistory building. Additionally, installing multi-
address this issue include the following: ple exhaust ducts increases the first cost. Thus, many designs use
- Specify an inverter-duty motor rated for 1600 V P-P is critical manifold exhaust systems, which consist of multiple exhaust
(NEMA Standard MG1.1 Part 31) hoods served by a single exhaust fan.
- Use a lower switching frequency. This can cause more audible The primary advantage of using a manifold exhaust system is
noise at the motor, but is easier on the hardware. first cost. Less ductwork is needed, which also reduces the amount
- Use an output reactor, mounted close to the VFD, to help ab- of floor area lost to duct riser shafts. Additionally, fewer exhaust
sorb spikes and reduce reflected wave phenomena on load side fans are needed, reducing the costs of equipment as well as associ-
of VFD. ated electrical power wiring.
- An output filter, mounted close to the VFD, can also be used, Table 1 Size, First Cost, and Operating Cost of 5 Upblast
but not in conjunction with output reactors. This provides
Exhaust Fans Operating at the Same Design Duty
additional protection to the motor with longer modulated
wiring distances. Design Duty: Belt Drive Upblast Fan: 4000 cfm at 1.5 in. of water
- Input reactors, mounted close to the VFD, help smooth out Belt Drive Wheel Diameter, Relative Operating
power going to the line side of the VFD and help with rough Upblast Fan in. Cost Est. Cost Cost/Yr, $
output voltage on the load side. A 18.5 1 $750 $1082
• If possible, locate the VFD closer to the motor to reduce the mod- B 21.375 1.09 $818 $1106
ulated power run from the VFD to the serving motor. C 24.5 1.23 $923 $1023
• For retrofit projects, replace existing motors to prevent motor burn- D 22.25 2.09 $1568 $995
out. If existing motor are to be reused, use the following recom- E 27 2.81 $2108 $937
Table 2 Life-Cycle Analysis of Five Different Exhaust Fans Operating at Same Design Duty*
Cost of Ownership for Years 0 to 10
Belt Drive Wheel Diameter
Upblast Fan (in.) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A 18.5 $750 $1,832 $2,915 $3,997 $5,079 $6,161 $7,244 $8,326 $9,408 $10,490 $11,573
B 21.4 $818 $1,923 $3,029 $4,135 $5,241 $6,347 $7,453 $8,559 $9,665 $10,770 $11,876
C 24.5 $923 $1,945 $2,968 $3,990 $5,013 $6,036 $7,058 $8,081 $9,104 $10,126 $11,149
D 22.3 $1,568 $2,562 $3,557 $4,551 $5,546 $6,540 $7,535 $8,529 $9,524 $10,518 $11,513
E 27 $2,108 $3,045 $3,982 $4,919 $5,856 $6,793 $7,730 $8,667 $9,605 $10,542 $11,479
*Energy costs = $0.10/kWh; operating 18 h/day and 7 days/week.

The primary disadvantage of manifolded exhaust systems is the also evaluate any proposed changes to the system, such as changing
challenge of accurately controlling exhaust airflow at each tenancy. Rudimentary computer modeling of the exhaust system
individual hood. Due to fire codes, air-balancing dampers can only may be helpful (Elovitz 1992). Given the unpredictability and vola-
be installed as part of the hood collar, and they must be specifically tility of tenant requirements, it may not be possible to balance the
listed for their intended application. Additionally, if a DCKV entire system perfectly. However, without adequate supervision, it is
system is incorporated, the exhaust airflow can only be reduced very probable the system will not achieve proper balance.
when either (1) all cooking equipment under all hoods goes into For greatest success with multiple-hood exhaust systems, mini-
part-load operation, or (2) specialized control dampers listed for in- mize pressure losses in ducts by keeping velocities low, minimizing
stallation and operation in cooking exhaust systems are installed sharp transitions, and using hoods with relatively high pressure
along with the necessary controls to integrate with the DCKV drops. When pressure loss in the ducts is low compared to the loss
system. These details should be considered when performing a life- through the hood, changes in pressure loss in the ductwork because
cycle cost analysis of a manifolded exhaust system. An additional of field conditions or changes in design airflow have a smaller effect
disadvantage is that, should the fan fail, the entire cooking operation on total pressure loss and thus on actual airflow.
loses function. Minimum code-required air velocity (500 fpm) must be main-
For dedicated fan-to-hood systems, first costs are indeed greater tained in all parts of the exhaust ductwork at all times. If fewer or
for the extra ducts and fans. But the advantages include being able smaller hoods are installed than the design anticipated, resulting in
to control exhaust air for each hood simply by changing fan speed. low velocity in portions of the ductwork, the velocity must be
This approach works for both initial balancing and for DCKV con- brought up to the minimum. One way is to introduce outdoor air,
trol. If a cooking appliance is not being used, the associated fan can preferably untempered, through a bleed duct system directly into
be shut off instead of operating at reduced airflow. Finally, should a the exhaust duct (Figure 1). The bypass duct should connect to the
fan fail, the entire cooking operation will not have to cease. top or sides (at least 2 in. from the bottom) of the exhaust duct to
prevent backflow of water or grease through the bypass duct when
Multiple-Hood Systems Served by Single fans are off. This arrangement is also shown in NFPA Standard 96
Exhaust Fan and should be discussed with the authority having jurisdiction.
Single kitchen exhaust duct/fan systems serving multiple hoods A fire damper is required in the bleed duct, located close to the
(i.e., manifold exhaust systems) present unique design and exhaust duct. Bypass duct construction should be the same as the ex-
balancing challenges. Air balance is one of the main challenges. haust duct construction, including enclosure and clearance require-
These systems may be designed with bleed ducts and/or balancing ments, for at least several feet beyond the fire damper or as required
dampers to facilitate balancing the air draw of individual hoods. The by the local authority having jurisdiction (AHJ). Means to adjust the
dampers can be of blade types that can be set in position manually bleed airflow must be provided upstream of the fire damper. All
or operated automatically by a programmable actuator. Balancing dampers must be in the clean bleed air duct so they are not exposed
dampers must be listed for use with kitchen hoods. Additionally, to grease-laden exhaust air. The difference in pressure between
hood filters are sized to allow pressure loss equalization along the bleed and exhaust air duct may be great; the balancing device must
hood for hood containment and capture (C&C). Some filters are be able to make a fine airflow adjustment against this pressure
adjustable, but should not be used when they can be interchanged difference. It is best to provide two balancing devices in series, such
between hoods or within the same hood, because such interchange as an orifice plate or blast gate for coarse adjustment, followed by an
can alter the commissioned air balance of the hoods and exhaust fan. opposed-blade damper for fine adjustment.
Balancing can also be accomplished by changing the number and/or Directly measuring air velocities in the exhaust ductwork to as-
size of filters. sess exhaust system performance may be desirable. Velocity (pitot-
DCKV in single or manifold applications can automatically pro- tube) traverses may be performed in kitchen exhaust systems, but
vide real-time balancing by using an engineered system listed for holes drilled for the pitot tube must be liquidtight to maintain the
use with commercial kitchen hoods, such as one or more of the fol- fire-safe integrity of the ductwork, per NFPA Standard 96. Holes
lowing: cooking activity sensors, variable-speed exhaust and supply should never be drilled in the bottom of a duct, where they may col-
fans, and volume-balancing dampers to modulate hood exhaust. lect grease. Velocity traverses should not be performed when cook-
However, the ductwork still must be properly designed to allow each ing is in progress because grease collects on the instrumentation.
hood to achieve design airflows during full-load cooking opera-
tions. When physical space allows, it is good practice to use a sep- Dynamic Volumetric Flow Rate Effects
arate exhaust fan for each hood. This effectively provides system Minimum exhaust flow rates for kitchen hoods are determined ei-
redundancy and less complexity when balancing. ther by laboratory tests or by building code requirements. Energy
Exhaust for solid-fuel cooking equipment should be separate codes specify maximum airflow rates. In either case, the installed
from all other exhaust systems. Light-duty smokers, flavoring
equipment, or fireboxes that use solid fuel can be installed under the
hood serving other cooking equipment, subject to restrictions under
NFPA Standard 96 and building codes, including size, fuel load and
storage, open flame design, and ash removal and disposal.
In some multitenant installations, the duct design may be com-
pleted and installed before the tenants have been identified. In cases
such as master kitchen-exhaust systems, which are sometimes used
in shopping center food courts, no single group is responsible for the
entire design. The base building designer typically lays out ductwork
to (or through) each tenant space, and each tenant selects a hood and
lays out connecting ductwork. Often, the base building designer has
incomplete information on tenant exhaust requirements. Therefore,
one engineer must be responsible for defining criteria for each Fig. 1 Bleed Method of Introducing Outdoor Air
tenant’s design and for evaluating proposed tenant work to ensure Directly into Exhaust Duct
that tenant designs match the system’s capacity. The engineer should (Brohard et al. 2003)

system must ensure proper capture and containment under maximum • Listed energy recovery devices with a sensible heat recovery ef-
cooking load conditions. The majority of kitchen exhaust systems fectiveness of not less than 40% on at least 50% of the total ex-
use fixed-speed fans, which move the same volume of air at a given haust airflow
speed regardless of air density. Although the air volume remains con-
stant, heat and moisture generated by the cooking process affect Energy Conservation Strategies
mass flow. Specifying Exhaust Hoods for Minimal Airflow. The type and
Exhaust fans for kitchen ventilation systems, like for other high- style of exhaust hood selected depends on factors such as restaurant
temperature exhaust processes, must be selected to provide ade- type, restaurant menu, and food service equipment installed, as well
quate airflow at standard conditions to meet the mass flow needs of as flexibility for future kitchen upgrades. Exhaust flow rates are
the actual cooking process. Testing for hood listing in accordance largely determined by the food service equipment and hood style.
with UL Standard 710, for example, requires capture and contain- Wall-mounted canopy hoods function effectively at lower exhaust
ment testing using actual cooking, with cooking appliance heated to flow rates than single-island hoods. Single- and double-island can-
controlled surface temperatures and food product cooked, including opy hoods are more sensitive to replacement air supply and cross
flare-ups, to determine airflow. This airflow must be converted to drafts than wall mounted canopy hoods (Swierczyna et al. 2010).
standard air conditions to provide proper design ratings for fan Engineered back shelf (proximity) hoods may exhibit the lowest
selections. capture and containment flow rates. In some cases, a back shelf
hood performs the same job as a wall-mounted canopy hood at one-
1.4 ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS third the exhaust rate. Cooking appliance type and duty rating must
be included in the specification process, because not all hoods (par-
Restaurants and commercial kitchens are the largest consumers ticularly back shelf hoods) are rated or designed for all cooking
of energy per unit of floor area when compared to other commercial appliance types or duty ratings.
or institutional occupancies (Itron and California Energy Commis- Threshold exhaust rates for a specific hood and appliance con-
sion 2006). Primary drivers of commercial kitchen energy use are figuration may be determined by laboratory testing under the spec-
the cooking appliances and the HVAC system. Often, the largest ifications of ASTM Standard F1704-17. Similar in concept to the
energy-consuming component in a commercial food service facility listed airflow rates derived from UL Standard 710, the threshold of
is the kitchen exhaust. However, energy consumption associated containment and capture (C&C) for an ASTM Standard F1704 test
with commercial kitchen ventilation (CKV) and HVAC systems, as is established under ideal laboratory conditions and is only a refer-
well the conservation potential, can vary significantly (Fisher ence point for specifying the exhaust airflow rate for a CKV system.
2003). Beyond the design exhaust ventilation rate itself, the magni- Side Panels and Overhang. In many cases, side (or end) panels
tude of energy consumption and cost of a CKV system is affected by allow a reduced exhaust rate because they direct replacement air-
factors such as geographic location (i.e., climate), system operating flow to the front of the hood and cooking equipment. They are a rel-
hours, static pressure and fan efficiencies, replacement air heating atively inexpensive way to improve capture and containment and
and cooling set points and level of dehumidification, efficiency of reduce the total exhaust rate. It is important to know that partial side
heating and cooling systems, level of interaction between kitchen panels can provide almost the same benefit as full panels. Although
and building HVAC system, appliances under the hood and associ- tending to defy its definition as an “island” canopy, end panels can
ated radiant heat gain to space, and applied utility rates. Minimizing improve the performance of a double- or single-island canopy
the exhaust airflow needed for cooking appliances and reducing ra- hood. A significant benefit of end panels, when hoods are exposed
diant load from the appliances are primary considerations in opti- to cross drafts, is mitigation of the negative effect those drafts have
mizing CKV system design. Because climatic zones vary on hood performance. However, air distribution designs that elim-
dramatically in temperature and humidity, energy-efficient designs inate cross drafts are preferred. Increasing overhang is another
have widely varying rates of returns on the investment. In new fa- specification detail that can improve the hood’s ability to capture
cilities, the designer can select conservation measures suitable for and allow reduced exhaust rates. It is important that the engineer
the climatic zone and the HVAC system to maximize the economic and food service designers work closely on appliance placement
benefits. size and type, because they affect hood sizing, which in turn affects
The operating cost burden has stimulated energy efficiency lighting, HVAC, and most importantly hood performance. A hood
design concepts and operating strategies discussed in this section that is too small (i.e., little or no overhang) may often not be capa-
and detailed in industry design guidelines (PG&E 2004). It has also ble of working properly at any airflow rate, whereas those with
impacted changes to ASHRAE Standard 90.1. generous overhang may operate well at airflow rates reduced by
The Kitchen Exhaust Systems section of ASHRAE Standard 30% or more.
90.1 states that if a CKV system has a total exhaust airflow rate Custom-Designed Hoods. Hoods can be custom designed for
greater than 5000 cfm, the design must adhere to maximum exhaust specific cooking appliances or cooking processes. Customization
rates specified for the different hood types. These rates apply to often reduces exhaust and replacement air quantities and conse-
listed hoods, and are set 30% below the minimum values for quently reduces fan sizes, energy use, and energy costs. To operate
unlisted hoods dictated by the International Mechanical Code® at flow rates lower than required by code, custom-designed hoods
(IMC) (ICC 2018). If a kitchen or dining facility has a total kitchen must be either listed or approved by the local code official. The
hood exhaust airflow rate greater than 5000 cfm, it must have one of cost involved with custom design makes the process more appli-
the following: cable to chain restaurants, such as quick service, where a specific
design may be installed repeatedly. Some single-site establish-
• At least 50% of all replacement air is transfer air that would oth- ments may have architectural restrictions that demand a custom
erwise be exhausted solution.
• Demand ventilation system(s) on at least 75% of the exhaust air, Transfer Air. ASHRAE Standard 62.1 specifies the quantity of
capable of at least 50% reduction in exhaust and replacement air outdoor air that must be provided to ventilate public spaces, such as
system airflow rates, including controls necessary to modulate air- dining rooms, in food service establishments. Standard 62.1 allows
flow in response to appliance operation and to maintain full cap- this ventilation air to be reused by transfer from the ventilated public
ture and containment of smoke, effluent, and combustion products spaces to the kitchen, where it can be used to replace air exhausted by
during cooking and idle the hood system and assist kitchen comfort. Transfer air must meet

the requirements as prescribed in ASHRAE Standard 62.1 (section Complete capture and containment of all smoke and greasy
5.16.3). By maximizing transfer of air from adjoining public spaces to vapor must be maintained when a DCKV exhaust system operates at
the kitchen, the designer is able to minimize the quantity of dedicated less than 100% of design airflow.
outdoor air supplied to the kitchen as replacement air. This can reduce Selection of all components, and design of the DCKV system,
the energy load on the replacement air system, as well as improve must be such that stable operation can be maintained at all modu-
thermal comfort in the kitchen. Most quick-service and fast-casual lated and full-flow conditions.
restaurants do not physically segregate the kitchen from the dining When DCKV is used as the method of compliance with
room, so conditioned air can be easily transferred from the dining area ASHRAE Standard 90.1 (section 6.5.7.1.4 part b), it must meet all
to the kitchen. In restaurants where the kitchen and dining room are requirements of that section.
physically segregated, ducts between the two areas may be required When DCKV is used as the method of compliance with ASHRAE
for proper flow of replacement air into the kitchen. Transfer fans may Standard 62.1 it must meet the minimum exhaust air rates per Table
be required to overcome duct losses, because the differential pressure 6.5 and minimum ventilation air rates per Table 6.2.2.1, ensuring
between spaces may be very low (<0.005 in. of water). This design ventilation during periods of occupancy.
can reduce kitchen replacement air requirements and enhance The exhaust system configuration and equipment to be served by
employee comfort, especially if the kitchen is not air conditioned. a DCKV system must be evaluated to determine the feasibility and
Codes may restrict transfer of air from adjoining spaces, other than cost benefits resulting from its use. An example of a situation where
public dining areas, in buildings such as hospitals. Adjoining spaces a DCKV system may not be appropriate is when gas-underfired
should not be overventilated to increase transfer airflow, because the broilers are present.
heating and cooling conditions for dining and other public spaces are
Evaporative Cooling. Direct evaporative coolers are an alterna-
more energy-intense than for conditioning replacement air introduced
tive to mechanical cooling (or, for that matter, no cooling) of re-
directly into the kitchen.
placement air only in dry climates where dehumidification is not
Demand-Controlled Kitchen Ventilation required. Indirect evaporative cooling has a wider range in geo-
graphical applications. Water costs, availability, and use restrictions
Demand-controlled kitchen ventilation (DCKV) refers to any
should be considered.
engineered, automated method of modulating (e.g., variable reduc- Heat Recovery from Exhaust Hood Ventilation Air. High-
tion) the amount of air exhausted for a specific cooking operation in temperature effluent, often in excess of 400°F, from the cooking
response to a part-load or no-load condition (e.g., by duct tempera- equipment mixes with replacement room air, resulting in exhaust air
ture, opacity, or appliance surface temperatures). temperatures well over 100°F. It is frequently assumed that this
A DCKV system is different from a DCV system in that the con- heated exhaust air is suitable for heat recovery; however, over time,
trolling demand factor is the kitchen’s cooking operations and not smoke and grease in the exhaust air can foul the heat transfer sur-
space carbon dioxide (CO2) levels. In conjunction with this, the faces. Under these conditions, the heat exchangers require regular
amount of replacement air (consisting of makeup, transfer, and out- maintenance (e.g., automatic washdown) to maintain heat recovery
door air) is also modulated to maintain the same relative air ratios, effectiveness and mitigate risk of fire. Because heat recovery sys-
airflow patterns, and pressurizations. Failure to integrate systems tems are expensive, food service facilities with large ventilation
could cause negative pressure. rates and relatively light-duty cooking equipment are the best can-
The design of all involved ventilation systems must account for didates for this equipment. Hospitals are a good example, with large
DCKV, to create a fully integrated system. exhaust rates and very low levels of grease production from the
Fig. 2 Typical DCKV Equipment and Configuration

cooking equipment. An exhaust hood equipped with heat recovery below the traditional 1500 fpm threshold, grease deposition was not
is more likely to be cost-effective where the climate has very cold increased; in fact, in isothermal conditions, as duct velocity de-
winters (well below 32°F). A mild climate is not conducive to use of creased, grease deposition on all internal sides of the duct also
this conservation measure. See Chapter 26 in the 2016 ASHRAE decreased. These results led to NFPA Standard 96 and the IMC
Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment for more information changing their minimum duct velocity requirements from 1500 fpm
on air-to-air heat recovery. to 500 fpm.
Optimized Heating and Cooling Set Points. IMC (ICC 2018) re- Another significant finding in the study was that, if there is a
quires that replacement air be conditioned to within 10°F of the kitchen large temperature gradient between exhaust air inside the duct and
space, except when replacement air is part of the air-conditioning sys- the external duct wall, the rate of grease deposition increases sig-
tem and does not adversely affect comfort conditions in the occu- nificantly. Therefore, duct insulation should be considered where
pied space. The exception is important because it allows the there are large temperature variations.
design to be optimized to take advantage of the typically lower The primary benefit of these code-approved duct velocity chang-
heating balance points of commercial kitchens. A commercial es is the potential for reduced food service energy consumption. By
kitchen may be considered comfortable at temperatures of up to reducing excessive exhaust airflows, while maintaining necessary
85°F when space humidity is 60%. During heating seasons, capture and containment, energy for fans as well as for heating,
space humidity is typically not an issue if the kitchen exhaust sys- cooling and/or dehumidifying air that was previously wasted may
tems are properly designed and operated. During the heating sea- now be saved. Previously, if a restaurant remodeled their cooking
son, space gains from unhooded appliances and radiant gains from operation and the remodel resulted in reduced exhaust airflows, the
hooded appliances, lighting, refrigeration units, and staff make it owner had to install new, smaller-diameter ductwork to comply with
possible to maintain comfort using lower supply air temperatures. the 1500 fpm duct velocity requirement. This is often too costly, if
During cooling seasons, in climatic areas that require dehumidifi- not also physically impractical. Now, if a system designed for
cation, consideration must be given to all sources that may intro- heavy-duty equipment upgrades to more energy-efficient, lighter-
duce moisture into commercial kitchens, including internal duty equipment, exhaust airflows can be reduced without the ex-
cooking, holding, and washing as well as local makeup air (MUA) pense of modifying ductwork.
systems or kitchen HVAC systems not designed for continuous de- Reduced code-approved duct velocity also facilitates application
humidification. Humidity control (60%) allows optimization of of DCKV systems with less resistance from local code authorities.
cooling set points at higher temperatures while maintaining a From a new-facility design perspective, it is recommended that
comfortable working environment. most kitchens be designed for an in-duct velocity between 1500 and
A dedicated outdoor air system (DOAS) providing conditioned 1800 fpm. This allows for reducing the airflows to 500 fpm if needed
outdoor for kitchen heating, cooling, and dehumidification also in the future or as part of a demand-ventilation control strategy.
optimizes set points by using economizer operation when outdoor Due to a higher risk of duct fires associated with solid-fuel
air alone (no conditioning) can maintain kitchen set points. Using cooking equipment, the DCKV application is typically limited to
dedicated outdoor air to heat, cool, and dehumidify outdoor air to two-speed on/off fan cycles. Dampers, if used for solid fuel, must ad-
control space comfort and humidity and replace air exhausted here to the requirement of liquidtight connection and must not down-
through the hood has been demonstrated to be an energy-effective grade the ductwork. The dampers are mechanically locked in
design for optimizing heating and cooling set points (Brown 2007). position and must be approved by a fire inspector. NFPA Standard 96
Accordingly, when local MUA systems are used, it is essential requires listed dampers for the application. Duct sizes for solid fuel
that the heating set point of those units not be set higher than the typically maintain 1500 fpm duct velocity.
forecasted heating/cooling balance point (e.g., 55°F) to avoid simul- Exhaust from heavy-duty solid fuel cooking can be treated and
taneous replacement air heating and HVAC cooling. It may be more cooled down by an in-line water mist duct section. The duct system
difficult to control comfort when local MUA (e.g., at 55°F) is intro- monitors and cycles water mist to maintain a set exhaust tempera-
duced into a kitchen being heated by a conventional HVAC system ture threshold. Listed grease ducts have a threshold not exceeding
introducing kitchen supply air at temperatures 80°F. 500°F for continuous exhaust. The design temperature must
consider flammability of creosote buildup on duct walls, produced
Reduced Exhaust and Associated Duct Velocities from solid fuel burning as it mixes with cooking vapor from cook-
Tempering outdoor replacement air can account for a large part ing. Creosote and soot mixtures on duct walls can have a lower flash
of a food service facility’s heating and cooling costs. By reducing point than grease alone and pose a fire hazard (see the Fire Safety
exhaust flow rates (and the corresponding replacement air quantity) section).
when little or no product is being cooked, energy cost can be sig-
nificantly reduced when combined with a DCKV system. Field Dishroom Ventilation
evaluations by one large restaurant chain suggest that cooking ap- Many different types of dishwashing and warewashing equip-
pliances may operate under no-load conditions for 75% or more of ment are used in the food service industry: powered sink washers;
an average business day (Spata and Turgeon 1995). troughs; undercounter, door-type, conveyor-type, and flight-type
However, it has been difficult to reduce exhaust flow rates in a warewashers; and rack washers. Ancillary equipment such as pre-
retrofit situation because of the minimum duct velocity restriction. rinse valves, scrappers, hoses, and drying dishes are also sources of
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Standard 96 had loads. Each type of equipment operates differently and generates
historically required a minimum duct velocity of 1500 fpm. The different levels of sensible, latent, and moisture loads to the space.
common belief was that, if duct velocity were lowered, a higher per- Loads depend on whether the appliance is ventilated, whether san-
centage of grease would accumulate on the ductwork, which would itization occurs by hot water or chemicals, and the effectiveness of
then require more frequent duct cleaning. However, no data or the local ventilation.
research could be identified to support this assumption. Therefore, Historically, data on heat gains and cooling loads have been
ASHRAE research project RP-1033 (Kuehn 2000) was undertaken scarce. This made it difficult to estimate loads, leading to potentially
to determine the true effect of duct velocity on grease deposition. undersized ventilation and resulting in hot and humid dishrooms
The project analyzed grease deposition as a function of mean with condensation on walls and supply diffusers. ASHRAE
duct velocity, using octanoic acid (commonly found in cooking oils research is currently under way to determine heat and moisture
and other foods). The results showed that, for design duct velocities loading from these types of equipment. ASHRAE research project

RP-1469 (Stoops et al. 2013) found that dishrooms had latent and should bear the ENERGY STAR label. Equipment selection guid-
sensible loads significantly larger than the spaces were designed for, ance and specifications can be found at www.energystar.gov/.
resulting in hot and humid space conditions and the possibility of DCKV for Airflow Greater than 2000 cfm. Kitchen/dining
mold growth. facilities with total kitchen hood exhaust airflow rates above
International Mechanical Code® (ICC 2014), section 507.3, 2000 cfm must comply with at least one of the following:
states that: “type II hoods shall be installed above dishwashers and
appliances that produce heat or moisture and do not produce grease • At least 50% of all replacement air must be transfer air that would
or smoke as a result of the cooking process, except where the heat otherwise be exhausted.
and moisture loads from such appliances are incorporated into the • At least 75% of kitchen hood exhaust air must be controlled by a
HVAC system design or into the design of a separate removal demand ventilation system(s), which must (1) be able to reduce
system.” The only reliable data for the calculations are listed in Table exhaust and replacement air system airflow rates by no more than
5F from Chapter 18 of the 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamen- the larger of 50% of total design exhaust and replacement air
tals. The internal heat gain calculation is essentially the same for system airflow rate, or the outdoor airflow and exhaust rates
hooded and unhooded appliances. For unhooded dishwashers, the required to meet the ventilation and exhaust requirements of Sec-
total latent and sensible (convective and radiant) emissions load the tions 6.2 and 6.5 of ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1 for the zone;
space. The designer cannot assume there is no load from low-tem- (2) include controls to modulate airflow in response to appliance
perature and heat recovery models. For hooded dishwashers, the operation and to maintain full capture and containment of smoke,
emissions are the sensible radiant load. However, if ventilation is
effluent, and combustion products during cooking and idle; (3)
inadequate, an appreciable amount of convective load can spill into
include controls that result in full flow when the demand ventila-
the space and create hot and humid conditions.
tion system(s) fail to modulate airflow in response to appliance
Only limited heat gain values are available from manufacturers. operation; and (4) allow occupants to temporarily override the
Manufacturers have only recently begun applying ASTM Standard system(s) to full flow.
F2474 to determine sensible and latent loads from dishwashers. Un-
derwriters Laboratories’ new listing and labeling program requires • Listed energy recovery devices with a sensible heat recovery ef-
heat recovery dishwashers to list and label the sensible and latent fectiveness of not less than 40% must be applied on at least 50%
loads during heavy-load operations. Heat gain testing per ASTM of the total exhaust airflow.
Standard F2474 is a requirement for heat recovery dishwashers as • In climate zones 1B, 2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 7B, and 8B, when re-
part of a supplement to UL Standard 921. placement air is uncooled or cooled without mechanical cooling,
Industry is beginning to realize the opportunities and benefits of the capacity of any nonmechanical cooling system(s) (e.g., natu-
heat recovery in a commercial food service facility. The range of ral or evaporative cooling) must be demonstrated to be no less
application varies from air-to-water heat exchangers above fryer than the system capacity of a mechanical cooling system(s) nec-
flues, to grease filters incorporating fin-and-tubes to transfer the essary to meet the same loads under design conditions.
high-quality heat to preheat water for the dish machine or water
heater or to preheat makeup air. In any case, heat exchanger effec- Outdoor Airflow Measuring. Each mechanical ventilation
tiveness ranges between 18 and 63%. The designer must realize that system shall have a permanently installed device to measure the
not all the heat is recovered: some amount of heat (both sensible and minimum outdoor airflow rate that meets the following require-
latent) is released to the space. In the same way, a recirculating or ments:
ductless hood system loads the space with nearly the entire plug
load from the hood/appliance system. Heat is emitted to the space • The device must use methods described in ASHRAE Standard 111.
from heat recovery kitchen equipment, depending on the effective- • The device’s accuracy must be 10% of the minimum outdoor air-
ness of the heat exchanger. Table 5F in Chapter 18 of the 2017 flow. Where the minimum outdoor airflow varies, as in demand
ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals lists the residual heat gain for control ventilation systems, the device must maintain this accu-
a few dish machine types. However, as designs become more effi- racy over the entire range of occupancy and system operation.
cient (e.g., heat pump dish machines releasing 68 to 70°F dry-bulb • The device must be able to notify the building operator, either by
temperatures), there is always an amount of moisture that must be activating a local indicator or by sending a signal to a building
considered along with elevated dry-bulb temperatures. monitoring system, whenever an outdoor air fault condition exists.
This notification requires manual reset.
Designing for High-Performance Green Building
Compliance under ANSI/ASHRAE/USGBC/IES Exception: Constant-volume air supply systems that do not use
Standard 189.1 demand control ventilation and use an indicator to confirm that the
intake damper is open to the position needed to maintain design
There are several sections in this standard that any CKV system
minimum outdoor airflow do not require notification ability.
must comply with in order to be considered a high-performance
green building. Energy Measurement Devices. Energy consumption must be
Air-Side Economizer Controls for Replacement Air (Makeup measured by devices to track and record energy profiles so that peri-
Air). Given the large quantities of replacement air typically required odic assessments can be made to assure continued future perfor-
for a CKV system, the use of air-side economizers should be eval- mance. In addition to whole-building monitoring, submetering may
uated for every location. This evaluation should include comparing be required on specific appliance lineups depending upon capacity.
the CKV system’s typical daily hours of operation to the number of See section 7 of ANSI/ASHRAE/USGBC/IES Standard 189.1 for
hours of free cooling available in the local climate. Some locations additional information.
in ASHRAE climate zones 1A and 1B may still benefit from using Commissioning. Facilities with a gross floor area over 5000 ft
air-side economizers, especially if they operate enough hours of the must be commissioned. Commissioning is essential to ensure that
year that they can take advantage of free cooling. the building, including the kitchen exhaust and HVAC systems,
ENERGY STAR Appliances. Commercial food service appli- functions as intended. For additional information on high perfor-
ances (e.g., fryers, hot food holding cabinets, refrigerators and mance building commissioning requirements, see section 10 of
freezers, steam cookers, ice machines, dishwashers, griddles, ovens) ANSI/ASHRAE/USGBC/IES Standard 189.1.

1.5 THERMAL COMFORT relating average predicted mean vote was above 2 (warm). The
long-term measurements found considerable daily temperature
Due to the many heating, ventilation, and air conditioning oper- variations in the dishwashing area from 75 to 90°F during working
ations that can occur (sometimes simultaneously) in a commercial hours. If the dishwashing area was open to the cooking line, the
kitchen, determining parameters for a thermally comfortable envi- thermal radiation from the hot appliance line raised the operative
ronment poses a challenge. ASHRAE research project RP-1469 temperature by an additional 10°F, it was reported to peak as high as
(Stoops et al. 2013) was executed in response to this dilemma. Data 102°F. The relative humidity in the kitchen space was recorded
were gathered by surveying kitchen workers in over 100 U.S. during the working hours in the three different kitchen zones (i.e.,
restaurants, including casual dining, institutional, and quick-service cook line, prep line, and dishwashing area). The relative humidity
restaurant dishrooms, in different climates, in both summer and was up to 55% higher in the dishwashing area than in the other two
winter. The data points were evaluated to quantify thermal comfort zones. Long term data at some quick serve restaurants recorded
in commercial kitchens (Figure 3). humidity averages up to 69% in the dishwashing area during the
The researchers developed a kitchen comfort zone as a region of summer.
the psychrometric chart, including a region with a percent dissatis-
fied PD < 12%. However, nearly 60% of the temperature and humid- 1.6 COMMERCIAL EXHAUST HOODS
ity data collected in the study were outside the bounds of the
comfort zone. The operative temperature was as high as 107°F, and The design, engineering, construction, installation, and mainte-
relative humidity was as high as 78%. Such conditions lead to poor nance of commercial kitchen exhaust hoods are governed by nation-
working environment, low productivity, bad morale, and mold ally recognized standards (e.g., NFPA Standard 96) and model
growth. Based on these results, it is recommended that commercial codes (e.g., the IMC, International Fuel Gas Code [IFGC; ICC]). In
kitchen design conditions should align with the results shown on the some cases, local codes may prevail. Before designing a kitchen
chart, with maximum dry-bulb temperature of 78°F and humidity ventilation system, the designer should identify governing codes
60%. and consult the AHJ. Local authorities with jurisdiction may have
amendments or additions to these standards and codes.
Dishwashing Area The type of hood required, or whether a hood is required, is de-
Previously, there was inadequate design data to calculate the termined by the type and quantity of emissions from cooking.
internal loads from dishwashing equipment. This resulted in under- Hoods are not typically required over electrically heated appliances
sized HVAC equipment and poor air distribution, leading to hot and such as microwave ovens, toasters, steam tables, popcorn poppers,
humid kitchens. The findings of RP-1469 determined that the oper- hot dog cookers, coffee makers, rice cookers, egg cookers, holding/
ative temperatures were as high as 84.3°F and with 71% rh; the cor- warming ovens (as mentioned in ASHRAE Standard 154), or heat
Fig. 3 Thermal Comfort Zone for Commercial Kitchens Work Space Based On the Results From RP-1469:
Comfort in Commercial Kitchens
(Stoops et al. 2013)

lamps. Appliances can be unhooded only if the additional heat and grease filters. For cooking with solid-fuel equipment, embers from
moisture loads have been considered in a thorough load calculation wood burning promote duct fires. The grease filters for solid-fuel
and accounted for in design of the HVAC system. Temperature and hoods are supplied with metal screens to protect to some extent
humidity in the kitchen space should be based on recommendations against embers entering the exhaust duct. Typically, design practice
of ASHRAE Standard 55. for heavy-duty solid-fuel cooking equipment evaluates if water mist
cooling is required to protect the exhaust system from duct fires.
Hood Types ASTM Standard F2519 provides a test method to determine the
Many types, categories, and styles of hoods are available, and grease particle capture efficiency of grease filters and extractors.
selection depends on many factors. Hoods are classified by whether Grease removal devices generally fall into the following types:
they are designed to handle grease; Type I hoods are designed for
removing grease and smoke, and Type II hoods are not. Model codes • Baffle filters have a series of vertical baffles designed to capture
distinguish between grease-handling and non-grease-handling grease and drain it into a container. The filters are arranged in a
hoods, but not all model codes use Type I/Type II terminology. A channel or bracket for easy insertion and removal for cleaning.
Type I hood may be used where a Type II hood is required, but the Each hood usually has two or more baffle filters, which are typi-
reverse is not allowed. However, characteristics of the equipment cally constructed of aluminum, steel, or stainless steel and come
and processes under the hood, and not necessarily the hood type, in various standard sizes. Filters are cleaned by running them
determine the requirements for the entire exhaust system, including through a dishwasher or by soaking and rinsing. NFPA Standard
the hood. 96 requires that grease filters be listed. Listed grease filters are
A Type I hood is used for collecting and removing grease par- tested and certified by a nationally recognized test laboratory in
ticulate, condensable vapor, and smoke. It includes (1) listed grease accordance with UL Standard 1046.
filters, baffles, or extractors for removing the grease and (2) fire- • Removable extractors (also called cartridge filters) have a sin-
suppression system. Type I hoods are required over cooking equip- gle horizontal-slot air inlet. The filters are arranged in a channel
ment that produce smoke or grease-laden vapors (e.g., ranges, or bracket for easy insertion and removal for cleaning. Each hood
fryers, griddles, gas underfired and electric broilers, ovens). usually has two or more removable extractors, which are typically
A Type II hood collects and removes steam and heat where constructed of stainless steel and contain a series of horizontal
grease or smoke is not present. It may or may not have grease filters baffles designed to remove grease and drain it into a container.
or baffles and typically does not have a fire-suppression system. It is Available in various sizes, they are cleaned by running them
usually used over dishwashers. A Type II hood is sometimes used through a dishwasher or by soaking and rinsing. Removable ex-
over ovens, steamers, or kettles if they do not produce smoke or tractors may be classified by a nationally recognized test labora-
grease-laden vapor and as authorized by the AHJ. tory in accordance with UL Standard 1046, or may be listed as
part of the hood in accordance with UL Standard 710. Hoods that
Type I Hoods are listed with removable extractors cannot have those extractors
Categories. Type I hoods fall into two categories: unlisted and replaced by other extractors.
listed. Unlisted hoods are no longer allowed under ASHRAE Stan-
• Stationary extractors are integral to the listed water-wash ex-
dard 154. However, if they are used, they must meet the design,
haust hoods and are typically constructed of stainless steel and
construction, and performance criteria of applicable national and
contain a series of horizontal baffles that run the full length of the
local codes and are not allowed to have fire-actuated exhaust damp-
hood. The baffles are not removable for cleaning, though some
ers. Listed hoods are listed in accordance with Underwriters Labo-
have doors that can be removed to clean the extractors and ple-
ratories (UL) Standard 710 and are constructed in accordance with
num.
the terms of the hood manufacturer’s listing, and are required to be
installed in accordance with either NFPA Standard 96 or the model • Water-wash hoods fall into two classifications: clean-in-place
codes. Model codes include exceptions for listed hoods to show and cold-water mist styles. Clean-in-place hoods reduce or elim-
equivalency with the model code requirements. inate the need for kitchen staff to manually clean the hood com-
The two subcategories of Type I listed hoods, as covered by UL ponents; these hoods may have fixed stationary or removable
Standard 710, are exhaust hoods with and without exhaust dampers. grease extractors. These systems may automate the removal of
UL listings also distinguish between water-wash and dry hoods. the grease load on the filters, hood plenums, and ductwork. Typ-
All listed hoods are subjected to electrical (if applicable), tem- ical hoods include one or more manifolds with spray nozzles
perature, and cooking smoke and flare-up (capture and contain- that, when activated, wash out the collected grease with hot,
ment) tests. A listed exhaust hood with exhaust damper includes a detergent-injected water. The wash cycle is activated periodi-
fire-actuated damper, typically at the exhaust duct collar. In the cally, typically after cooking equipment and fans have been
event of a fire, the damper closes to prevent fire from entering the turned off. Washdown cycles can lasts 3 to 10 min, depending on
duct. Fire-actuated exhaust dampers are permitted only in listed the hood manufacturer, type of cooking, duration of operation,
hoods. Also, listed hoods that incorporate an integral supply air water temperature, and pressure. Most water-wash hood manu-
plenum include a fire-actuated damper in that plenum; the damper’s facturers recommend a water temperature of 130 to 180°F and
location in the supply air plenum depends on plenum configuration. water pressure of 20 to 80 psi. Average water consumption varies
Refer to NFPA Standard 96 and UL Standard 710 for examples of from 0.50 to 1.50 gpm per linear foot of hood, depending on man-
the damper in exhaust hood supply air plenum. ufacturer. Most water-wash hood manufacturers provide an
Grease Removal. Most grease removal devices in Type I hoods optional automatic means of activating the water-wash system in
operate on the same general principle: exhaust air passes through a the event of a fire.
series of baffles that create a centrifugal force to throw grease par- Some water-wash hood manufacturers provide continuous cold
ticles out of the airstream as the exhaust air passes around the baf- water mist as an option. The cold water runs continuously during
fles. The amount of grease removed varies with baffle design, air cooking and may or may not be recirculated, depending on the
velocity, temperature, type of cooking, and other factors. NFPA manufacturer. Typical cold-water usage is 1 gph per linear foot of
Standard 96 does not allow use of mesh-filter as primary grease fil- hood. The advantage of this method is that it improves grease ex-
ter. To date, stand-alone mesh filters have not met the requirements traction and removal, partly through condensation of the grease.
of UL Standard 1046, and therefore cannot be used as primary Many hood manufacturers recommend continuous cold water in

hoods located over solid-fuel-burning cooking equipment, because Styles. Figure 4 shows the six basic styles for Type I hood appli-
the water acts as a spark arrestor to satisfy code requirements. cations. These style names are not used in all standards and codes
• Multistage filters use two or more stages of filtration to remove a but are well accepted in the industry. The styles are as follows:
larger percentage of grease. They typically consist of a baffle filter • Wall-mounted canopy, used for all types of cooking equipment
or removable extractor followed by a higher-efficiency filter, such located against a wall.
as a packed bead bed. Each hood usually has two or more multi- • Back shelf/proximity, used for counter-height equipment typi-
stage filters, which are typically constructed of aluminum or stain- cally located against a wall, but possibly freestanding.
less steel and are available in standard sizes. Filters are cleaned by • Pass-over, used over counter-height equipment when pass-over
running them through a dishwasher or by soaking and rinsing. configuration (from cooking side to serving side) is required.
NFPA Standard 96 requires that grease filters be listed, so these • Single-island canopy, used for all types of cooking equipment in
multistage filters must be tested and certified by a nationally rec- a single-line island configuration.
ognized test laboratory in accordance with UL Standard 1046. • Double-island canopy, used for all types of cooking equipment
mounted back-to-back in an island configuration.
UL Standards 710 and 1046 do not include grease extraction effi- • Eyebrow, used for direct mounting to ovens and some dishwash-
ciency tests. Historically, grease extraction efficiency rates published ers.
by filter and hood manufacturers were usually derived from tests Applying Back-Shelf-Style Exhaust Hoods. Due in part to the
conducted by independent test laboratories retained by the manufac- close proximity of back shelf hoods to the cooking surface, when
turer. Test methods and results therefore have varied greatly. back shelf hoods are properly applied over appropriate appliances,
In 2005, however, a new grease filter and extractor test standard the exhaust airflow may be reduced to achieve significant energy
was published: ASTM Standard F2519, which determines the savings by reducing both exhaust fan motor energy use and makeup
grease particle capture efficiency of both removable filters and fixed air energy. In addition to lower airflows, back shelf hoods can pro-
extractors such as those used in water-wash hoods. The filters are vide health and comfort advantages by exhausting cooking effluent
back away from and below the operator’s breathing zone. Close
evaluated by pressure drop as well as particulate capture efficiency.

proximity to the appliance also creates the potential for a more open
The test generates a controlled quantity of oleic acid particles in size
ceiling space, which may be used to locate ceiling lighting fixtures
ranging from 0.3 to 10 m that are released into a hood to represent to properly illuminate both the kitchen and appliance work surfaces,
the cooking effluent. The particles are then sampled and counted as well as providing open ceiling spaces to optimize location of
downstream in the duct with an optical particle counter, with and HVAC diffusers.
without the filter or extractor in place. The difference in the counts Back shelf hoods operate best when located over appropriate
is used to calculate the particulate capture efficiency graphed versus appliances, such as those with flat horizontal cooking surfaces,
particle size. ASTM Standard F2519 measures particulate capture including griddles, under-fired broilers, and deep fat fryers. How-
efficiency only, not vapor removal efficiency. A more detailed expla- ever, not all appliances can be properly operated when located under
nation is available in the Exhaust Systems section of this chapter. a back shelf hood. Examples are upright appliances such as ovens,
Fig. 4 Styles of Commercial Kitchen Exhaust Hoods

unless specifically design for such use, and appliances with lids that Table 3 Appliance Types by Duty Category
block effluent from entering the hood, such as tilting fry pans.
Light duty Electric or gas Ovens (including standard, bake, roasting,
It is important to match appliance and hood duty ratings, because (400°F) revolving, re-therm, convection,
maintaining proper capture and containment airflow rates is critical combination convection/steamer, conveyor,
for back shelf hoods. Be mindful of how required setback and side deck or deck-style pizza, pastry)
overhang will be impacted by final appliance placement. Consider Steam-jacketed kettles
also the impact of gas lines, electrical connection, and even appli- Compartment steamers (both pressure and
ance gas regulators on final appliance location. Sometimes these atmospheric)
connection points can cause the appliances to be relocated so that Cheesemelters
they are no longer properly located under the hood. Re-thermalizers
These hoods require a more detailed analysis of operation and Medium Electric Discrete element ranges (with or without
future menu considerations. Additionally, application of back shelf duty oven)
hoods requires more coordination between specifiers and users to be (400°F) Electric or gas Hot-top ranges
sure selections support food service operations. Attention should Griddles
also be paid to the need to enclose or trim the connecting exhaust Double-sided griddles
duct runs in a manner that complies with both fire safety and health Fryers (including open deep-fat fryers, donut
regulations. fryers, kettle fryers, pressure fryers)
It is also necessary to confirm that a fixed-pipe fire suppression Pasta cookers
system can be designed and installed to provide proper fire safety Conveyor (pizza) ovens
protection for the appliances and the exhaust system. Do not specify Tilting skillets/braising pans
back shelf hoods over cooking appliances or cooking operations Rotisseries
than cannot be properly protected by an approved fire suppression
Heavy  Gas Open-burner ranges (with or without oven)
system. duty Electric or gas
Gas underfired broilers
Sizing. The size of the exhaust hood relative to cooking appliances (600°F) Chain (conveyor) broilers
is important in determining hood performance. Usually the hood Wok ranges
must extend horizontally beyond the cooking appliances (on all open Overfired (upright) salamander broilers
sides on canopy-style hoods and over the ends on back shelf and pass- Extra-heavy Appliances using solid fuel such as wood, charcoal,
over hoods) to capture expanding thermal currents rising from the duty briquettes, and mesquite to provide all or part of the heat
appliances. For unlisted hoods, size and overhang requirements are (700°F) source for cooking.
dictated by the prevailing code; for listed hoods, by the terms of the
manufacturer’s listing. Overhang varies with hood style, distance ment is based on the group of equipment under the hood. If there is
between hood and cooking surface, and characteristics of cooking more than one group, the flow rate is based on the heaviest-duty
equipment. With back shelf and pass-over hoods, the front of the group unless the hood design allows different rates over different
hood may be kept behind the front of the cooking equipment (set- sections of the hood.
back) to allow head clearance for the cooks. These hoods may Though considered obsolete based on laboratory tests and re-
require a higher front inlet velocity to capture and contain expanding search, some local codes may still require exhaust flow rates for un-
thermal currents. ASHRAE research (Swierczyna et al. 2006, 2010) listed canopy hoods to be calculated by multiplying the horizontal
indicates that an appliance front overhang of 9 to 18 in. for canopy area of the hood opening by a specified air velocity. Some jurisdic-
style and a 10 in. setback for back shelf/proximity style are preferable tions may use the length of the open perimeter of the hood times the
to current code minimums. All styles may have full or partial side vertical height between hood and appliance instead of the horizontal
panels to close the area between appliances and the hood. This may hood area. Swierczyna et al. (1997) found that these methods of cal-
eliminate the side overhang requirement and generally reduces the culation result in higher-than-necessary exhaust flowrates for
exhaust flow rate requirement. deeper hoods, because the larger reservoirs of deeper hoods typi-
Exhaust Flow Rates. Exhaust flow rate requirements to capture, cally increase hood capture and containment performance.
contain, and remove effluent vary considerably depending on hood Table 5 lists typical exhaust flow rates for listed hoods. Typical
style, overhang, distance from cooking surfaces to hood, presence design rates for listed hoods are based on published rates for listed
and size of side panels, cooking equipment, food, and cooking pro- hoods serving single categories of equipment, which vary from man-
cesses involved. The hot cooking surfaces and product effluent cre- ufacturer to manufacturer. Rates are usually lower for listed hoods
ate thermal air currents that are captured by the hood and then than for unlisted hoods, and it is generally advantageous to use listed
exhausted. The velocity of these currents depends largely on surface hoods. Actual exhaust flow rates for hoods with internal short-circuit
temperature and tends to vary from 15 fpm over steam equipment to replacement air are typically higher than those in Table 5, although
150 fpm over charcoal broilers. The required flow rate is determined net exhaust rates (actual exhaust less internal makeup air quantity)
by these thermal currents, a safety allowance to absorb cross- are lower, which seriously compromises the hood’s capture and con-
currents and flare-ups, and a safety factor for the style of hood. tainment performance (Brohard et al. 2003).
Overhang and the presence or absence of side panels help deter- Listed hoods are allowed to operate at their listed exhaust flow
mine the safety factor for different hood styles. Gas-fired cooking rates by exceptions in the model codes. The exhaust flow rates for
equipment may require an additional allowance for exhaust of com- listed hoods are established by conducting tests per UL Standard
bustion products and combustion air. 710. Typically, exhaust flow rates are much lower than those dic-
Because it is not practical to place a separate hood over each piece tated by the model codes. Note that listed flow rate values are estab-
of equipment, general practice (reflected in ASHRAE Standard 154) lished under draft-free laboratory conditions, and actual operating
is to categorize equipment into four groups, as shown in Table 3. conditions may compromise listed performance. Thus, manufactur-
Table 4 lists the required hood type by duty level. ers may recommend design values above their listed values.
These categories apply to unlisted and listed Type I hoods. Hoods listed in accordance with UL 710 cover one or more cook-
ASHRAE Standard 154-2016 requires that all Type I hoods be ing duty ratings: light, medium, heavy, and extra heavy. These duty
listed; unlisted hoods are not allowed. The exhaust flow rate require- ratings correspond to minimum cooking surface temperatures

Table 4 Type I Hood Requirementsa by Appliance Type Table 5 Typical Exhaust Flow Rates by Cooking Equipment
Appliance Description Category For Listed Type I Hoods
Light Duty Exhaust Flow Rate, cfm per linear foot of hood
Braising pan/tilting skillet, electric Light Medium Heavy Extra-Heavy
Oven, baking, electric and gas Type of Hood Duty Duty Duty Duty
Rotisserie, electric and gas Wall-mounted canopy 150 to 200 200 to 300 200 to 400 350+
Combination, electric and gas Single-island canopy 250 to 300 300 to 400 300 to 600 550+
Convection, full-size, electric and gas Double-island canopy 150 to 200 200 to 300 250 to 400 500+
Convection, half-size, electric and gas (protein cooking) (per side)
Conveyor, electric Eyebrow 150 to 250 150 to 250 — —
Deck, electric and gas Back shelf/proximity/ 100 to 200 200 to 300 300 to 400 Not
Duck, electric and gas pass-over recommended
Revolving rack, electric and gas
Rapid cook, electric Island Canopy Hoods
Roasting, electric and gas Island canopy hoods, particularly single-island style, have become
Rotisserie, electric and gas popular in open cafeteria operations such as those found in university
Stone hearth, gas food service. In many cases, the food service consultant specifies gas
Range, cook-top, induction underfired broilers and other heavy-duty cooking equipment as part
Discrete element, electric (with or without oven) of the design. For a given line of appliances, a single-island canopy
Salamander, electric and gas hood requires significantly more exhaust than a wall-mounted canopy
Medium Duty hood. Single-island canopy hoods present the most difficult capture
Braising pan/tilting skillet, gas and containment challenge in hood applications, and are often the
Broiler, chain conveyor, electric source of the “hood” problem in a kitchen with display cooking. To
Electric, under-fired address the lack of reliable performance data on island canopy hoods,
Fryer, doughnut, electric and gas ASHRAE research project RP-1480 (Swierczyna et al. 2010) was un-
Kettle, electric and gas dertaken to determine appropriate exhaust airflow rates. The objec-
Open deep-fat, electric and gas tive was to expand the database for the exhaust rates required for
Pressure, electric and gas capture and containment of standardized cook lines under four island
Griddle, double-sided, electric and gas canopy hood configurations: rear filter single island, V-bank single is-
Flat, electric and gas land, and 8 ft deep and 10 ft deep double-island hoods. Four side panel
Oven, conveyor, gas designs, four supply air strategies, and two makeup air temperature
Range, open-burner, gas (with or without oven) set points were also evaluated to quantify the effects of these features
Hot top, electric and gas on island hood performance.
Smoker, electric and gas Swierczyna et al. (2010) confirmed that single-island canopy
Heavy Duty hoods need significantly higher exhaust airflow rates than their
Broiler, chain conveyor, gas wall-mounted counterparts to effectively ventilate cooking equip-
Electric and gas, over-fired (upright) ment for a given duty class. For example, although an exhaust rate
Gas, under-fired of 300 to 400 cfm/ft can be adequate for complete capture and con-
Grill, plancha, electric and gas tainment with a wall-mounted canopy hood over a heavy-duty
Oven, tandoor, gas appliance line (ASHRAE Standard 154; PG&E 2010), a single-
Range, wok, gas and electric island canopy hood may require an exhaust rate in excess of
500 cfm/ft in many situations (measured along one side of the can-
Extra-Heavy Duty opy hood). In fact, there were several test scenarios for single-island
Oven, stone hearth, wood-fired or wood for flavoring hoods where an exhaust rate in excess of 700 cfm/ft was required to
Solid-fuel cooking appliances combusting a solid fuel (such as wood, achieve capture and containment. This contradicts common design
charcoal, or coal) to provide all or part of the heat for the cooking processb
practice, where the specified ventilation rates are often much closer
aWhere recirculating systems or recirculating hoods are used, the additional heat and to those for wall-canopy hoods.
moisture loads generated by such appliances should be accounted for in the sensible
and latent loads for the HVAC system. Single-island hood performance was improved by the larger
bSolid-fuel flavoring cooking appliances should comply with Table 1 as if they do not hood’s V-bank filter configuration over the smaller hood’s rear filter
combust solid fuel. configuration for most test configurations. The plume was better
Source: ASHRAE Standard 154-2016; Table 1.
aligned with the filters and was drawn toward the center, relative to
the front and rear of the hood. The larger V-bank hood was found to
during tests of 200, 400, 600, and 700°F respectively. In application, be less sensitive to local air replacement. However, aggressive
these temperature ratings correspond to duty ratings (see Table 4). appliance plumes that focused on the flat bottom of the V-bank, or
The total exhaust flow rate is calculated by multiplying the hood replacement air strategies that were focused at the side of the V-
exhaust flow rate by hood length. bank, proved challenging and indicated that a change of filter bank
ASTM Standard F1704 details a laboratory flow visualization profile may improve hood performance.
procedure for determining the capture and containment threshold of The performance of a double-island canopy hood, with bal-
an appliance/hood combination. This procedure can be applied to all anced replacement air, can be comparable to back-to-back wall-
hood types and configurations installed over any cooking appliances. mounted canopy hoods for a given duty class of appliances. For
ASTM Standard F2474 also provides a laboratory test procedure for example, a heavy-duty front line and a light-duty back line under
determining heat gain of specific combinations of exhaust hood, the double-island hood required an exhaust airflow rate approxi-
cooking equipment, type of foods, and cooking processes. Results mately 300 cfm/ft (measured along both sides of the hood). This
from a series of interlab heat gain tests (Fisher 1998; Swierczyna rate is comparable to the ventilation rate for similar appliance duty
et al. 2008) have been incorporated in Chapter 18 of the 2017 classes under wall-mounted canopy hoods (Swierczyna et al.

2006). The double-island hood configuration performed as if a Specification of enhanced hood edge geometry should be consid-
wall existed between them. Furthermore, the back-to-back appli- ered by manufacturers and end-users. Although each design needs
ance lines created a converging thermal plume that helped direct to be properly evaluated for its effect on hood performance, the
the plume toward the filter bank. However, without a wall between design tested in this project was effective and was typical of edge
them, the double-island hood system was more susceptible to design currently found in the industry.
cross drafts than a wall-mounted hood configuration. Performance in the field should be verified to ensure proper hood
The configuration, volume, and temperature of makeup air was capture and containment operation. As shown by RP-1480
critical to the performance of the double-island canopy hood. Con- (Swierczyna et al. 2010), many factors interact in the kitchen and
sistent with previous research (Brohard et al. 2003), reducing local affect hood performance. These interactions cannot be perfectly
makeup airflow rates and velocities corresponded with reduced cap- predicted for each installation. Therefore, a field test is best to verify
ture and containment exhaust rates, in most cases. When air volume proper kitchen ventilation and hood performance.
and associated velocity and turbulence near the hood was minimized,
the appliance plumes were more stable and the hood was able to Wall Canopy Hoods, Appliance Positioning,
capture and contain at a lower exhaust rate. However, when local and Diversity
makeup air was introduced aggressively through four-way diffusers, ASHRAE research project RP-1202 (Swierczyna et al. 2006)
perforated diffusers, or a high-flow perforated perimeter supply quantified the effect of the position and/or combination of appli-
system, hood performance degraded severely. For double-island con- ances under a wall canopy exhaust hood on the minimum C&C
figurations, a perforated perimeter supply system operated at a low- exhaust rate. Effects of side panels, front overhang, and rear seal
flow, low-velocity condition was the best of the local makeup air were also investigated. The scope of this laboratory study was to
configurations tested. When the perforated perimeter supply system investigate similar and dissimilar appliances under a 10 ft wall-
delivered low-flow, low-velocity air adjacent to the hood (i.e., less mounted canopy hood. The appliances included three full-sized
than 60% of replacement air requirement), hood performance im- electric convection ovens, three two-vat gas fryers, and three 3 ft gas
proved significantly over the high-flow, high-velocity introduction underfired broilers, representing the light, medium, and heavy-duty
(i.e., greater than 60% of replacement air requirement), and in some appliance categories, respectively. In addition to various physical
cases, better than the exhaust-only configuration with displacement appliance configurations, appliances were also varied in their usage:
supply. Higher replacement air temperatures from ceiling diffusers either off, at idle conditions, or at cooking conditions. A
also degraded the performance of island hoods. Unbalanced replace- supplemental study investigated the effect of appliance accessories
ment air distribution was extremely detrimental to the performance (including shelving and a salamander) and hood dimensions
of the double-island hoods. (including hood height, depth, and reservoir volume) on the mini-
Other research highlights the advantages of using side panels for mum exhaust rate required for complete capture and containment.
wall-mounted canopy hoods and a variety of replacement air condi- The study demonstrated that subtle changes in appliance posi-
tions (Brohard et al. 2003; Swierczyna et al. 2006). However, results tion and hood configuration could dramatically affect the exhaust
from the double-island canopy hood testing regarding side panels rates required for complete capture and containment, regardless of
were inconclusive. A more extensive side panel (and center partition) appliance duty and/or usage. The wide range in C&C values for a
investigation would need a larger laboratory where replacement air given hood/appliance setup explains why a similar hood installed
was introduced more uniformly around the hood to eliminate the over virtually the same appliance line may perform successfully in
effect of relatively high, directional local velocities. one kitchen and fall short of expectations in another facility. The
following conclusions are specific to the conditions tested by
A partition between the two appliances lines improved perfor- Swierczyna et al. (2006).
mance of a double-island hood when coupled with a balanced Airflow Requirements for Like-Duty Appliance Lines. Evalu-
supply on both sides of the hood. However, if as little as 1000 cfm ation supported widely accepted commercial kitchen ventilation
was exhausted from the side opposite from the supply air delivery, (CKV) design practices: higher ventilation rates are required for pro-
performance of the double-island hood degraded. This was contrary gressively heavier-duty appliances (Table 6). For a 10 ft wall-
to the expectation that the partition would be more of a benefit with mounted canopy hood, at a defined median or good-case installation,
unbalanced replacement air and its ability to mitigate the effect of the light-duty oven line required 1100 cfm (110 cfm/ft), the medium-
cross drafts. duty fryer line required 2400 cfm (240 cfm/ft), and the heavy-duty
Increased hood overhang was shown to be one of the most effec- broiler line required 4400 cfm (440 cfm/ft) to achieve C&C. Simply
tive performance enhancements for island canopy hoods. With a increasing front overhang as noted between the worst- and good-case
heavy-duty three-broiler appliance line centered front-to-rear under installations in Table 6 reduced the C&C exhaust rate by 10 to 27%.
the single island hoods, rather than at a minimum prescriptive front Installing side panels in addition to the increased front overhang
overhang dimension, a 14% exhaust reduction was possible for the (best-case scenario) reduced the exhaust requirements by an addi-
smaller rear filter hood, and a 40% exhaust reduction was possible tional 18 to 33%.
for the larger V-bank hood. Likewise, when side overhang was Appliance position testing confirmed the exhaust rate of an
increased to 24 in. from the minimum of 6 in., a 41% exhaust rate appliance line is most dependent on the duty of the end appliance.
reduction was found for both single-island hoods. However, the The end appliance drove the exhaust rate more than additional vol-
results did not show a significant performance difference between ume from the other two appliances, as they changed from off to
the 8 ft and 10 ft deep double-island hoods. Increased side overhang cooking conditions or were varied in duty class. In most cases, the
was found to be one of the most effective performance enhance- lowest exhaust requirements for particular appliance lines were
ments for double-island canopy hoods. Increasing the side overhang achieved when the lowest-duty appliance was at the end of the
to 24 in. resulted in a 160 cfm/ft reduction in exhaust flow rate. appliance line. In other words, hood performance was optimized
Tailored exhaust bias for double-island hoods may improve hood when the heaviest-duty appliance was in the middle of the appliance
performance. With more exhaust volume focused over the more line.
challenging appliances, the exhaust rate can be reduced for a given Appliance Positioning (Front-to-Back) and Rear Seal. In-
configuration. However, application of a specific bias for other creasing the front overhang by pushing appliances toward the back
applications or hood dimensions may yield different performance wall significantly decreased the required exhaust rates, not only be-
results and should be verified. cause of the increased distance from the hood to the front of the

Fig. 5 Capture and Containment Exhaust Rates for Gas Fig. 6 Exhaust Capture and Containment Rates for
Underfired Broilers under 10 ft Wall Canopy Hood With and One or Three Appliances Cooking from Like-Duty
Without Rear Appliance Seal at Various Front Overhangs Classes under a 10 ft Wall-Canopy Hood
(Swierczyna et al. 2006)
appliance, but also because of the decreased distance between the

back of the appliance and the wall. With a rear seal in place, some
of the replacement air, which would have otherwise been drawn up

from behind the appliances, was instead drawn in along the perim-
eter of the hood, helping guide the plume into the hood, as shown in
Figure 5.
Diversity in Appliance Usage. Operation diversity was evalu-
ated with cook lines of three similar appliances and included com-
binations of cook and off conditions. In most cases, operation
correlated directly with the required exhaust rate, with an emphasis
on the operation of the end appliances (Figure 6). The capture and
containment rate for the end appliance cooking and the other two
like-duty appliances off was nearly the same rate as all three appli-
ances cooking.
Changing the condition of end appliances from off to cooking
had the greatest effect for medium-duty fryers, which required a
950 cfm increase in the exhaust rate. Because the fryers were
thermostatically controlled, they responded to cooking operations Fig. 7 Capture and Containment Exhaust Rates for
by firing the burners. This, combined with an aggressive cooking Cooking Conditions on Multiduty Appliance Lines
plume, required a significantly increased exhaust rate for C&C. An (Compared with Single-Duty Lines with Only One
aggressive thermal plume was present for the three heavy-duty gas Appliance Operating) under 10 ft Wall Canopy Hood
underfired broilers; the exhaust rate increased 850 cfm. For the (Swierczyna et al. 2006)
light-duty electric convection oven, there was a 200 cfm differ-
ence in turning the end appliances from off to cook. Figure 6 also Effect of Hood Depth, Reservoir, and Mounting Height on
shows that cooking with only the center appliance, with the two end Capture and Containment Performance. Comparing the 4 and
appliances turned off, greatly reduced the exhaust requirement. 5 ft deep hoods, the deeper hood reduced capture and containment
exhaust rates when appliances were positioned with maximum front
Diversity in Appliance Duty and Position (Side-to-Side). The overhang and minimum rear gap. The deeper hood had a negative
study found that the capture and containment rate of a multiduty ap- effect when appliances remained in the minimum front overhang
pliance line was less than the rate of the heaviest duty appliance in position. The effect of hood depth in conjunction with front over-
that line, applied over the length of the hood (Figure 7). hang, side panels, and rear seal is shown in Figure 9.
Hood Side Panels. Side panels installed on the 10 ft hood Another advantage of the 5 ft over the 4 ft hood was its ability to
improved hood performance dramatically, by preventing the plume capture and contain the plume when an oven door was opened. For
from spilling at the side of the hood and by increasing velocity along a 4 ft hood and a 6 in. front overhang, an exhaust rate of 1200 cfm
the front of the hood. Combining side panels (measuring 1 by 1 ft by was required for the three electric ovens with the doors closed and
45°, 2 by 2 ft by 45°, 3 by 3 ft by 45°, 4 by 4 ft by 45°, or full) with 5200 cfm with the doors open. Similarly, for a 5 ft deep hood with
the maximum hood overhang resulted in the lowest exhaust require- an 18 in. front overhang, 1200 cfm was required for three ovens with
ment for all cases tested. The example of the three two-vat gas fryer the doors closed and 3400 cfm with the doors open. The setup and
line is shown in Figure 8. schlieren views are shown in Figure 10.
Effect of Shelving on Hood Capture and Containment Perfor- The reservoir volume of the hood was increased by changing the
mance. Neither solid nor tubular shelving over the six-burner range hood height from 2 to 3 ft. When the gas underfired broiler was
required an increase in the exhaust rate. In fact, tubular shelving operated in the left appliance position, the increased hood volume
mounted to the back of the appliance showed a slight enhancement marginally improved capture and containment performance. In
compared to having no shelving installed. contrast, a significant improvement was found for the appliance in

the center position. This improvement indicated the plume was well 6.5 ft mounting height illustrated the potential for optimizing CKV
located in the hood, and the increased hood volume may have systems by using close-coupled or proximity-style hoods. This
allowed the plume to roll inside the hood and distribute itself more effect is shown in Figure 11.
evenly along the length of the filter bank. Design Guidelines. Swierczyna et al. (2006) illustrated the
Minimizing hood mounting height had a positive effect on cap- potential for large variations in the airflow requirements for a spec-
ture and containment performance. In most cases, a direct correla- ified appliance line and hood configuration. Best-practice design
tion could be made between the required exhaust rate and hood considerations that became evident included the following:
height for a given appliance line. The typical 6.5 ft mounting height
(for a canopy hood) was increased to 7 or 7.5 ft. For the gas under- • Position heavy-duty appliances (e.g., broilers) in middle of the line.
fired broiler installed at the end of the hood, increasing the hood • Position light-duty appliances (e.g., ovens) on the end of the line.
height by 1 ft required a 14% increase in exhaust. However, when • Push back appliances (maximize front overhang, minimize rear
the broiler was in the center position, the increased hood height did gap).
not compromise capture and containment performance and required • Seal area between rear of appliance and wall.
exhaust rate was reduced. The dramatic reduction in the exhaust re-
quirement as the hood-to-appliance distance was reduced below the • Use side panels, end panels, and end walls.
Fig. 8 Exhaust Capture and Containment Rates Fig. 9 Exhaust Capture and Containment Rates
for Three Two-Vat Gas Fryers with Various Side for Heavy-Duty Gas Underfired Broiler Line under
Panel and Overhang Configurations under 10 ft 10 ft Wall Canopy Hood with 4 and 5 ft Hood
Wall Canopy Hood Depths and Front Various Front Overhangs
(Swierczyna et al. 2006) (Swierczyna et al. 2006)
(A) NORMAL VIEW (B) SCHLIEREN VIEW OF SPILLAGE WITH (C) SCHLIEREN VIEW DURING CAPTURE AND
4 ft DEEP HOOD WITH 6 in. OF FRONT  CONTAINMENT WITH 5 ft DEEP HOOD WITH
OVERHANG 18 in. OF FRONT OVERHANG
Fig. 10 Three Ovens under Wall-Mounted Canopy Hood at Exhaust Rate of 3400 cfm

Table 6 Capture and Containment Exhaust Rates for Three Like-Duty Appliance Lines at Cooking Conditions with Various Front
Overhang and Side Panel Configurations under 10 ft Wall-Mounted Canopy Hood
Best Case Good Case Worst Case
Three electric full-sized convection ovens 9 in. front overhang 9 in. front overhang 6 in. front overhang
full side panels
85 cfm/ft 110 cfm/ft 120 cfm/ft
Three two-vat gas fryers 18 in. front overhang 18 in. front overhang 6 in. front overhang
partial side panels
160 cfm/ft 240 cfm/ft 330 cfm/ft
Three gas underfired broilers 12 in. front overhang 12 in. front overhang 0 in. front overhang
partial side panels (6 in. cook surface)
330 cfm/ft* 440 cfm/ft 510 cfm/ft
*Adding a rear seal between back of appliance and wall to best-case configuration (6 in. of front overhang and partial side panels) further improved hood performance to an exhaust
rate of 2800 cfm (280 cfm/ft).
Source: Swierczyna et al. (2006).
Table 7 Exhaust Static Pressure Loss of Type I Hoods

for Various Exhaust Airflows*
Hood Static Pressure Loss, in. of water
Type of Grease 150 to 250 250 to 350 350 to 450 500+
Removal Device cfm/ft cfm/ft cfm/ft cfm/ft
Baffle filter 0.25 to 0.50 0.50 to 0.75 0.75 to 1.00 1.00 to 1.25
Extractor 0.80 to 1.35 1.30 to 1.70 1.70 to 3.00 2.90 to 4.20

Multistage 0.55 to 1.10 1.10 to 1.70 1.70 to 2.90 2.90 to 4.00
*Values based on 20 in. high filters and 1500 fpm through hood/duct collar.
• Installing shelving or ancillary equipment (e.g., salamander)

behind or above a range should not negatively affect C&C perfor-
mance, if other best practices (e.g., maximizing hood overhang)
are observed.
• Use larger hoods, both deeper and taller.
• Installing hoods at lowest height practical (or allowed by code) to
minimize distance from cooking surface to hood improves C&C Fig. 11 Exhaust Capture and Containment Rates for
performance. Gas Underfired Broiler under 10 ft Wall Canopy Hood
• Introduce replacement air at low velocity. Do not locate four-way at Various Mounting Heights
diffusers near hood, and minimize use of air curtains.
Replacement (Makeup) Air Options. Air exhausted from the ASHRAE Standard 154 sets minimum exhaust airflow require-
kitchen must be replaced. Replacement air can be brought in ments for Type II hoods based on the duty rating of the appliance
through traditional methods, such as ceiling diffusers, or through underneath the hood. Table 8 classifies Type II appliances as either
systems built as an integral part of the hood. It may also be intro- light or medium duty, and Table 9 gives minimum net airflow
duced using low-velocity displacement diffusers or transfer air from requirements.
other zones. For further information, see the section on Replace-
ment (Makeup) Air Systems. Ventilation Rates for Hooded Door Dishwashers
Static Pressure. Static pressure drop through hoods depends on
the type and design of the hood and grease removal devices, size of The ventilation rates for high-temperature sanitizing door-type
duct and duct connections, and flow rate. Table 7 provides a general dish machines in the model codes are inadequate to capture and con-
guide for determining static pressure loss depending on the type of tain the heat and steam from the dishwashing operation. The exhaust
grease removal device and exhaust flow rate. Manufacturers’ data rates of 100 and 200 cfm per foot of hood in the IMC and UMC
should be consulted for actual values. Static pressure losses for (Uniform Mechanical Code; IAPMO 2018), respectively, often do
exhaust ducts should be calculated for each installation. not capture the heat and steam released from the machine. The min-
imum recommendation is 300 cfm per foot of hood for canopy
Type II Hoods hoods over high-temperature sanitizing door-type machines. Front
and side overhangs are critical for capture of the thermal plume
Type II hoods (Figure 12) can be divided into the following two
from door-type machines, 12 in. on the side and front are the mini-
application categories:
mum recommendation.
• Condensate hood. For applications with high-moisture exhaust, Door-type machine operations are good candidates for demand
condensate forms on interior surfaces of the hood. The hood is control kitchen ventilation (DCKV) systems. The DCKV system
designed to direct the condensate toward a perimeter gutter for should initialize ramp-up at the beginning of the wash cycle, not the
collection and drainage, allowing none to drip onto the appliance end of the cycle, when it is too late to capture the thermal plume from
below. Hood material is usually noncorrosive, and filters are usu- the door opening. Door-type dishwashers are also good candidates
ally installed. for exhaust air heat recovery in the ventilation system. The exhaust
• Heat/fume hood. For hoods over equipment producing heat and air steam is clean and hot and heat exchangers can take advantage of
fumes only. Filters are usually not installed. latent heat in addition to sensible heat. Low-temperature sanitizing

Table 8 Type II Hood Duty Classification by Appliance Type

Appliance Description Size
Hood Not Required
Cabinet, holding, electric All
Cabinet, proofing, electric All
Cheesemelter, electric All
Coffee maker, electric All
Cooktop, induction, electric All
Dishwasher, door-type rack, hot-water sanitizing, heat recovery and vapor reduction, electric All
Door-type rack, chemical sanitizing, heat recovery and vapor reduction, electric All
Door-type dump and fill, hot-water sanitizing, electric All
Door-type dump and fill, chemical sanitizing, electric All
Pot and pan, hot-water sanitizing, heat recovery and vapor reduction, electric All
Powered sink, electric All
Under-counter, chemical sanitizing, electric All
Under-counter, electric All
Undercounter, hot-water sanitizing, heat recovery and vapor reduction, electric All
Drawer warmer, 2 drawer, electric All
Egg cooker, electric All
Espresso machine, electric All
Grill, panini, electric All
Hot dog cooker, electric All
Hot plate, countertop, electric All
Ovens, microwave, electric All

Popcorn machine, electric All
Re-thermalizer, electric All
Rice cooker, electric All
Steam table, electric All
Steamers, bun, electric All
Steamer, compartment atmospheric, countertop, electric All
Compartment pressurized, countertop, electric All
Table, hot food, electric All
Toaster, electric All
Waffle iron, electric All
Light-Duty Type II Hooda,c
Kettle, steam jacketed, tabletop, electric, gas and direct steam < 20 gal
Oven, convection, half-size, electric and gas (non-protein cooking) All
Pasta cooker, electric All
Re-thermalizer, gas All
Rice cooker, gas All
Steamer, atmospheric, gas All
Pressurized, gas All
Atmospheric, floor-mounted, electric All
Pressurized, floor-mounted, electric All
Kettle, steam-jacketed floor mounted, electric, gas, and direct steam < 20 gal
Medium-Duty Type II Hooda,c
Dishwasher, conveyor rack, chemical sanitizing All
Conveyor rack, hot water sanitizing All
Door-type rack, chemical sanitizing All
Door-type rack, hot water sanitizing All
Pot and pan, hot-water sanitizing All
Pasta cooker, gas All
Steam-jacketed kettle, floor mounted, electric and gas  20 gal
aA hood should be provided for an electric appliance if it produces 3.1 × 10–7 lb/ft3 of grease or more when measured at 500 cfm.
bWhere hoods are not required, the additional heat and moisture loads generated by such appliances should be accounted for in the sensible and latent loads for the HVAC system.
cWhere recirculating systems or recirculating hoods are used, the additional heat and moisture loads generated by such appliances should be accounted for in the sensible and latent
loads for the HVAC system.
Source: ASHRAE Standard 154-2016; Table 2.
door-type machines should not be placed directly under return air machine. The exhaust airflow rates at the vent cowls are typically
grilles. 200 cfm at the entrance and 400 cfm at the exit. The actual airflow
rates are difficult to measure in the field and are rarely verified.
Ventilation for Conveyor Dish Machines Therefore, a visual capture and containment assessment is recom-
Conveyor dish machines’ exhaust ductwork are typically pant- mended, with field adjustment as necessary to maintain capture and
leg connections to vent cowls at the entrance and exit of the dish containment at the entrance and exit. Even with a well-balanced air-

precipitator (ESP), (3) some means of odor control such as acti-

vated charcoal, and (4) an exhaust fan. NFPA Standard 96, Chapter
13, is devoted entirely to recirculating systems and contains spe-
cific requirements such as (1) design, including interlocks of all
critical components to prevent operation of the cooking appliance
if any of the components are not operating; (2) fire extinguishing
system, including specific nozzle locations; (3) maintenance,
including a specific schedule for cleaning filters, ESP, hood, and
fan; and (4) inspection and testing of the total operation and inter-
locks. In addition, NFPA Standard 96 requires that all recirculating
systems be listed by a testing laboratory. The recognized standard
for a recirculating system is UL Standard 710B. Recirculating sys-
tems should not be used over gas-fired or solid-fuel-fired cooking
equipment.
Designers should thoroughly review NFPA Standard 96 require-
ments and contact a manufacturer of recirculating systems to
obtain specific information needed for the design and listing infor-
mation before incorporating this type of system into a food service
design.
Downdraft Appliance Ventilation Systems
These systems are intended to remove smoke, grease-laden
vapors, odors, and other impurities from the air by drawing the
cooking effluents away from cooking appliances and downward
into ventilation systems. According to UL Standard 710B, these

Fig. 12 Type II Hoods systems are used with electric cooking appliances only. A down-
draft system listed to UL Standard 710B, for recirculating applica-
tions, consists of a fire extinguishing system unit, grease filters,
interlocks, etc., all contained within a suitable enclosure.
Table 9 Minimum Net Exhaust Airflow Requirements for Downdraft systems operate on a different principle than typical
Type II Hoods exhaust hoods. With a customary exhaust hood, the buoyant thermal
Minimum Net Exhaust Flow Rate per plume from cooking rises into the exhaust hood by gravity, provided
Linear Hood Length, cfm/ft overhang is sufficient, cross drafts do not interfere, etc., as ex-
Light-Duty Medium-Duty plained previously. Thereafter, one or more exhaust fans create a
Type of Hood Equipment Equipment low pressure are in the hood plenum, and the exhaust contents are
carried outdoors from the hood.
Wall-mounted canopy 200 300
Single island 400 500
In contrast, downdraft ventilation systems include an exhaust fan
that creates a low pressure at an inlet beside or behind a cooking
Double island (per side) 250 300
Eyebrow 250 250
surface, or between two cooking surfaces. The exhaust fan draws
Back shelf/pass-over 200 300
cooking effluents, possibly including combustion products, through
a grease filter in the exhaust inlet, to be transported outdoors or
Source: ASHRAE Standard 154-2011.
recirculated into the cooking space.
Downdraft appliance ventilation systems are described and cov-
flow, convective loads escape from the curtains, door seals, and ered by NFPA Standard 96, Chapter 15, and if used for recircula-
drains. These other convective loads could contribute more than tion, are listed to UL Standard 710B. If used to ventilate processes
16,000 Btu/h (with 40% of the load being latent) (PG&E 2011) and producing smoke or grease laden vapor, these systems must comply
should be accounted for in the internal heat load calculation for the with NFPA Standard 96, Chapter 15, which references other
dishroom. requirements in NFPA Standard 96:
As an alternative to a pant-leg exhaust system, a canopy exhaust
hood with a minimum ventilation rate of 200 cfm per foot of hood • Clearance requirements in Section 4.2
should be considered. The convective load to space can nearly be • Hood requirements of Chapter 6
eliminated if the canopy hood incorporates adequate overhang (12 • Grease removal device requirements of Chapter 7
in. overhang on both sides, and 24 in. overhang on both the front and • Special-purpose filters listed in accordance with ANSI/UL Stan-
rear). dard 1046
• Exhaust duct requirements of Chapter 7
Recirculating Systems • Air movement requirement of 8.2.1.2 and 8.2.2.3
A recirculating system, previously called a ductless hood, con- • Fire-extinguishing requirements of Chapter 10 and Section 15.2
sists of a cooking appliance/hood assembly designed to remove • Maintenance requirements of Chapter 11
grease, smoke, and odor and to return the treated exhaust air directly • Safety requirements of Chapter 12
back into the room. HVAC design must consider that recirculating Important additional requirements are provided by NFPA Stan-
systems discharge the total amount of heat and moisture generated dard 96, sections 15.1.2 though 15.4.
by the cooking process back into the kitchen space, adding to the Caution is advised for application of downdraft ventilation
cooling load. systems to commercial kitchens. Pulling effluent away from a
These hoods typically contain the following components in the flat-surface griddle is one popular application of these systems,
exhaust stream: (1) a grease removal device such as a baffle filter, particularly in Asian-style steakhouses, where the griddles are used
(2) a high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter or an electrostatic intermittently and the exhaust inlet is slightly close to the edges of

Fig. 13 Typical Filter Guidelines Versus Appliance Duty and Exhaust Temperature
the cooking surface. More challenging is trying to pull vapors from Table 10 Recommended Duct-Cleaning Schedules
the tops of commercial cooking vessels, such as on range tops, Inspection
because cooking effluents might be emitted above and out of reach Type or Volume of Cooking Frequency
of the downdraft inlet suction. For gas appliances, also remember
that air movement created by downdraft inlet suction might be suf- Solid fuel Monthly
ficient to interfere with the operation of nearby gas burners. High-volume cooking (gas charbroiler or wok cooking) Quarterly
Moderate-volume Semiannually
Field Performance Testing Low-volume (churches, day camps, seasonal businesses) Annually
Once kitchen ventilation systems have been installed, it is Source: Reproduced with permission from the 2017 edition of NFPA 96, Standard for
Ventilation Control and Fire Protection of Commercial Cooking Operations, Copy-
important to verify that they operate correctly. ASHRAE Standard right© 2016, National Fire Protection Association. All rights reserved. This reprinted
154 describes performance testing for both Type I and Type II hood material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced sub-
ject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety which can be which can
applications. For Type II hoods, the requirement is that the hood be viewed for free access or purchased through the NFPA web site at www.nfpa.org.
must be operating at the minimum airflow shown in Table 9. For
Type I hoods, all appliances must be turned on and either actual or tional maintenance and replacement costs. From an energy and
simulated cooking must be performed to verify that the hood system sustainability perspective, it is desirable to reduce the atmospheric
has achieved proper capture and containment. emissions and achieve the highest grease extraction or destruction
with the lowest energy costs possible. For mechanical extractors,
1.7 COOKING EFFLUENT GENERATION the pressure drop of the filters is the predominant driver for energy
AND CONTROL usage, whereas for other control systems there may be electrical
Air quality, fire safety, labor cost, and maintenance costs are components or water use that needs to be evaluated. Figure 13 pres-
important concerns involved with emissions from a commercial ents some design guidance for what filtration may be desirable
cooking operation. Cooking emissions have also been identified as under various exhaust temperature and/or duty level situations.
a major component of smog particulate. This has led to regulation in Another issue that commonly comes up during kitchen design
some major cities, requiring reduction of emissions from specific and operation is how often ductwork needs to be cleaned in restau-
cooking operations. rants. Table 10 presents inspection schedules adapted from Table
In a fire, grease deposits within a duct act as fuel. Reducing this 11.4 of NFPA Standard 96.
grease can help prevent a small kitchen fire from becoming a major
structural fire. In the past, the only control of grease build-up in Effluent Generation
exhaust ducts was frequent duct cleaning, which is expensive and During cooking operations on appliances, effluent is generated,
disruptive to kitchen operation. It also depends on frequent duct which includes water vapor and organic material (in both particulate
inspections and regular cleaning. Grease build-up on fans, fire noz- and vapor form) released from the food. The combustion of fuel and
zles, roofs, and other ventilation equipment can be costly in addi- grease contributes to the mixture released from the cooking,

including condensable and noncondensable gases. For solid-fuel above or behind the heated surface to intercept normal upward flow.
cooking, the effluent mixture contains not only toxic contaminants, Understanding plume behavior is central to designing effective ven-
but also condensable creosote (which has a lower flash point and in- tilation systems.
creases risk of duct fires). Effluent released from a noncooking cold process, such as metal
Particle Size Comparisons (from Exhaust Systems). Efflu- grinding, is captured and removed by placing air inlets so that they
ent from five types of commercial cooking equipment has been catch forcibly ejected material, or by creating airstreams with
measured under a typical exhaust hood (Kuehn et al. 1999). Foods sufficient velocity to induce the flow of effluent into an inlet. This
that emit relatively large amounts of grease were selected. Figures technique has led to an empirical concept of capture velocity that is
14A and 14B show the measured amount of grease in the plume often misapplied to hot processes. Effluent (such as grease and
entering the hood above different appliances and the amount in the smoke from cooking) released from a hot process and contained in
vapor phase, particles below 2.5 m in size (PM2.5), particles less a plume may be captured by locating an inlet hood so that the plume
than 10 m in size (PM10), and the total amount of particulate flows into it by buoyancy. Hood exhaust rate must equal or slightly
grease. Ovens and fryers generate little or no grease particulate exceed plume volumetric flow rate, but the hood need not actively
emissions, whereas other processes generate significant amounts. induce capture of the effluent if the hood is large enough at its height
However, gas underfired broilers (referred to as “gas broilers” in above the cooking operation to encompass the plume as it expands
Figures 14A and 14B) generate much smaller particulates compared during its rise. Additional exhaust airflow may be needed to resist
to the griddles and ranges, and these emissions depend on the broiler cross currents that carry the plume away from the hood.
design. The amount of grease in the vapor phase is significant and A heated plume, without cross currents or other interference, rises
varies from 30% to over 90% by mass; this affects the design vertically, entraining additional air, which causes the plume to
approach for grease removal systems. enlarge and its average velocity and temperature to decrease. If a sur-
Carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are face parallel to the plume centerline (e.g., a back wall) is nearby, the
present in solid fuel and natural gas combustion processes but not plume will be drawn toward the surface by the Coanda effect. This
in processes from electrical appliances. Additional CO and CO2 tendency may also help direct the plume into the hood. Figure 15
emissions may be generated by gas underfired boilers when grease
drippings land on extremely hot surfaces and burn. Nitrogen oxide

(NOx) emissions appear to be exclusively associated with gas appli-
ances and related to total gas consumption.
Figure 14C shows the measured plume volumetric flow rate
entering the hood. In general, gas appliances have slightly larger
flow rates than electric because additional products of combustion
must be vented. Gas underfired and electric broilers have plume
flow rates considerably larger than the other appliances shown.
Effluent flow rates from gas underfired and electric broilers are
approximately 100 times larger than the actual volumetric flow rate
created by vaporizing moisture and grease from food. The differ-
ence is caused by ambient air entrained into the effluent plume
before it reaches the exhaust hood.
Thermal Plume Behavior

The most common method of contaminant control is to install an Fig. 14B Grease in Particulate and Vapor Phases for
air inlet device (a hood) where the plume can enter it and be con- Commercial Cooking Appliances with Total Emissions
veyed away by an exhaust system. The hood is generally located Approximately Greater Than 50 lb/1000 lb of Food Cooked
Fig. 14A Grease in Particulate and Vapor Phases for Fig. 14C Plume Volumetric Flow Rate at Hood Entrance
Commercial Cooking Appliances with Total Emissions from Various Commercial Cooking Appliances
Approximately Less Than 50 lb/1000 lb of Food Cooked (Kuehn et al. 1999)

A. TEST SETUP: Two gas underfired broilers under B. Schlieren photo of capture and containment at C. Schlieren photo of spillage and containment at
8 ft long wall-mounted canopy hood, cooking 4400 cfm exhaust rate. Hot, clear air visualization, 3300 cfm exhaust rate. Hot, clear air visualization,
hamburgers. no cooking. no cooking.
Fig. 15 Hot-Air Plume from Cooking Appliances under Wall-Mounted Canopy Hood
illustrates a heated plume with and without cooking effluent as it

rises from heated cooking appliances. Figure 15A shows two gas
underfired broilers cooking hamburgers under a wall-mounted,
exhaust-only, canopy hood. Note that the hood is mounted against a
clear back wall to improve experimental observation. Figures 15B
and 15C show the hot-air plume without cooking, visualized using a
schlieren optical system, under full capture and spillage conditions,
respectively.
Effluent Control
Effluents generated by cooking include grease in particulate
(solid or liquid) and vapor states, smoke particles, and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs or low-carbon aromatics, which are sig-
nificant contributors to odor). Grease vapor is condensable and may
condense into grease particulate in the exhaust airstream when
diluted with room-temperature air or when it is exhausted into the
cooler outdoor atmosphere.
Effluent controls in the vast majority of kitchen ventilation sys-
Fig. 16 Particulate Versus Vapor-Phase Emission Percentage
tems are limited to removing solid and liquid grease particles by
per Appliance (Average)
mechanical grease removal devices in the hood. More effective (Gerstler et al. 1998)
devices reduce grease build-up downstream of the hood, lowering
the frequency of duct cleaning and reducing the fire hazard.
The reported grease extraction efficiency of mechanical filtration
systems (e.g., baffle filters and slot cartridge filters) may reflect the Grease Extraction
particulate removal performance of these devices. These devices are The particulate range from cooking operations ranges from 0.01
listed for their ability to limit flame penetration into the plenum and to 100 m. Different cooking operations have different ranges of
duct. Grease extraction performance can be evaluated using ASTM particle sizes in the cooking plume and have been measured for
Standard F2519. Smaller aerodynamic particles (<2.5 m) are not many appliances (Gerstler et al. 1998; Kuehn et al. 2008). Grease
easily removed by mechanical extractors. If these particles must be particulates larger than 20 m are too heavy to remain airborne and
drop out of the airstream. Figure 17 compares the size of particles
removed, a pollution control unit is typically added, which removes
from kitchen exhaust to common items.
a large percentage of the grease that escaped the grease removal
Each combination of food product, cooking equipment, and
device in the hood, as well as smoke particles. cooking temperature creates a unique particle emissions profile,
ASHRAE research project RP-745 (Gerstler et al. 1998) found these profiles change over time during the cooking process. For
that a significant proportion of grease effluent may be in vapor form example, the initial drop of French fries into a fryer gives off a short
(Figure 16), which is not removed by mechanical extractors. blast of large particles, whereas cooking a hamburger on a griddle

gives off a continuous stream of particles and vapor. Burgers cooked ASTM Standard F2519-05 can be used to determine fractional
on a broiler tend to burn and emit very small particles (< 1 m in filter efficiency for grease particulate. A fractional efficiency curve
size). is a graph that gives a filter’s efficiency over a range of particle sizes.
Variations in the food product itself can also change the emissions Fractional efficiency curves are created by subjecting a test filter to
of a cooking process. Hamburger with 23% fat content produces a controlled distribution of particles and measuring the quantity of
more grease than a 20% fat burger. Chicken breast may have a dif- particles at each given size before and after the filter. The amount of
ferent effluent characteristic than chicken legs or thighs. Even cook- reduction of particles is used to calculate the efficiency at each given
ing chicken with or without the skin changes the properties of size. The fractional efficiency curve for a typical 20 by 20 in. baffle
emissions. filter tested at 350 cfm/ft is shown in Figure 20.
Figures 18 and 19 show typical particle emission profiles for a Extraction efficiencies must be compared at the same airflow per
gas griddle and gas underfired broiler both cooking hamburgers linear length of filter. This gives a consistent way of comparing per-
(Kuehn et al. 1999). formance of extraction devices that may be built very differently,
such as hoods with removable extractors and with stationary
extractors. This is also consistent with the way exhaust flow rates
for hoods are commonly specified. The airflow rate through a hood
changes hood efficiency by changing the velocity at which the air
travels through a filter.
To demonstrate what a filter fractional efficiency means with an
actual cooking process, the gas underfired broilers (referred to as
“charbroiler”) emissions curve and the baffle filter efficiency curve
have been plotted on one graph in Figure 21. The area under each
emission curve is representative of the total particulate emissions
for the gas underfired broiler. As can be seen by comparing the
graph before and after the baffle filter, there is very little reduction
in the amount of grease exhausted to the duct. The area under the
“charbroiler after baffle” curve represents the amount of grease par-
Fig. 17 Size Distribution of Common Particles ticulate exhausted into the duct.
Fig. 18 Gas Griddle Mass Emission Versus Particle Size Fig. 20 Baffle Filter Particle Efficiency Versus Particle Size
(Kuehn et al. 1999) (Kuehn et al. 1999)
Fig. 19 Gas Underfired Broiler Mass Emission Versus

Particle Size Fig. 21 Baffle Filter Particle Efficiency Versus Particle Size
(Kuehn et al. 1999) (Kuehn et al. 1999)

The graphs and efficiencies shown here are only for particulate Water Mist, Scrubber, and Water Bath. Passage of the effluent
grease. There is also a vapor component of the grease that is stream through water mechanically entraps particulates and con-
exhausted, which cannot be removed by filtration. Some of the denses grease vapor.
vapor condenses and is removed as particulate before reaching the
• High airflow can reduce efficiency of water baths.
filter. Some condenses in the duct and accumulates on the duct and
• Water baths have high static pressure loss.
fan. However, with elevated temperatures in the exhaust airstream,
• Spray nozzles need much attention; water may need softening to
vapor may pass through and exit to the atmosphere.
minimize clogging.
Higher efficiency at a specific particle size may not be the only • Drains tend to become clogged with grease, and grease traps
selection criteria for grease extraction. From an energy and sustain- require more frequent service. Mist and scrubber sections need
ability standpoint, the ideal goal would be to have the highest grease significant length to maximize exposure time.
extraction at the lowest pressure drop possible. Smaller particles can
only be removed by shifting the efficiency curve towards the left. Pleated, Bag, and HEPA Filters. These devices are designed to
More effective devices reduce grease build-up downstream of the remove very small particles by mechanical filtration. Some types
hood, lowering the frequency of duct cleaning and reducing the fire also have an activated-carbon face coating for odor control.
hazard. Having higher-efficiency grease removal devices in the • Filters become blocked quickly if too much grease enters.
hood reduces the maintenance of downstream control equipment. • Static loss builds quickly with extraction, and airflow drops.
Concerns about air quality also emphasize the need for higher- • Almost all filters are disposable and very expensive.
efficiency grease extraction from the exhaust airstream than can be
Activated-Carbon Filters. VOC control is through adsorption
provided by filters or grease extractors in exhaust hoods. Cleaner
by fine activated charcoal pellets or granules.
exhaust discharge to the outdoors may be required by increasingly
stringent air quality regulations or where the exhaust discharge con- • Require a large volume and thick bed to be effective.
figuration is such that grease, smoke, or odors in discharge would • Are heavy and can be difficult to replace.
create a nuisance. In some cases, exhaust air is cleaned so that it can • Expensive to change and recharge. Many are disposable.
be discharged inside (e.g., through recirculating systems). Several
• Ruined quickly if they are grease-coated or subjected to water.

systems have been developed to clean the exhaust airstream, each of • Some concern that carbon is a source of fuel for a fire.
which presents special fire protection issues.
Oxidizing Pellet Bed Filters. VOC and odor control is by oxi-
Where odor control is required in addition to grease removal, dation of gaseous effluent into solid compounds.
activated charcoal, other oxidizing bed filters, or deodorizing agents
are used downstream of the grease filters. Because much cooking • Require a large volume and long bed to be effective.
odor is gaseous and therefore not removed by air filtration, filtration • Are heavy to handle and can be difficult to replace.
upstream of the charcoal filters must remove virtually all grease in • Expensive to change.
the airstream to prevent grease build-up on the charcoal filters. See • Some concern about increased oxygen available in fire.
Chapter 12 of the 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals for Incineration. Particulate, VOC, and odor control is by high-
more information. temperature oxidation (burning) into solid compounds.
The following technologies are applied to varying degrees for
control of cooking effluent. They are listed by order of use in the • Must be at system terminus and clear of combustibles.
exhaust stream after a mechanical filtration device, with particulate • Are expensive to install with adequate clearances.
control upstream of VOC control. After the description of each tech- • Can be difficult to access for service.
nology are qualifications and concerns about its use. There is no • Very expensive to operate.
consensus test protocol for evaluating these technologies in kitchen Catalytic conversion. A catalytic or assisting material, when ex-
applications. posed to relatively high-temperature air, provides additional heat
Electrostatic Precipitators (ESPs). Particulate removal is by adequate to decompose (oxidize) most particulates and VOCs.
high-voltage ionization, then collection on flat plates.
• Requires high temperature (450°F minimum).
• Condensed grease can block airflow, especially when mounted out- • Expensive to operate because of high temperature requirement if
doors. integrated into the hood (can be cost-effective at the appliance
• As the ionizer section becomes dirty, efficiency drops because the level).
effective ionizer surface area is reduced.
• Under heavy loading, the unit may shut down because of voltage 1.8 REPLACEMENT (MAKEUP) AIR SYSTEMS
drop. In hood systems, where air exhausted through the hood is dis-
charged to the outdoors, the volume of air exhausted must be replaced
Ultraviolet (UV) Destruction. This system uses ultraviolet light
with uncontaminated outdoor air. Outdoor air must be introduced into
to chemically convert the grease into an inert substance and ozone.
the building through properly designed replacement air systems.
Construction (not performance) is evaluated for safety in accor-
Proper replacement air volume and distribution allow the hood ex-
dance with UL Standard 710C.
haust fan to operate as designed and facilitate proper building pres-
• Requires adequate exposure time for chemical reactions. surization, which is required for safe operation of direct-vent gas
• Personnel should not look at light generated by high-intensity UV appliances (such as water heaters), prevention of kitchen odors mi-
lamps. grating to adjacent building spaces, and/or maintaining a comfortable
building environment. Proper pressurization enhances the building
• Exhaust fans should operate when UV lights are on because some
environment by preventing suction of unfiltered and/or unconditioned
forms of UV generate ozone.
outdoor air into the building envelope through doors, windows, or air
• UV is more effective on very small particles and vapor. handlers. IMC (ICC 2018a) requires neutral or negative pressuriza-
• The required frequency of duct cleaning is reduced. tion in rooms with mechanical exhaust. NFPA Standard 96 requires
• Lamps need to be replaced periodically; as lamps become dirty, enough replacement air to prevent negative pressures from exceeding
efficiency drops. 0.02 in. of water, which may still be excessive for proper drafting of

Table 11 Outdoor Air Requirements for Dining and Food the amount of outdoor air increases, the increasing pressure in the
Preparation Areas system opens the relief damper, so that the return air volumetric rate
is only enough to maintain approximately the amount of design sup-
Maximum
Airflow Rate, Occupancy,
ply air. The amount of air required for dedicated replacement air
Facility Type cfm/person persons/1000 ft2 becomes the minimum set point for the economizer damper when the
hoods are operating. Fixed outdoor air intakes must be set to allow
Restaurant dining area 7.5 70 the required amount of replacement air. Outdoor air dampers should
Cafeterias and fast food dining area 7.5 100 be interlocked with hood controls to open to a preset minimum posi-
Bars/cocktail lounges 7.5 100 tion when the hood system is energized.
Kitchen (cooking) spaces 7.5 20 If the zone controls call for cooling, and outdoor conditions are
Note: All areas are assumed nonsmoking. within economizer range, the outdoor damper may be opened to
Source: ASHRAE Standard 62.1.
allow greater amounts of outdoor air. The maximum setting for out-
door air dampers in unitary HVAC units is typically 25 to 30% of
some direct vent appliances. To ensure pressure control, IMC also re- total unit air volume when the units are operating in their heating or
quires electrical interlock between exhaust and replacement air cooling (i.e., noneconomizer) mode. Field experience has shown
sources. This electrical interlock prevents excessive negative or posi- that large increases in air discharge velocities or volumes can occur
tive pressures created by the exhaust fan or replacement air unit oper- at diffusers when HVAC units go into economizer mode. This is
ating independently. because the static loss through the fresh-air intake is considerably
less than through the return air duct system, and thus a change from
Indoor Environmental Quality
return air to fresh air reduces the overall static through the system,
Traditionally, the primary purpose of replacement air has been to resulting in a relative increase in the total system flow. This can cre-
ensure proper operation of the hood. Kitchen thermal comfort and ate air balance problems that negatively affect hood performance
indoor environmental quality (IEQ) have been secondary. In some because of interference with capture and containment supply flow
applications, thermal comfort and IEQ can be improved through patterns at the hoods.
adequate airflow and proper introduction of replacement air. In many A large increase in air velocity or volume from supply diffusers
of today’s applications, outdoor air that meets IEQ standards is the indicates a need for better balance between the fresh air and return
most energy-efficient source for kitchen hood replacement air. Table air static losses. Some HVAC manufacturers state that a relief fan is
11 gives ASHRAE Standard 62.1 requirements for outdoor air per required to ensure proper air balance if economizer controls call for
person; these requirements may be increased or decreased in certain outdoor air greater than 50% during economizer operation mode. A
areas if approved by the authority having jurisdiction. Outdoor air relief fan addresses static losses in the return duct system, thus help-
requirements affect HVAC system sizing and may require another ing minimize the static difference with the fresh-air intake. Lack of
means of introducing outdoor air. A further requirement of Standard a barometric relief damper, or constrictions in the return ductwork,
62.1, that outdoor air be sufficient to provide for an exhaust rate of at also may be the source of the problem.
least 0.70 cfm per square foot of kitchen space, is generally easily In smaller commercial buildings, including restaurants and strip
met due to cooking ventilation rates. centers, individual unitary rooftop HVAC equipment is common.
This unitary equipment may not be adequate to supply 100% of the
Replacement Air Introduction replacement air volume. Outdoor air must be considered during ini-
Replacement air may be introduced into the building through tial unit selection to obtain desired unit operation and space com-
dedicated makeup air units, conventional HVAC apparatus, dedi- fort. The space in which the hood is located should be kept at a
cated hood-system makeup air units (discussed in the section on Air neutral or negative pressure relative to adjacent spaces. Therefore,
Distribution), or in very limited climates, ventilators that include no HVAC economizers are not recommended for equipment supplying
conditioning means. air directly to the space in which the hood is located, unless the
Dedicated Makeup Air Units. These units are specifically de- economizer installation includes equipment and controls to main-
signed to heat, dehumidify, or cool 100% outdoor air. These dedi- tain overall system air balance and to prevent excessive air dis-
cated units typically include modulating, heating, dehumidification, charge velocities or volumes.
and cooling systems that react to outdoor air conditions and prevent In climates with higher summer dew-point design conditions,
cycling of these conditioning systems. Cycling leads to space discom- consider adding active dehumidification (such as hot-gas reheat) for
fort and higher unit energy consumption. Hot-gas reheat (HGRH) units supplying outdoor air for ventilation at rates greater than 10%
may also be included to aid in continuous dehumidification (when of unit total airflow.
required by outdoor air conditions) while maintaining space com-
fort. See Chapter 28 of the 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Sys- Replacement Air Categories
tems and Equipment for more information on makeup air units. Three categories of replacement air have been defined for design
Using enthalpy or temperature control for determining dedicated of energy-efficient replacement air systems: supply, makeup, and
makeup air unit operation is recommended. These controls turn transfer. IAQ engineers must design outdoor air systems to meet
compressor(s), water supply, or heat sources off when outdoor air total building ventilation requirements. Replacement air for kitchen
conditions warrant, while maintaining kitchen comfort, thus con- ventilation must integrate into the total building IAQ design. Total
serving energy and saving money without the use of additional kitchen ventilation replacement air may consist of only dedicated
economizer damper systems. makeup air; however, in many energy-efficient designs, outdoor air
Conventional HVAC Units. Conventional HVAC units require required for ventilating the kitchen or adjacent spaces is used as
fixed outdoor air intakes or economizer-controlled outdoor air supply or transfer air to augment or even eliminate the need for ded-
dampers when they (1) supply outdoor air to meet spaces’ ventilation icated makeup air. Typically, replacement air will be a combination
requirements, (2) are adjacent to the kitchen area, and (3) only sec- of categories from multiple sources. The source of replacement air
ondarily transfer the outdoor component of the total airflow to the typically determines its category.
kitchen. To alleviate any potential overpressurization occurrences, Kitchen supply air is outdoor air introduced through the HVAC
HVAC units with economizers should have a barometric relief or ventilating apparatus, dedicated to the comfort conditioning of
damper either in the return ductwork or in the HVAC unit itself. As the space in which the hood is located. In many cases this may be an

ideal source of replacement air because it also provides comfort and (2) uniformly from all directions to which the hood is open. This
conditioning for the occupants. minimizes excessive cross-currents that could cause spillage.
Makeup air is outdoor air introduced through a system dedi- Proper location and/or control of HVAC return grilles is therefore
cated to providing replacement air specifically for the hood. It is critical. The higher air velocities typically recommended for general
typically delivered directly to or close to the hood. This air may or ventilation or spot cooling with unconditioned air (75 to 200 fpm at
may not be conditioned. When conditioned, it may be heated only; worker) should be avoided around the hood. Hood manufacturers
generally only in extreme environments will it be cooled. When offer a variety of compensating hoods, plenums, and diffusers de-
included, makeup air typically receives less conditioning than signed to introduce replacement air effectively.
space supply air. The IMC (ICC 2018a) requires makeup air be Hood-Supplied Replacement Air (Compensating Hoods).
conditioned to within 10°F of the kitchen space, except when intro- A common way of distributing replacement air is through compen-
ducing replacement air that does not decrease kitchen comfort (see sating systems that are integral with the hood. Figure 22 shows
the section on Energy Considerations for additional information). four typical compensating hood configurations. Because actual
This can be accomplished with proper distribution design. Typical flows and percentages may vary with hood design, the manu-
sources of makeup air heating include direct and indirect gas-fired facturer should be consulted about specific applications. The
units, hot-water coils (with freeze protection), and, in some cases following are typical descriptions of configurations that include
or geographic areas, electric resistance heating. When cooling is perimeter supply.
provided, the outdoor air design conditions must be considered. A Brohard et al. (2003) investigated the effects of six methods of
low-dew-point design is required for effective use of evaporative introducing replacement air on three hood styles, Three hood types
coolers. Higher-dew-point design temperatures may require water were tested: (1) wall-mounted canopy, (2) island-mounted canopy,
or direct exchange (DX) coils for cooling and/or dehumidification. and (3) proximity (back shelf). Gas underfired broilers and gas grid-
Temperature of makeup air introduced varies with distribution dles, respectively representing heavy-duty and medium-duty appli-
system and type of operation. ances, were tested. Idle and emulated cooking conditions were also
Transfer air is outdoor air, introduced through the HVAC or ven- tested. The MUA strategies included (1) displacement ventilation
tilating apparatus, dedicated to comfort conditioning and ventilation (base case), (2) ceiling diffuser, (3) hood face diffuser, (4) air curtain
requirements of a space adjacent to the area in which the hood is diffuser, (5) back wall supply, and (6) short-circuit supply. The
located. The device providing transfer air must operate and supply influences of air mass disturbances (drafts) and tapered side panels
outdoor air whenever the hood is operating. Air must not be trans- were also investigated. Each replacement air strategy and specific
ferred from spaces where airborne contaminants such as odors, configuration tested compromised the exhaust hood’s ability to
germs, or dust may be introduced into the food preparation or serving completely capture and contain the thermal plume and/or effluents
areas. Air may be transferred through wall openings, door louvers, or at higher replacement airflow rates (expressed as a percentage of the
ceiling grilles connected by duct above the ceiling. Depending on threshold exhaust rate). Temperature of locally supplied makeup air
grille and duct pressure drop, a transfer fan(s) may be required to also affected hood performance, because air density affects the
avoid drawing transfer air through lower-pressure-drop openings at dynamics of air movement around the hood. Generally, hotter
velocities that may be detrimental to food service processes. When makeup air temperatures (e.g., greater than 90°F) affect hood per-
using openings through which food is passed, transfer velocities formance more adversely than cooler air (e.g., less than 75°F).
should not exceed 50 fpm to avoid excessive cooling of the food. Air Curtain Supply. This method is typically used for spot-cooling
Transfer air is an efficient source of replacement air because it per- the cooking staff to counter the severe radiant heat generated from
forms many functions, including ventilating and/or conditioning the equipment such as gas or electric broilers. The air must be heated and/
adjacent space, replacing air for the hood, and additional condition- or cooled, depending on local climate. Air curtain discharge can be
ing for the space in which the hood is located. Only the portion of air along the length of the hood front only or along all open sides of the
supplied to the adjacent space that originated as outdoor air may be hood. When discharge velocity is too low, air tends to enter the hood
transferred for replacement air. The IMC (ICC 2018a) recognizes the directly and may have little effect on hood performance. When dis-
use of transfer air as a replacement air source. In large buildings such charge velocity is too high, air entrains the cooking plume and spills
as malls, supermarkets, and schools, adequate transfer air may be it into the room. Ideal velocity and throw can improve hood perfor-
available to meet 100% of hood replacement air requirements. Malls mance and redirect the thermal plume toward the filters. Discharge
and multiple-use-occupancy buildings may specify a minimum
amount of transfer air to be taken from their space to keep cooking
odors in the kitchen, or they may specify the maximum transfer air
available. Code restrictions may prevent the use of corridors as
spaces through which transfer air may be routed. Conditions of
transfer air are determined by conditioning requirements of the space
into which the air is initially supplied.
Air Distribution
The design of a replacement air distribution system may enhance
or degrade hood performance. Systems that use a combination of
kitchen supply, makeup, and transfer air include various compo-
nents of distribution. Distribution from each source into the vicinity
of the hood must be designed to eliminate high velocities, eddies,
swirls, or stray currents that can interrupt the natural rising of the
thermal plume from cooking equipment into the hood, thus
degrading the performance of the hood. Methods of distribution
may include conventional diffusers, compensating hood designs,
transfer devices, and simple openings in partitions separating
building spaces. Regardless of the method selected, it is important
to always deliver replacement air to the hood (1) at proper velocity Fig. 22 Compensating Hood Configurations

velocities must be carefully selected to avoid discomfort to personnel potentially creates an additional heat and moisture load on the
and cooling of food. kitchen, particularly because most replacement air supplied is
Limit the percentage of makeup air supplied through an air cur- mixed with room air before being exhausted.
tain to less than 20% of the hood’s exhaust flow. At these low air To help ensure proper performance, the discharge of the back-
velocities, an air curtain may enhance capture and containment, wall supply should be at least 12 in. below cooking surfaces of
depending on design details. However, at higher makeup airflow appliances, to prevent the relatively high-velocity makeup air from
rates, the air curtain is one of the worst performing makeup air strat- interfering with gas burners and pilot lights. Back-wall plenums
egies. The negative effect of an air curtain is clearly illustrated in with larger discharge areas may provide increased airflow rates as
Figure 23 by the schlieren flow visualization recorded during a test long as discharge velocities remain below maximum thresholds.
of a wall-mounted canopy hood operating over two gas underfired The quantity of air introduced through the back-wall supply should
broilers. be no more than 60% of the hood’s exhaust flow.
Introducing makeup air through an air curtain is a risky option. Front-Face Supply. Supplying air through the front face of the
An air curtain (by itself or in combination with another pathway) is hood is a configuration recommended by many hood manufacturers.
not recommended, unless velocities are minimized and the designer In theory, air exits the front-face unit horizontally into the kitchen
has access to performance data on the actual air curtain configura- space. However, a front-face discharge with louvers or perforated
tion being specified. Typical air curtains are easily adjusted, which face can perform poorly, if its design does not consider discharge air
could cause cooking effluent to spill into the kitchen by inadver- velocity and direction. Figure 25 presents a poorly designed per-
tently creating higher-than-specified discharge velocities. forated face supply, which can negatively affect hood capture perfor-
Back-Wall Supply. A makeup air plenum is installed between the mance in the same way as an air-curtain or four-way diffuser. To
back of the hood and wall. The full-length plenum typically extends improve front-face performance, internal baffling and/or a double
down the wall to approximately 6 in. below the cooking surface or layer of perforated plates may be used improve the uniformity of air-
2 to 3 ft above the floor. The depth of the plenum is typically 6 in. flow. In addition, greater distance between the lower capture edge
Makeup air is discharged behind and below the cooking equipment. of the hood and the bottom of the face discharge area may decrease
The bottom of the plenum is provided with diffusers and may also the tendency of the replacement air supply to interfere with hood
include a balancing damper. As with front-face discharge, air volume capture and containment. In general, face discharge velocities
and discharge velocity dictate how far into the space the makeup air should not exceed 150 fpm (i.e., replacement air flow rate divided
will travel. The amount of travel and local climate dictate the amount by gross discharge area) and should exit the front face in a
of heating and/or cooling needed. Support for wall shelves, salaman- horizontal direction.
der broilers, or cheesemelters mounted under the hood must be con- Internal Makeup Air. This method, also known as short-circuit,
sidered. The plenum structure typically does not provide sufficient introduces makeup air directly into the exhaust hood cavity. This
support for mounting these items. design has limited application, and the amount of air that can be
Back-wall supply can be an effective strategy for introducing introduced varies considerably with the type of cooking equipment
makeup air (Figure 24). In most cases, it allows significant amounts and exhaust flow rate. As noted previously, thermal currents from
of air to be locally supplied without a detrimental effect on hood cooking equipment create a plume of a certain volume that the
C&C performance. Local makeup air mostly enters the kitchen hood must remove. The hood must therefore draw at least this
space, rather than remaining contained in the cooking zone. This volume of air from the kitchen, in addition to any internal makeup.
If the net exhaust flow rate (total exhaust less internal makeup air)
is less than the plume volume, part of the plume may spill out of the
Fig. 23 Schlieren Image Showing Thermal Plume Being Fig. 24 Schlieren Image Showing Thermal Plume Being
Pulled Outside Hood by Air Curtain Captured with Back-Wall Supply
(Brohard et al. 2003) (Brohard et al. 2003)

hood. Internal makeup air is typically not conditioned; however, the velocity for a given flow of replacement air and reduces the
depending on local climate, manufacturer’s design, type of cooking chance of it affecting capture and containment. If the perforated
equipment, and local codes, conditioning may be required. Some perimeter supply is extended along the sides of the hood as well as
local authorities approve internal discharge hoods, and some do the front, the increased area allows proportionally more makeup air
not. For unlisted hoods, IMC (2018a) requires the net quantity of
exhaust air to be calculated by subtracting any airflow supplied
directly to a hood cavity from the total exhaust flow rate of a hood.
Listed hoods are operated in accordance with the terms of the list-
ing. All applicable codes must be consulted to ensure proper crite-
ria are followed.
When short-circuit hoods are operated with excessive internal
makeup air, they typically fail to capture and contain the cooking
effluent (Figure 26). ASHRAE Standard 154 limits the quantity of
internal replacement air to no more than 10% of the exhaust airflow.
Additionally, the introduction of untempered makeup air results in
uncomfortable kitchen conditions. Independent research (Brohard
et al. 2003) recommends not using this compensating hood design;
therefore, there is no additional design information in this chapter.
Multiple Discharge. This method may combine internal, perim-
eter, air curtain, and/or front face. Each may be served by a separate
or common plenum. Balancing dampers may be provided for one or
both discharge arrangements. These dampers may be used to fine-
tune the amount of air discharged through the air curtain or front
face. However, this method inherits the performance problems of
each of the individual types, and combining them tends to com-

pound these issues.
Perforated Perimeter Supply. Perforated perimeter supply is sim-
ilar to a front-face supply, but the air is directed downward, as in
Figure 27, toward the hood capture area. This may be advantageous
under some conditions, because air is directed downward into the
hood capture zone.
For proper hood performance, discharge velocities should not Fig. 26 Schlieren Image Showing Thermal Plume Being
exceed 150 fpm (i.e., makeup airflow rate divided by gross discharge Displaced by Short-Circuit Supply, Causing Hood to Spill
area) from any section of the diffuser, and the distance to lower edge (Brohard et al. 2003)
of the hood should be no less than 18 in., or the system begins to act
like an air curtain. An increase in the plenum discharge area lowers
Fig. 27 Schlieren Image Showing Effective Plume

Capture with Replacement Air Supplied Through 16 in.
Fig. 25 Schlieren Image Showing Thermal Plume Being Wide Perforated Perimeter Supply, Shown with
Pulled Outside Hood by Front Face Additional Front Overhang

to be supplied. In all cases, the velocity downward 2 in. above the Slot Diffusers. Because the slot opening of these devices is gen-
lower edge of the hood should not exceed 75 fpm. erally small compared to air volume, air velocity is often higher than
Room-Supplied Makeup Air (Diffusers and Grilles). There that which would be obtained with two-, three-, and four-way dif-
are various ways to distribute replacement air in the vicinity of the fusers. Also, because airflow is mostly downward, the potential for
hood to avoid cross currents that degrade hood performance. Non- negatively affecting hood performance is quite high if outlets are
aspirating diffusers are recommended, especially adjacent to the near the hood. If used with relatively high ceilings, the potential for
hood. For more information on diffusers, see Chapter 20 of the 2017 negative impact is less because the velocity diminishes as air dif-
ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals, Chapter 20 of the 2016 ASH- fuses downward. Slot diffusers are usually nonaspirating.
RAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment, and Chapter 58 of Displacement Diffusers. These devices, designed to provide low-
this volume. Typical devices include the following. velocity laminar flow over the diffuser surface, typically supply air
from 50 to 70°F in a kitchen, depending on equipment loads. Hotter,
Directional Ceiling Diffusers. Air from these two- or three-
stratified air is removed from the ceiling through exhaust ducts or
way diffusers should not be directed toward exhaust hoods,
returned to the HVAC system to be conditioned. In contrast with
where it might disturb the thermal plume and adversely affect hood
ceiling diffusers, which require complete mixing to be effective,
performance. The diffuser should be located so that the jet velocity
stratification is the desired effect with displacement diffusers.
at the lip of the hood does not exceed 75 fpm.
Displacement diffusers were used to determine the baseline for
Four-Way Directional Ceiling Diffusers. Four-way directional Brohard et al.’s (2003) replacement air study, because they pro-
diffusers located close to kitchen exhaust hoods (Figure 28) can vided a uniform, nearly laminar bulk airflow. This low-velocity bulk
have a detrimental effect on hood performance, particularly when airflow is optimal for attaining C&C with the lowest exhaust rate.
flow through the diffuser approaches its design limit. They are not Therefore, supplying replacement air through displacement diffus-
recommended within 15 ft of the hood. ers (Figure 29) may be an effective strategy for introducing replace-
Perforated Ceiling Diffusers. These nonaspirating, perforated- ment air. Adequate wall or floor space is required to accommodate
face diffusers may have internal deflecting louvers, but should not displacement diffusers.
be capable of directing the airflow toward the hood. The diffuser Other Factors That Influence Hood Performance.
should be located so that the jet velocity at the lip of the hood does Hood Style. Wall-mounted canopy hoods function effectively
not exceed 75 fpm. In some code jurisdictions, when conventional with a lower exhaust flow rate than single-island hoods. Island
ceiling diffusers are used, only perforated diffusers are allowed in canopy hoods are more sensitive to makeup air supply and cross
commercial kitchens. Perforated ceiling diffusers can be used near drafts than wall-mounted canopy hoods. Back-shelf/proximity
the hood, although a greater number of these diffusers may be re- hoods generally exhibit lower capture and containment exhaust
quired to reduce air velocities for a given supply rate. To help ensure rates, and in some cases, perform the same job at one-third of the
proper hood performance, air from a perforated diffuser near the exhaust rate required by a wall-mounted canopy hood.
hood should not be directed toward the hood. If ceiling-supplied air Cross Drafts. Cross drafts have a detrimental effect on all hood/
must be directed toward a hood, air discharge velocity at the diffuser appliance combinations. Cross drafts adversely affect island canopy
face should be selected so that the terminal velocity does not exceed hoods more than wall-mounted canopy hoods. A fan in a kitchen,
75 fpm at the edge of the hood capture area. especially pointing at the cooking area, severely degrades hood per-
Fig. 28 Schlieren Image Showing Thermal Plume Fig. 29 Schlieren Image Showing Plume Being
Being Pulled Outside Hood by Air Discharged Effectively Captured when Replacement Air Is Supplied
from Four-Way Diffuser at Low Velocity from Displacement Diffusers

formance and may make capture impossible. Cross drafts required Table 12 Appliance Heat Gain Reference
at least a 37% increase in exhaust flow rate; in some cases, C&C Chapter 18,
could not be achieved with a 235% increase in exhaust rate (Brohard 2017 ASHRAE
et al. 2003). Cross drafts can result from portable fans, movement in Handbook—
the kitchen, or an unbalanced HVAC system, which may pull air Fundamentals
from open drive-through windows or doors. Appliance Location Fuel Source Table Reference
Side Panels. Side (or end) panels allow a reduced exhaust rate in Unhooded All 5A and 5B
most cases, because they direct replacement airflow to the front of Hooded Electric 5C
the hood. Installing side panels improved C&C performance for Hooded Gas 5D
static conditions an average 10 to 15% and up to 35% for dynamic Hooded Solid Fuel 5E
(cross-draft) conditions. They are a relatively inexpensive way to Hooded and unhooded dishwashers All 5F
enhance performance and reduce the total exhaust rate. Partial side
panels can provide virtually the same benefit as full panels. One of Table 13 Heat Gain from Outdoor Air Infiltration
the greatest benefits of side panels is to mitigate the negative effect
of cross drafts. Chapter 18,
2017 ASHRAE
Brohard et al. (2003) recommend reducing the impact that locally Handbook—
supplied makeup air may have on hood performance by minimizing Fundamentals
makeup air velocity as it is introduced near the hood. This can be Type of Heat Gain Equation Equation Reference
accomplished by minimizing the volume of makeup air through any
single distribution system or by distributing through multiple config- Sensible qs = 1.10Qst (9)
urations. The chances of makeup air affecting hood performance Latent ql = 4840QsW (10)
increase as the percentage of the locally supplied makeup air (rela- Total (Sensible + Latent) qt = 4.5Qsh (7)
tive to the total exhaust) is increased. In fact, the 80% rule of thumb Notes: Qs is flow in cfm, t is °F, W is lbm water per lbm air, h is Btu/lbm, and q is heat
for sizing airflow through a makeup air system may be a recipe for
gain in Btu.  is the difference between outdoor and space-neutral (room design) con-
trouble. ditions.
Effective introduction of replacement air (whether supplied
through displacement ventilation diffusers, perforated diffusers lo- Tables 5A to 5F in Chapter 18 of the 2017 ASHRAE Hand-
cated in the ceiling, and/or as transfer air from adjacent spaces) book—Fundamentals list typical equipment and the heat rejected
should be designed to limit velocities approaching the hood to less into the kitchen. The data contained in these tables were updated
than 75 fpm. as part of ASHRAE research project RP-1362 (Swierczyna et al.
Design Recommendations. The first step to reducing the re- 2008). Table 12 summarizes which tables to use for what type of
placement air requirement is lowering the design exhaust rate, which equipment.
can be accomplished by prudent selection and application of UL For the majority of appliances, table heat gain values were deter-
Standard 710 listed hoods. Using side panels on canopy hoods may mined during idle or standby condition: that is, the appliance was
increase effectiveness and mitigate cross drafts, and is highly recom- fully warmed up and in its ready-to-cook condition. (Typically, an
mended where applicable. The next step is to take credit for outdoor appliance is in standby for as much as 70% of the day.) For appli-
air that must be supplied by the HVAC system to meet code require- ances installed under an exhaust hood, the amount of heat emitted as
ments for space or occupant ventilating. Depending on the architec- radiation is listed, because this heat ends up heating nearby objects.
tural layout, it may be practical to transfer most of this air to the For the appliances that are not installed under a hood because of
kitchen. Assuming the transfer air is conditioned and properly intro- their low energy consumption or lack of cooking effluent, the
duced, it may enhance hood performance and improve the kitchen amount of both sensible and latent heat is listed, in addition to the
environment. radiation.
For more information, see the sections on Energy Considerations The greatest challenge with using these data is determining the
and Commercial Exhaust Hoods in this chapter. diversity or usage factor of the appliances. It may be difficult to
anticipate how often the appliance will be at full cooking or at some
1.9 HVAC SYSTEM DESIGN standby condition. Any assumptions made can be rendered incor-
rect by a change in kitchen throughput or sales. Determining the
As mentioned previously, one purpose of kitchen ventilation is to correct heat gain is an involved procedure that requires input from
provide a comfortable environment for employees. Engineers who the entire kitchen design team.
are used to designing HVAC loads for more traditional spaces (e.g.,
offices) may not realize how different the kitchen environment can Outdoor Air Loads
be: kitchens require a much greater quantity of outdoor air as
makeup, and have much higher internal loads (including sensible If the outdoor air is not conditioned to a space-neutral (or space
radiated heat gain from appliances underneath hoods, sensible and design) condition, then the sensible and latent loads from this
latent loads from unhooded equipment including warewashers, and volume of air will impact the existing HVAC system at least to some
sometimes outdoor air loads). extent because however the air is introduced into the kitchen some
of it will enter the kitchen space especially if that air is hot and
Hooded and Unhooded Appliance Loads humid. Table 13 summarizes the relevant equations from Chapter 18
One of the challenges in performing cooling and heating load of the 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals. It is recom-
calculations for a kitchen is determining the space heat gains from mended that the load from at least 50% of the outdoor air brought
the cooking appliances. Given that many of the largest cooking into the kitchen to replace the exhaust air be used in the heat gain
appliances include exhaust hoods to remove the smoke, grease, and calculations.
heat, determining the heat gain can be challenge. There may also be The remaining heat gains from lighting, envelope, and people
a large number of smaller appliances that do not include exhaust can be calculated following the procedure described in Chapter 18
hoods and which reject all their heat directly to the space. of the 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals.

Fig. 30 Summer Temperatures by Height and Kitchen Zone Fig. 31 Summer Temperatures by Height and Kitchen Zone
in Casual Kitchens in Institutional Kitchens
Thermal Comfort Research Results

ASHRAE research project RP-1469 (Stoops et al. 2013) con-
ducted a large field survey on kitchens in the United States to iden-
tify how well engineers are satisfying design kitchen conditions.
Researchers monitored space conditions in 105 kitchens during the
summer. Figures 30 to 32 show the resulting temperatures in three
areas of the restaurant (kitchen, food preparation, and warewashing)
as a function of height above the floor.
Stoops et al. found that temperature increases with height above
the floor: although floor-level temperatures ranged from approxi-
mately 75 to 83°F, at head level for staff temperatures ranged from
86 to 99°F. Higher temperatures at increasing heights can be par-
tially attributed to radiated heat gain from the appliances underneath
hood(s), but there is no question that the space conditions were not
being met on average for most of the kitchens monitored in this
study, even at the floor level. See Chapter 9 of the 2017 ASHRAE
Handbook—Fundamentals for more information.
1.10 EXHAUST SYSTEMS

Exhaust systems remove effluent produced by appliances and
cooking processes to provide fire and health safety, comfort, and
aesthetics. Typical exhaust systems simultaneously incorporate fire
Fig. 32 Summer Temperatures by Height and Kitchen Zone
prevention designs and fire suppression equipment. In most cases,
in Quick-Service Restaurant Kitchens
these functions complement each other, but in other cases they may
seem to conflict. Designs must balance these functions. For exam-
Model building codes, such as the IMC (ICC 2018a), and stan-
ple, fire-actuated dampers may be installed to minimize the spread
dards, such as NFPA Standard 96, set minimum air velocity for
of fire to ducts, but maintaining an open duct might be better for
removing smoke of an appliance fire from the kitchen. exhaust ducts at 500 fpm. Maximum velocities are limited by pres-
sure drop and noise and typically do not exceed 2500 fpm. Until
Duct Systems recently, NFPA Standard 96 and the IMC had set the minimum air
Exhaust ducts convey exhaust air from the hood to the out- velocity through the duct at 1500 fpm. However, based on ASHRAE
doors, along with any grease, smoke, VOCs, and odors that are not research (Kuehn 2000) that indicated that there is no basis for spec-
extracted from the airstream along the way. These ducts may also be ifying 1500 fpm minimum duct velocity for commercial kitchen
used to exhaust smoke from a fire. To be effective, ducts must be ventilation and that grease deposition in ducts does not increase
greasetight; it must be clear of combustibles, or combustible mate- when duct velocity is lowered to 500 fpm, NFPA and IMC require-
rial must be protected so that it cannot be ignited by a fire in a duct; ments were changed to 500 fpm. This allows flexibility for design of
and ducts must be sized to convey the volume of airflow necessary variable-speed exhaust systems and retrofitting older systems,
to remove the effluent. though because of spatial and cost constraints, current design prac-

tice for new single-speed systems generally is to design duct veloc- 762, a grease drain, grease collection device, and blower housing
ity between 1500 and 1800 fpm. access panel are required.
Ducts should have no traps that can hold grease, which would be • Tubular centrifugal. These fans, also known as inline fans, have
an extra fuel source in the event of a fire, and ducts should pitch the impeller mounted in a cylindrical housing discharging the gas
toward the hood or an approved reservoir for constant drainage of in an axial direction (Figure 35). Where approved, these fans can
liquefied grease or condensates. On long duct runs, allowance must be located in the duct inside a building if exterior fan mounting is
be made for possible thermal expansion because of fire, and the not practical for wall or roof exhaust. They are always constructed
slope back to the hood or grease reservoir must conform to local of steel. The gasketed flange mounting must be greasetight yet
code requirements.
removable for service. The lowest part of the fan must drain to an
Single-duct systems carry effluent from a single hood or section approved container. When listed in accordance with UL Standard
of a large hood to a single exhaust termination. In multiple-hood
762, a grease drain, grease collection device, and blower housing
systems, several branch ducts carry effluent from several hoods to a
access panel are required.
single master duct that has a single termination. See the section on
Multiple-Hood Systems for more information. • High-plume fan. These fans may be used for kitchen applications
Ducts may be round or rectangular. Standards and model codes when the requirements for a high exhaust plume are required (Fig-
contain minimum specifications for duct materials and construc- ure 36). These fans generate a high nozzle exit velocity, which
tion, including types and thickness of materials, joining methods,
and minimum clearance of 18 in. to combustible materials. Listed
factory-built modular grease duct systems are available as an alter-
native to code-prescribed welded systems. These listed systems typ-
ically incorporate stainless steel liners and double-wall, insulated
construction, allowing reduced clearances to combustibles and non-
welded joint construction.
When fire-rated enclosures are required for grease ducts, either
fired-rated enclosures are built around the duct or the newer listed,
field-applied grease duct enclosures can be used directly on the
grease duct, or the newer listed, factory-built, modular grease ducts
with insulated construction can be used as an integral fire-rated
enclosure. Most of these listed systems allow zero clearance to com-
bustibles and also provide 1 h or 2 h fire resistance rating, and can be
used in lieu of a fire-rated enclosure required in NFPA Standard 96
and IMC (ICC 2018a). See Chapter 19 in the 2016 ASHRAE Hand-
book—HVAC Systems and Equipment and the Fire Safety section in
this chapter for more information on grease duct construction.
Fig. 33 Power Roof Ventilator (Upblast Fan)
1.11 EXHAUST FANS
Types of Exhaust Fans
Exhaust fans for kitchen ventilation must be capable of handling
hot, grease-laden air. The fan should be designed to keep the motor
out of the airstream and should be effectively cooled to prevent pre-
mature failure. To prevent roof damage, the fan should contain and
properly drain all grease removed from the airstream. See Chapter
21 in the 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equip-
ment and the Fire Safety section in this chapter for more information
on fans.
The following types of exhaust fans are commonly used; all have
centrifugal wheels with backward-inclined blades:
• Power roof ventilator (PRV). Also known as upblast fans, PRVs
Fig. 34 Centrifugal Fan (Utility Set)
are designed for mounting at the exhaust duct outlet (Figure 33),
and discharge upward or outward from the roof or building. Alu-
minum upblast fans must be listed for the commercial kitchen
exhaust application in compliance with UL Standard 762, and
must include a grease drain, grease collection device, and integral
hinge kit to permit access for duct cleaning.
• Centrifugal fan. Also known as a utility set, this is an AMCA
Arrangement 10 centrifugal fan, including a field-rotatable blower
housing, blower wheel with motor, drive, and often a motor/drive
weather cover (Figure 34). These fans are typically constructed of
steel and roof-mounted. Where approved, centrifugal fans can be
mounted indoors and ducted to discharge outdoors. The inlet and
outlet are at 90° to each other (single width, single inlet), and the
outlet can usually be rotated to discharge at different angles around
a vertical circle. The lowest part of the fan must drain to an
approved container. When listed in accordance with UL Standard Fig. 35 Tubular Centrifugal (Inline) Fan

Fig. 37 Rooftop Centrifugal Fan (Utility Set) with

Vertical Discharge
Fig. 36 High-Plume Fan
forces the exhaust plume to higher elevations and thus discharges be the terminus of the system, located on the outside of the wall.
smoke and grease laden vapors into the atmosphere. This fan is Common concerns with wall terminations are as follows:
applicable when the intent is to prevent re-entraining smoke and • Discharge from the exhaust system should not be able to enter any
grease-laden kitchen exhaust into the building makeup air system, fresh-air intake or other opening to any building.
or to discharge it over neighboring buildings or structures. When • Adequate clearance to combustibles must be maintained.
listed in accordance with UL Standard 762, a grease drain, grease • To avoid grease draining down the side of the building, duct sec-
collection device, and blower housing access panel are required. tions should pitch back to the hood inside, or a grease drain should
Because of the size and weight of these fans, the installation be provided to drain grease back into a safe container inside the
should be verified for structural integrity by a structural engineer. building.
Items to be evaluated may include roof load, wind load, and seis- • Discharge must not be directed downward or toward any pedes-
mic conditions. trian areas.
• Louvers should be designed to minimize their grease extraction
Exhaust Terminations
and to prevent staining of the building facade.
Rooftop. Rooftop terminations are preferred because discharge
can be directed away from the building, the fan is at the end of the Recirculating Systems. With these units, it is critical to keep com-
system, and the fan is accessible. Common concerns with rooftop ponents in good working order to maintain optimal performance.
terminations are as follows: Otherwise, excessive grease, heat, and odors will accumulate in the
premises.
• Exhaust system discharge should be arranged to minimize reentry As with other terminations, containing and removing grease and
of effluent into any fresh-air intake or other opening to any build- keeping the discharge as far as possible from combustibles are the
ing. This requires not only separating the exhaust from intakes, main concerns. Some units are fairly portable and could be set in an
but also knowledge of the direction of the prevailing winds. Some unsafe location. The operator should be made aware of the impor-
codes specify a minimum distance to air intakes. See Chapter 46 tance of safety in locating the unit. These units are best for large,
of this volume for more information on exhaust discharge princi- unconfined areas with a separate outdoor exhaust to keep the envi-
ples and considerations. ronment comfortable.
• In the event of a fire, neither flames, radiant heat, nor dripping
grease should be able to ignite the roof or other nearby structures. 1.12 FIRE SAFETY
• All grease from the fan or duct termination should be collected The combination of flammable grease vapor and particulates car-
and drained to a remote closed container to preclude ignition. ried by kitchen ventilation systems and the potential of cooking
• Rainwater should be kept out of the exhaust system, especially out equipment to be an ignition source creates a higher hazard level than
of the grease container. If this is not possible, then the grease con- normally found in HVAC systems. Design of an exhaust system serv-
tainer should be designed to separate water from grease and drain ing commercial cooking equipment that may produce grease-laden
the water back onto the roof. Figure 37 shows a rooftop utility set vapors (i.e., a Type I exhaust system) must include a fire suppression
with a stackhead fitting, which directs exhaust away from the roof system, as required by NFPA Standard 96 and the International Me-
and minimizes rain penetration. Discharge caps should not be chanical Code (IMC; ICC 2018a). The IMC further requires that the
used because they direct exhaust back toward the roof and can fire suppression system comply with the International Building
become grease-fouled. Code (IBC; ICC 2018c) and the International Fire Code (IFC; ICC
2018d). By further reference, these codes and standards require that
Outside Wall. Wall terminations are less common today but are automatic fire suppression systems for Type I hoods must be listed to
still occasionally used in new construction. The fan may or may not UL Standard 300.

Replacement air systems, air-conditioning systems serving a Fire suppression systems are tested for their ability to extinguish
kitchen, and exhaust systems serving cooking equipment that does fires in cooking operations in accordance with UL Standard 300.
not produce grease-laden vapor have no specific fire protection re- Wet chemical systems extinguish fires by reacting with fats and
quirements beyond those applicable to similar systems not located grease to saponify, or form a soapy foam layer, which prevents oxy-
in kitchens. However, an exhaust system serving any grease- gen from reaching the burning surface. This suppresses the fire and
producing cooking equipment must be considered a grease exhaust prevents reignition. Saponification is particularly important with
system even if it also serves non-grease-producing equipment. deep fat fryers, where the frying medium may be hotter than its
Fire safety starts with proper design, followed by proper operation autoignition temperature for some time after the fire is extinguished.
and maintenance of the cooking equipment and the exhaust system, If the foam layer disappears or is disturbed before the frying
including frequent and thorough cleaning of grease deposits in the medium has cooled below its autoignition temperature, the fat can
area of appliances, and exhaust filters, hoods, and ducts. After that, reignite.
the three primary aspects of fire protection in a grease exhaust system Frying media commonly used today, which contain a high per-
are (1) to extinguish a fire quickly once it has started, (2) to prevent the centage of vegetable oils, have autoignition points of about 685 to
spread of fire from or to the grease exhaust system, and (3) to prevent 710°F when new. Contamination and deterioration through normal
heat transfer to building components from a grease duct fire if the fire- use lowers the autoignition point. In addition to the formation of a
extinguishing system fails. Additionally, UL Standard 300 requires foam blanket instead of a thin layer of powder, another advantage of
that the fire suppression system not disperse burning grease outside wet chemical systems over dry chemical systems is that the former
the fire zone, and that, after a fire is suppressed by a fire suppression cools the frying media, bringing it below the autoignition point
system, it must remain suppressed for at least 20 min. more quickly. With solid-fuel cooking, the flash point of liquid cre-
Solid-Fuel Cooking. When solid-fuel cooking is used in com- osote ranges from 165 to 198°F and the autoignition temperature for
mercial kitchens, fire risk is increased by the formation and deposi- solid creosote ranges from 451 to 680°F. These temperatures sug-
tion of combustible creosote in exhaust systems. Creosote is formed gest that creosote in ducts from solid-fuel cooking can be a greater
when unburnt vapors from solid-fuel combustion condense in fire hazard than grease alone.
exhaust systems. Creosote production is increased when moisture is For a wet chemical system protecting the entire exhaust system,
present in solid-fuel combustion, such as when green or wet wood is fire-extinguishing nozzles are located over the cooking equipment
burned, or when solid fuel is burned in the presence of fuel gas com- being protected, in the hood to protect grease-removal devices and
bustion products, one of which is water vapor. Chapter 14 of NFPA the hood plenum, and at the duct collar (downstream from any fire
Standard 96 provides extensive requirements for solid-fuel cooking dampers and pointing in the direction of effluent flow) to protect the
operations. Note that solid-fuel cooking appliances are referred to grease duct.
as “extra-heavy-duty cooking appliances” in the IMC and are Two types of nozzle arrangements are common for protecting
defined as those using open-flame combustion of solid fuel at any appliances. Appliance specific coverage is provided by nozzles that
time during the cooking process. are usually directed at the centers of individual appliances. Overlap-
ping coverage is provided by a generally greater number of evenly
Fire Suppression Systems spaced nozzles. Although overlapping coverage is slightly more
NFPA Standard 96 requires that exhaust systems serving grease- expensive to install and maintain, this arrangement solves the com-
producing equipment must include a fire-extinguishing system that mon problem of appliances being periodically rearranged under
protects the cooking equipment, hood interior, hood filters or grease hoods to meet operational needs.
extractors, ducts, and any other grease-removal devices in the system. The duct nozzle is rated to protect an unlimited length of duct, so
Actuation of any fire-extinguishing system must not depend on additional nozzles are not required further downstream in the duct.
building electricity. If actuation relies on electricity, it must be sup- Additional nozzles and piping in ducts would also make periodic
plied with standby power, usually in the form of battery backup. duct cleaning more difficult.
Listed fire suppression systems must also automatically shut off Listed fire-extinguishing systems are available as pre-engineered
all supplies of fuel and energy to all equipment protected by that (packaged) systems, installed by authorized exhaust hood manufac-
system. Any gas appliance not requiring protection but located turers or local authorized fire suppression system distributors/deal-
under the same ventilating equipment must also be shut off. On ers. In either case, required periodic maintenance of fire suppression
operation of an extinguishing system, all electrical sources located systems is performed by local authorized fire suppression system
under the ventilating equipment, if subject to exposure to discharge distributors/dealers.
from the fire-extinguishing system, must be shut off. If the exhaust Chemical systems typically consist of one or more tanks of chem-
system is in a building with a fire alarm system, actuation of the fire- ical agent, a propellant gas cartridge, piping to the suppression noz-
extinguishing system should send a signal to the fire alarm system. zles, fire detectors, and auxiliary equipment. Auxiliary equipment
With solid-fuel cooking, there is no practical means of stopping may include manual actuation (“pull”) stations, gas shutoff valves
combustion of the burning fuel, and consequently, detection, activa- (spring-loaded or solenoid-actuated), and auxiliary electric contacts.
tion, and performance of fire suppression systems are especially Fire detection is required at the entrance to each duct (or ducts,
important. in hoods with multiple duct takeoffs). The fire detectors are typi-
Dry and Wet Chemical Systems. Wet chemical and combina- cally fusible links that melt at a set temperature associated with a
tions of wet chemical and water fire-extinguishing systems have fire, although electronic detection with battery back-up is also
comprised the majority of fire suppression systems since the publi- available.
cation of UL Standard 300 in 1994 and its subsequent citation by Actuation of chemical suppression systems is typically mechan-
codes and standards. Dry chemical systems were popular through ical, requiring no electric power, by means of a spring-loaded device
the early 1990s, but their use declined because they do not meet the that pierces the seal on a propellant canister. Fire detectors are typ-
requirements of UL Standard 300 and must be replaced with UL ically interconnected with the system actuator by steel cables in ten-
Standard 300 listed systems. Wet chemical systems are covered in sion, so that melting of any fusible links, in series configuration,
NFPA Standard 17A, and though obsolete since UL Standard 300 releases the tension on the steel cables, causing the spring-loaded
was published, dry chemical systems are covered in NFPA Standard actuator to release the propellant and force suppressant through
17. Both standards provide detailed application information. pipes and nozzles.

The total length of the steel cable and number of pulley elbows tion 199E) relies on the water supplied by the building’s NFPA Stan-
allowed in the detection system are limited. A manual pull station is dard 13 compliant sprinkler system. Suppression is handled by the
typically connected to the system actuator by steel cable. If a activation of sprinklers and hybrid water/aqueous film-forming
mechanical gas shutoff valve is used, it is also typically connected to foam (AFFF) sprinklers directly over the fire location.
the system actuator by steel cable. System actuation also switches Electronic Systems. These systems include electronic detection,
auxiliary dry electrical contacts, which can be used to shut off elec- activation, monitoring, annunciation of issues with readiness for
trical cooking equipment, operate an electric gas valve, shut off a suppression, and battery back-up. Connection to building manage-
replacement air fan, keep the related exhaust fan running, and/or ment systems or other networks is optionally available. Surfactant is
send an alarm signal to the building fire alarm system. With electri- added to the supplied water suppressant to improve water coating of
cally actuated fire suppression systems, detection is by electronic surfaces. Newer systems can also combine cold water and surfactant
temperature sensors, and manual pulls are electric, in place of fus- fire suppression with daily hood and lower duct cleaning by hot
ible links, cables, pipes, and pulleys. water and surfactant. With electronic detection, detectors can be
Manual pull stations are generally required to be at least 10 ft mounted high in ducts, using listed duct penetrations, to better
from the cooking appliance and in a path of egress. Some code detect fires that autoignite in ducts, such as from solid-fuel cooking
authorities may prefer that the pull station be installed closer to the and related creosote deposits.
cooking equipment for faster response; however, if it is too close, it Multiple-Hood Systems. All hoods connected to a multiple-
may not be possible to approach it once a fire has started. Refer to hood exhaust system must usually meet several requirements. In the
the applicable code requirements for each jurisdiction to determine IMC (ICC 2018a), for example, the hoods must be on the same floor
specific requirements for location and mounting heights of pull sta- of the building, all interconnected hoods must be in the same room
tions. or in adjoining rooms, interconnecting ducts must not penetrate
Water Systems. Water can be used for protecting cooking equip- assemblies required to be fire-resistance rated, and the grease duct
ment, hoods, and exhaust systems. Standard fire sprinklers may be system must not serve solid-fuel-fired appliances.
used throughout the system, except over deep-fat fryers, where spe- The multiple-hood exhaust system must be designed to (1) pre-
cial automatic spray nozzles specifically listed for the application vent a fire in one hood or in the duct from spreading through the
must be used. These nozzles must be aimed properly and supplied ducts to another hood and (2) protect against a fire starting in the
with the correct water pressure. Many hood manufacturers market a common duct system. Of course, the first line of protection for
pre-engineered water spray system that typically includes a cabinet the ducts is keeping them clean. Especially in a multiple-tenant sys-
containing the necessary plumbing and electrical components to tem, a single entity must assume responsibility for cleaning the
monitor the system and initiate fuel shutoff and building alarms. common duct frequently.
Application of standard fire sprinklers for protection of cooking Each hood must have its own fire-extinguishing system to protect
equipment, hoods, and exhaust systems is covered by NFPA Stan- the hood and cooking surface. A single system might serve more
dard 13. NFPA Standards 25 and 96 cover maintenance of sprinkler than one hood, but in the event of fire under one hood, the system
systems serving an exhaust system. The sprinklers must connect to would discharge its suppressant under all hoods served, resulting in
a wet-pipe building sprinkler system installed in compliance with unnecessary cleanup expense and inconvenience. A water-mist sys-
NFPA Standard 13. tem could serve multiple hoods if sprinkler heads were allowed to
One advantage of a sprinkler system is that it has virtually operate independently.
unlimited capacity, whereas chemical systems have limited chem- Because of the possibility of a fire spreading through ducts from
ical supplies. Where sprinklers are used in ducts, the duct should be one hood to another, the common duct must have its own fire extin-
pitched to drain safely. NFPA Standard 13 requires that sprinklers guishing system. The appendices of NFPA Standards 17 and 17A
used to protect ducts be installed every 10 ft on center in horizontal present detailed examples of how common ducts can be protected,
ducts, at the top of every vertical riser, and in the middle of any ver- either by one system or by a combination of separate systems serving
tical offset. Any sprinklers exposed to freezing temperatures must individual hoods. Different types of fire-extinguishing systems may
be protected. be used to protect different portions of the exhaust system; however,
Combination Systems. Hoods that use water either for periodic in any case where two different types of system can discharge into
cleaning (water-wash) or for grease removal (cold-water mist) can the common duct at the same time, the agents must be compatible.
use this feature in conjunction with the fire-extinguishing system to As mentioned earlier, actuation of the fire-extinguishing system
protect the hood, grease-removal devices, and/or ducts in the event protecting any hood must shut off fuel or power to all cooking
of a fire, if listed to UL Standard 300. The water supply for these equipment under that hood, but fuel shutoff is not possible with
systems may be from the kitchen water supply if flow and pressure solid-fuel cooking. When a common duct, or portion thereof, is pro-
requirements are met. Examples include (1) an approved water- tected by a chemical fire-extinguishing system that activates from a
wash or water-mist system to protect the hood in combination with fire in a single hood, NFPA Standards 17 and 17A require shutoff of
a listed wet chemical system to protect ducts and the cooking fuel or power to the cooking equipment under every hood served by
appliances (2) a listed chemical fire suppression system in the that common duct, or every portion of it protected by the activated
hood backed up by water sprinklers in the duct, or (3) a listed wet system, even if there is no fire in the other hoods served by that duct.
chemical system for appliances, with simultaneous use of a hood From an operational standpoint, it is usually most sensible to pro-
water-wash system, with foam-forming chemical injected into the vide one or more fire-extinguishing systems to detect and protect
water, for hood plenum and duct. against fire in common ducts and a separate system to protect each
Hybrid Systems. Several types of hybrid systems have been hood and its connecting ducts. This prevents a fire in the common
developed to improve upon conventional fire suppression system duct from causing discharge of fire suppressant under an unaffected
designs. One type connects to the domestic water system and then hood and it allows unaffected hoods to continue operation in the
discharges this water on the protected areas following initial activa- event of a fire under one hood unless the fire spreads to the common
tion and wet chemical agent discharge, but it retains fusible links for duct.
detection. A second type provides electronic detection in place of
fusible links, cables, cable conduit, pulley elbows, and tees, though Preventing Fire Spread
it retains conventional wet chemical fire suppressant. Another UL The exhaust system must be designed and installed both to pre-
Standard 300 equivalent system (based on UL Outline of Investiga- vent a fire started in the exhaust system from damaging the building

or spreading to other building areas, and to prevent a fire in one ly enclosed in a fire-rated enclosure from the point the duct
building area from spreading to other parts of the building through penetrates the first fire barrier until the duct leaves the building.
the exhaust system. This protection has three main aspects: (1) Listed grease ducts are also subject to these enclosure requirements.
maintaining clearance from the duct to other portions of the build- The requirements are similar to those for a vertical shaft (typically
ing, (2) either enclosing the duct in a fire-resistance-rated enclosure, 1 h rating if the shaft penetrates fewer than three floors, 2 h rating if
or wrapping the duct with a listed fire-rated product, and (3) it penetrates three or more floors), except that the shaft can be both
designing, constructing, and testing to ensure integrity of the duct vertical and horizontal. In essence, the enclosure extends the room
before and during a fire. These methods are sometimes addressed by containing the hood through all the other compartments of the build-
a listed insulated grease duct system that incorporates an integral ing without creating any unprotected openings to those compart-
fire resistance. ments.
Clearance to Combustibles. A grease fire can generate gas Where a duct is enclosed in a rated enclosure, whether vertical or
temperatures of 2000°F or greater in the exhaust hood and duct. In horizontal, clearance must be maintained between the duct and the
such a grease fire, heat radiating from the hot surface can ignite shaft. NFPA Standard 96 and the IMC (ICC 2018a) require a
combustible materials near the hood or duct. Additionally, if the minimum 6 in. clearance and that the shaft be vented to the out-
hood or duct is not fully welded and liquidtight as required by doors. IMC requires that each exhaust duct have its own dedicated
codes and standards, grease liquid or vapor leaking from the hood enclosure.
or duct can ignite and spread fire to nearby combustible structure. Some listed grease ducts are designed and tested for use without
Most codes require a minimum clearance of 18 in. from the hood shaft enclosure. Listed grease ducts of this type use fire barrier insu-
and grease duct to any combustible material. However, even 18 in. lation and provide integral fire-rated resistance, which serves the
may not be sufficient clearance to prevent ignition of combustibles same function as the shaft enclosure. These products are tested and
in the case of a major grease fire, especially with large volumes of listed in accordance with UL Standard 2221. They must be installed
grease in larger ducts. in accordance with the manufacturer’s installation instructions.
Several methods to protect combustible materials from the Some insulation materials are listed to serve as a fire-resistance-
radiant heat of a grease fire and allow reduced clearance to combus- rated enclosure for a grease duct when used to cover a duct. These
tibles are described in NFPA Standard 96 and the IMC (ICC 2018a). insulations are tested and listed in accordance with ASTM Standard
Based on testing and listing of grease ducts provided with integral E2336. These listed insulations must be applied in accordance with
insulation or wrapped with insulation, NFPA Standard 96 and other the manufacturer installation instruction.
codes now allow listed insulation to be applied to the duct or a listed Insulation materials that have not been specifically tested and
factory-built grease duct with integral insulation. For hoods, the approved for use as fire protection for grease ducts should not be
clearance can be reduced as prescribed. used in lieu of rated enclosures or to reduce clearance to combusti-
Listed grease ducts, typically with insulation between double bles. Even insulation approved for other fire protection applications,
walls or on the outside of single-wall ducts, may be installed with such as to protect structural steel, may not be appropriate for grease
reduced clearance to combustibles in accordance with locally ducts because of the high temperatures that may be encountered in
adopted codes and standards, if installed per manufacturers’ instruc- a grease fire.
tions, which should include specific information regarding the list- Duct Integrity. Ducts must retain integrity and stability during a
ing. Listed grease ducts are tested and evaluated in accordance with grease fire so that the fire does not spread through unintended open-
UL Standard 1978. ings (poor welds or duct collapse). Factory-built stainless steel ducts
NFPA Standard 96 requires a minimum clearance of 3 in. to are tested and listed to UL Standards 1978 and 2221 and are often
“limited combustible” materials (e.g., gypsum wallboard on metal dual listed to other high-temperature related all-fuel chimney stan-
studs). The IMC (ICC 2018a) allows reduced clearance of ducts to dards (UL Standards 103 and 2561). A listed duct system is recom-
3 in. in proximity to noncombustibles on noncombustible structure, mended for exhaust systems that are four stories in height or greater.
such as gypsum wallboard on metal studs. Clearance reduction is Specification of listed ducts is recommended for all exhaust systems
also available for hoods, but may differ by local code, so local codes serving solid-fuel cooking. The model codes require testing for all
and standards should be consulted accordingly. duct joint/seam leakage, though for listed ducts, this testing is only
Note that clearance-to-combustible issues are often seen in required for duct joints assembled in the field.
inspections of restaurant sites after grease fires. Many instances of Exhaust and Supply Fire-Actuated Dampers. Because of the
inappropriate clearance reduction have been seen in which gypsum risk that the damper may become coated with grease and become a
wallboard was mistakenly applied to wood studs and joists. In many source of fuel in a fire, balancing and fire-actuated dampers are not
of these cases, surrounding structure was ignited by heat from a allowed at any point in a exhaust system except where specifically
grease fire, in spite of the gypsum wallboard barrier. The issue here listed for use or required as part of a listed device or system.
is autoignition of the combustible material behind the gypsum wall- Typically, fire dampers are found only at the hood collar and only if
board from the high heat of the grease fire, even in cases where the provided by the hood manufacturer as part of a listed hood.
gypsum wallboard layer is intact after the fire. Note that in some Opinions differ regarding whether any fire-actuated dampers
codes and standards, gypsum board is considered to be a should be provided in the exhaust hood. On one hand, a fire-actuated
combustible or limited-combustible material. damper at the exhaust collar may prevent a fire under the hood from
A simple means of complying with most building codes and spreading to the exhaust duct. However, like anything in the exhaust
standards’ clearance requirements is the specification and installa- airstream, the fire-actuated damper and fusible link may become
tion of metal beams, joists, studs, and trusses within 18 in. of appli- coated with grease if not properly maintained, which may impede
ances, hoods, and ducts. damper operation. On the other hand, without the fire-actuated
Enclosures. Normally, when a HVAC duct penetrates a fire-re- damper, the exhaust fan draws smoke and fire away from the hood.
sistance-rated wall or floor, a fire damper is used to maintain the in- Although this cannot be expected to remove all smoke from the
tegrity of the wall or floor. Because fire dampers cannot be installed kitchen during a fire, it can help to contain smoke in the kitchen and
in a grease duct unless specifically approved for such use, there minimize migration of smoke to other areas of the building.
must be an alternative means of maintaining the integrity of rated A fire-actuated damper will generally close only in the event of
walls or floors. Therefore, grease ducts that penetrate a fire- a severe fire; most kitchen fires are extinguished before enough heat
resistance-rated wall or floor/ceiling assembly must be continuous- is released to trigger the fire-actuated damper. Thus, the hood fire-

actuated damper remains open during relatively small fires, dynamically stable in the laboratory as well as in the field. This
allowing the exhaust system to remove smoke, but can close in the method should relate directly to airflow by graph or formula.
event of a severe fire, helping to contain the fire in the kitchen area. Basic tools for balancing include the following:
Fan Operations. If replacement air flow rates exceed 2000 cfm, • Volumetric flow hood
the replacement air supply to the kitchen might be required by some
• Rotating vane anemometer
codes and standards to be shut down during fire to avoid feeding air
• Velocity grid
to the fire. However, if the exhaust system is intended to operate
• Pitot tube/anemometers
during a fire to remove smoke from the kitchen (as opposed to just
containing it in the kitchen), the replacement air system must oper- • Manometer/pressure meter
ate as well. If the hood has an integral (internal) replacement air • Voltage/amperage meter(s)
plenum such as with short-circuit hoods, a fire-actuated damper • Tachometer
must be installed in the replacement air plenum to prevent a fire in Using instruments with current calibration certification or new
the hood from entering the replacement air duct. NFPA Standard 96 instruments is recommended.The general steps for air balancing in
details the instances where fire-actuated dampers are required in a restaurants are as follows:
hood replacement air plenum.
1. Verify all exhaust and HVAC equipment is installed correctly
Regardless of whether fire-actuated dampers are installed in the
and operating correctly, including (but not limited to) verifying
exhaust system, NFPA Standard 96 calls for the exhaust fan to con-
that exhaust ducts are fully welded and inspection doors are in
tinue to run in the event of a fire unless fan shutdown is required by
place, HVAC and supply ducts are complete and sealed, fans are
a listed component of the exhaust system or of the fire-extinguishing
rotating the correct direction, all exhaust hood grease filters are
system. Listed fire-extinguishing systems protecting ducts are
installed and properly sized, and thermostats are set up correctly
tested both with and without airflow, and exhaust airflow is not nec-
and set to on or occupied mode.
essary for proper operation.
2. Tabulated results of measurements should be kept and used to
Control Systems. The IMC (ICC 2018a) requires that Type I create a balance chart to show the building’s net exfiltration or
(grease and smoke) hoods be designed and installed to automati-
infiltration.
cally activate related exhaust fans whenever cooking operations
3. Exhaust hoods should be set to their proper flow rates, with sup-
occur.
ply and exhaust fans on.
4. Next, supply airflow rate, whether part of combined HVAC units
1.13 SYSTEM COMMISSIONING AND or separate replacement air units, should be set to design values
AIR BALANCING through the coils and the design supply flows from each outlet,
ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 202 defines commissioning as “a with approximately correct settings on the outdoor airflow rate.
quality-focused process for enhancing delivery of a project. The Then, correct outdoor and return airflow rates should be set pro-
process focuses upon verifying and documenting that all of the com- portionately for each unit, as applicable. These settings should
missioned systems and assemblies are planned, designed, installed, be made with exhaust on, to ensure adequate relief for the
tested, operated, and maintained to meet the owner’s project outdoor air. Where outdoor air and return air flows of a particular
requirements.” unit are expected to modulate, there should ideally be similar
static losses through both airflow paths to preclude large changes
For commercial kitchen ventilation (CKV), commissioning may
in total supply air from the unit. Such changes, if large enough,
involve validation of system components that are designed, sup-
could affect the efficiency of heat exchange and could also
plied, and/or installed by multiple design professionals, vendors and
change airflows within and between zones, thereby upsetting air
building trades. This chapter’s sections on Commissioning and Ven-
distribution and balance. See Chapter 39 for general HVAC
tilation Design include steps that may be used to develop the
testing, adjusting, and balancing information.
owner’s project requirements (OPR), including system design and
installation. 5. Next, outdoor air should be set with all fans (exhaust and supply)
operating. Pressure difference between indoors and outdoors
It is not unusual for CKV systems to be treated as independent should be checked to confirm that (1) nonkitchen zones of the
building systems, even though these systems can affect the safety building are at a positive pressure compared to outdoors and
and IEQ (including comfort and odor control) of the entire facility. (2) kitchen-zone pressure is negative compared to the surround-
Some locations may limit the effects the CKV system is allowed to ing zones, and positive or neutral compared to outdoors.
have on the outdoor environment surrounding the facility. Given the 6. For applications with DCKV systems, proper capture and con-
CKV system’s potential impacts, it is critical the OPR identifies tainment, as well as differential pressures between zones and
responsibilities for system performance and its impacts on the facil- atmosphere, should be confirmed at minimum and at maximum
ity and its environments. Refer to the System Integration and Design flow rates. This requires that the replacement airflow rate com-
section of this chapter for more information. pensate automatically with each increment of exhaust. It may
require some adjustments in controls or in damper linkage set-
Air Balancing
tings to get the correct proportional response.
Kuehn (2010) demonstrated that a high degree of correction is
required to achieve accurate airflow measurements with many of the System Tests
instruments commonly used in the field to balance hood systems. Cooking Exhaust Duct Leakage. ASHRAE Standard 154 out-
Because of the level of correction required, hot-wire anemometers lines methods of test for exhaust system duct leakage. In most
are not recommended. Therefore, balancing is best performed when installations, the hood, exhaust fans, and replacement air equipment
the manufacturers of all system components provide a certified ref- will be listed and labeled for its intended use. Exhaust duct systems
erence method of measuring the airflow of their equipment, rather may be field fabricated or listed factory-built systems. Either system
than depending on generic measurements of duct flows or other requires joining sections in the field and may include field-installed
forms of measurement in the field, which, again, can be erroneous. cleanouts and inspections ports. It is critical to the fire safety of the
The equipment manufacturer should be able to develop a reference facility and the performance of the CKV system that these duct sys-
method of measuring airflow in a portion of the equipment that is tems be tested to assure they are properly installed. See Chapter 19

of the 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment Follow-Up: Records

for information on HVAC duct construction and leakage criteria. 1. A punch list of any remaining issues encountered during instal-
Fire Suppression. Like the duct system, the hood fire suppres- lation, air balancing, or performance testing should be recorded
sion system requires some field work to complete the system instal- and submitted to the facility management and any affected con-
lation. Typically, the local AHJ requires an operating test of the tractors so that these items can be corrected.
installed suppression system. Test requirements vary. If the local 2. When the preceding steps are complete, the system is properly
AHJ does not require such a performance test of the completed sys- integrated and balanced. At this time, all fan speeds and damper
tem, the OPR should specify that such a test be conducted. settings (at all modes of operation) should be permanently
DCKV. When a DCKV system is installed to control the CKV marked on the equipment and in the test and balance report. Air
systems, a system test should be conducted. This test should include balance records of exhaust systems, replacement air systems,
the full range of the DCKV modulation, including the effects on HVAC supply and return serving the hood area, and individual
exhaust and replacement air system performance throughout that diffuser and/or grille airflows must also be completed. If the unit
full range. Examples include, at DCKV modulation extremes, (1) includes a fan, records must include fan or unit model(s) and
heating/cooling performance, (2) effective airflow distribution, and size(s), fan wheel and motor rpm, and fan motor amp draw.
(3) maintaining proper pressure balance between the kitchen, adja- These records should be kept by the food service facility for
cent spaces, and atmosphere. future reference.
Building Automation System. The CKV system for controlling 3. For new facilities, after two or three days in operation, all belts in
the temperature and proper pressurization of food preparation the system should be checked and readjusted to correct new belt
spaces and zones must be tested to ensure it operates properly as run-in wear. This examination should take place no later than a
designed. If other spaces and zones outside of the food preparation week after initial operation, and before the facility opens if
zone provide replacement air for the CKV system, then they must possible. Obviously, direct-drive systems do not require this
also be tested to ensure their proper operation. inspection or replacement.
4. Once the facility is operational, check performance of the venti-
Performance Test
lation system to verify that the design is adequate for actual

After initial airflows are verified to be at design values and the cooking operation, particularly at maximum cooking and at out-
building is balanced, a performance evaluation of all exhaust hoods door environmental extremes. Any necessary changes should be
should be performed to verify capture and containment (C&C) at the made, and all the records should be updated to show the changes.
design conditions. ASHRAE Standard 154 outlines performance test 5. Rechecking the air balance should not be necessary more than
methods. once every two years. If there are any changes, such as adding a
Conduct Type I and II hood field testing with all appliances under new type of cooking equipment or deleting exhaust connections,
the hood at operating temperatures, with all the hoods operating at the system should be modified, rebalanced, and retested accord-
design airflows, with all sources providing replacement air for the ingly. Recommend a rebalance/retest whenever components of
hood operating at design airflows, and with all sources of recircu- the kitchen ventilation and HVAC systems are replaced/modified
lated air in the space operating at design airflows. C&C is verified (e.g., when an exhaust or supply fan is replaced or when supply/
visually by observing smoke or steam produced by actual cooking return air outlets are added or relocated within the kitchen). The
or dishwashing operation. system should also be rebalanced/retested whenever a cooking
Simulating devices such as smoke candles or smoke puffers are appliance is relocated or replaced with an appliance of different
good for detecting air currents moving inward at the lower edge of function. For example, if a fryer was replaced with a broiler, the
the hood, but generally do not produce enough smoke to simulate ventilation would have to be rebalanced and retested for the
full-load cooking operation. Note that smoke bombs typically create broiler. Modifications should be recorded, added to owner’s re-
new effluent from a point source, and though they may create a vol- cords, and marked on affected equipment.
ume of effluent that is equivalent to that of cooking effluent, their 6. All final operational measurements and recording shall be re-
use to determine whether actual cooking effluent would be captured tained as a reference for future energy audit field surveys.
by the hood is not always reliable. Actual cooking at the full load or
at the highest production rate is the most reliable method of gener- 1.14 OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE
ating smoke. Note that many health department rules for new facil-
ities typically do not allow food to be brought into the facility until Sustainability Impact
all safety and health inspections are complete and approved. Actual Proper operation and maintenance of all kitchen ventilation sys-
cooking may require special arrangements with the AHJ and should tems is an often overlooked requirement, but is one of the most crit-
be considered in lieu of simulation methods, or as a final method to ical, especially given the large amount of resources used in CKV
verify capture as part of the commissioning process for a hood’s operation. Typically, most attention is focused on the production of
ventilation system. food, which is the primary role of any commercial kitchen. Given
Hood systems with DCKV should be tested in auto mode to ver- the kitchen ventilation system’s role in providing replacement air,
ify that the system responds appropriately to the changes in cooking heating and cooling, and cooking effluent extraction, ensuring it is
operation. Begin with the cooking appliances off and confirm that properly operated and maintained is critical for minimizing both
the system is at minimum airflow. Then, turn cooking appliance on overall system energy use and any environmental impacts both
and verify that the airflow increases with increasing temperature. inside and outside the restaurant caused by effluent produced during
Once the appliances reach cooking temperature, generate smoke cooking. Systems that are not operated or maintained correctly are
through actual cooking and verify C&C or simulation, as described likely to consume excessive energy, may create uncomfortable con-
previously. The evaluation should be performed at light, medium, ditions in the kitchen area, may create an environmentally hazard-
and heavy-load conditions to verify C&C. ous condition in the kitchen (e.g., hoods that do not capture and
If hoods fail the performance test, examine the systems and cor- contain cooking effluent), and may affect outdoor environmental
rect any capture problems. Close attention should be given to the conditions (e.g., when pollution control devices are not operating
design considerations and guidelines in this chapter to correct any properly). Additionally, given the fire hazards associated with com-
performance problems. mercial cooking, improper operation and maintenance of a kitchen’s

ventilation system(s) can even create a life safety hazard. Maintain- ponent failures that could shut the system down and keep spares of
ing a proper air balance is part of a kitchen ventilation system’s nec- these components on hand or readily accessible, so they can be
essary maintenance. See Chapter 40 for more information on the quickly replaced. Preventive maintenance, which includes regular
costs associated with building operations and maintenance. inspection of critical system components, is the most effective way
Finally, as part of any total commissioning process, the impact of to avoid emergency maintenance.
operations and maintenance must be taken into account, especially Following are brief descriptions of typical operations of various
ensuring that any related tasks can be performed with minimal dis- components of kitchen ventilation systems and the type of mainte-
ruption to food service production. If the system’s proper operations nance and cleaning required to bring the abnormally operating sys-
and associated maintenance are not easily performed, they will most tem back to normal. Many nontypical operations are not listed here.
likely be deferred or not performed at all. Any maintenance should include a check of the building automation
system (BAS) as it relates to the kitchen ventilation system to ensure
Operation it is operating per its original design.
All components of the kitchen’s ventilation system, and in some
instances the entire building’s ventilation system, are designed to Cooking Equipment
operate in balance with each other, even under variable loads, to Normal Operation. Produces properly cooked product, of cor-
properly capture, contain, and remove cooking effluent and heat and rect temperature, within expected time. Minimum smoke during
maintain proper space temperature control in the most efficient and cooking.
economical manner. Deterioration in any of these components un- Abnormal Operation. Produces undercooked product, of lower
balances the system, affecting one or more of its design concepts temperature, with longer cooking times. Increased smoke during
The ventilation system’s design intent should be fully understood cooking.
by the owners and operators, so that any deviations in operation can Cleaning/Maintenance. Clean solid cooking surfaces between
be noted and corrected. This is especially critical when a DCKV each cycle if possible, or at least once a day. Baked-on product insu-
system is used. In addition to creating health and fire hazards, lates and retards heat transfer. Filter frying medium daily and
normal cooking effluent deposits can also unbalance the system, so change it on schedule recommended by supplier. Check that (1) fuel
they must be regularly removed. source is at correct rating, (2) thermostats are correctly calibrated,
All components of exhaust and replacement air systems affect and (3) conditioned air is not blowing on cooking surface.
proper capture, containment, and removal of cooking effluent. In the Solid-fuel appliances are listed as “Extra-Heavy Duty” (see Table
exhaust system, this includes the cooking equipment itself, exhaust 4) and require additional attention. A hood over a solid-fuel appli-
hood, all filtration devices, ducts, exhaust fan, and any dampers. In ance must be individually vented and therefore not be combined at
the replacement air system, this includes the air-handling unit(s) any point with another duct and fan system. Using a UL Standard
with intake louvers, dampers, filters, fan wheels, heating and cool- 762 upblast, in-line, or utility set fan listed to 400 or 500°F is sug-
ing coils, ducts, and supply registers. In systems that obtain their gested because the airstream temperature may be hotter without
replacement air from the general HVAC system, this also includes cooler air combining from other, typically lower-temperature cook-
return air registers and ducts. ing appliances. Design, installation, and maintenance precautions for
When the system is first set up and balanced in new condition, the use of and emissions from solid fuel include monthly duct clean-
these components are set to optimum efficiency. In time, all compo- ing with weekly inspections, spark arrestors, and additional spacing
nents become dirty; filtration devices, dampers, louvers, heating and to fryers. Refer to NFPA Standard 96, Chapters 5 to 10 and 14, and
cooling coils, and ducts become restricted; fan blades change shape IMC, sections 507 and 906, for additional direction.
as they accumulate dirt and grease; and fan belts loosen. In addition,
dampers can come loose and change position, even closing, and Exhaust Systems (e.g., Hoods)
ducts can develop leaks or be blocked if internal insulation sheets Normal Operation. All cooking vapors are readily drawn into the
fall down. exhaust hood, where they are captured and removed from the space.
All these changes deteriorate system performance. The operator The environment immediately around the cooking operation is clear
should know how the system performed when it was new, to better and fresh.
recognize when it is no longer performing the same way. This Abnormal Operation. Many cooking vapors do not enter the ex-
knowledge allows problems to be found and corrected sooner and haust hood at all, and some that enter subsequently escape. The en-
the peak efficiency and safety of system operation to better be main- vironment around the cooking operation, and likely in the entire
tained. kitchen, is contaminated with cooking vapors and a thin film of grease.
Cleaning/Maintenance. Clean all grease removal devices in the
Maintenance exhaust system. Hood filters should be cleaned at least daily. High-
Maintenance may be classified as preventive or emergency efficiency grease extractors may require frequent cleanings during
(breakdown). Preventive maintenance keeps the system operating each shift. For other devices, follow the minimum recommenda-
as close as possible to optimal performance, including maximum tions of the manufacturer; even these may not be adequate at very
production and least shutdown. It is the most effective maintenance high flow rates or with products producing large amounts of efflu-
and is preferred. ent. Check that (1) all dampers are in their original position, (2) fan
Preventive maintenance can prevent most emergency shutdowns belts are properly tensioned, (3) the exhaust fan is operating at the
and emergency maintenance. It has a modest ongoing cost and fewer proper speed and turning in the proper direction, (4) the exhaust
unexpected costs. Clearly the lowest-cost maintenance in the long duct is not restricted, and (5) the fan blades are clear.
run, it keeps the system components in peak condition, maximizes NFPA Standard 96 design requirements for access to the system
the system’s energy efficiency, and extends the operating life of all should be followed to facilitate cleaning the exhaust hood,
components. ductwork, and fan. Cleaning should be done if the combustibles’
Emergency maintenance must be applied when a breakdown depth is greater than 0.08 in. in any part of the system, and by a
occurs. Sufficient staffing and money must be applied to the situa- method that leaves no more than a 0.002 in. depth deposit of com-
tion to bring the system back on line in the shortest possible time. bustibles. Cleaning agents should be thoroughly rinsed off, and all
Such emergencies can be of almost any nature. They are impossible loose grease particles should be removed, because they can ignite
to predict or address in advance, except to presume the type of com- more readily. Agents should not be added to the surface after

cleaning, because their textured surfaces merely collect more grease the corresponding potential for a fire. Depending on the available
more quickly. Fire-extinguishing systems may only be disarmed by static that the exhaust fan was selected, pressure loss increase could
properly trained and qualified service personnel before cleaning, to become more than the fan can handle, which would reduce the
prevent accidental discharge, and then reset by authorized personnel required airflow rate, creating poor smoke and heat capture as well
after cleaning. All access panels removed must be reinstalled after as overloading the fan.
cleaning, with proper gasketing in place to prevent grease leaks and
escape of fire. 2. RESIDENTIAL KITCHEN
Supply, Replacement, and Return Air Systems VENTILATION
Normal Operation. The environment in the kitchen area is clear, Although commercial and residential cooking processes can be
fresh, comfortable, and free of drafts and excessive air noise. similar, their ventilation requirements and procedures are different.
Abnormal Operation. The kitchen is smoky, choking, hot, and Differences include exhaust airflow rate and hood installation height.
humid, and perhaps very drafty with excessive air noise. In addition, residential kitchen ventilation is less concerned with re-
Cleaning/Maintenance. Check that the replacement air system is placement air, and energy consumption is comparatively insignificant
operating and is providing the correct amount of air to the space. If because of lower airflow, smaller motors, and intermittent operation.
it is not, the exhaust system cannot operate properly. Check that
dampers are set correctly, filters and exchangers are clean, the belts Equipment and Processes
are tight, the fan is turning in the correct direction, and supply and Although the physics of cooking and the resulting effluent are
return ductwork and registers are open, with supply air discharging about the same, residential cooking is usually done more conserva-
in the correct direction and pattern. If drafts persist, the system may tively. Heavy-duty and extra-heavy-duty equipment, such as upright
need to be rebalanced. If noise persists in a balanced system, system broilers and solid-fuel-burning equipment (described in Table 3),
changes may be required. are not used. Therefore, the high ventilation rates of commercial
Filter cleaning or changing frequency varies widely depending kitchen ventilation and equipment for delivering these rates are not
on the quantity of airflow and contamination of local air. Once often found in residential kitchens. However, some residential
determined, the cleaning schedule must be maintained. kitchens are designed to operate with commercial-type cooking
With replacement air systems, the air-handling unit, coils, and fan equipment, with higher energy inputs rates than usually found. In
are usually cleaned in spring and fall, at the beginning of the seasonal these cases, the required hood may be similar to a commercial hood,
change. More frequent cleaning or better-quality filtering may be re- and the required ventilation rate may approach that required for
quired in some contaminated environments. Duct cleaning for the small commercial facilities.
system is on a much longer cycle, but check local codes because Cooking effluent and by-products of open-flame combustion
stricter requirements are sometimes invoked. Ventilation systems must be more closely controlled in a residence than in a commercial
should be cleaned by professionals to ensure that none of the expen- kitchen, because any escaping effluent can be dispersed throughout
sive system components are damaged. Cleaning companies should a residence, whereas a commercial kitchen is designed to be nega-
be required to carry adequate liability insurance. The Power Washers tively pressurized relative to surrounding spaces. By-products of
of North America (PWNA) and the International Kitchen Exhaust cooking and natural gas burning processes, such as PM2.5, CO2, CO,
Cleaning Association (IKECA) provide descriptions of proper and HCHO (formaldehyde), can negatively impact indoor air qual-
cleaning and inspection techniques and lists of their members. ity and respiratory health and should be considered during system
design. A residence also has a much lower outdoor air ventilation
Recommended Frequency of Maintenance rate, making the presence of any escaped contaminant more per-
Proper preventative maintenance and periodic recommissioning sistent. This situation makes residential kitchen ventilation a
and rebalancing is necessary for achieving the designed perfor- different kind of challenge, because problems cannot be resolved by
mance and life cycle of the CKV systems. The following recom- simply increasing the ventilation rate at the cooking process. Active
mendations are based on field experience: research is being conducted to better understand the health risks that
• Recommission and rebalance CKV systems, at minimum, every can be caused by the effluent produced from residential cooking,
five years. and the best means for mitigating those risks.
• Recommission and rebalance CKV systems any time changes are Residential cooking always produces a convective plume that car-
made to the CKV equipment, related HVAC equipment, or to the ries with it cooking effluent, often including grease vapor and parti-
cooking operations. For example, replacing exhaust or makeup cles, as well as water vapor, and by-products of combustion when
fans, relocating supply or return air grilles, relocating cooking natural gas is the energy source. Sometimes there is spatter as well,
equipment, or replacing cooking equipment with equipment of a but those particles are so large that they are not removed by ventila-
different function (e.g., a fryer replaced with a broiler). These new tion. Residential kitchen hoods depend more on thermal buoyancy
or altered systems need to be tested, balanced, and commissioned than mechanical exhaust to capture cooking effluent and by-products
for the new usage. of combustion.
• Recommission and rebalance CKV systems any time performance
issues arise, such as smoke or heat loss from the kitchen hoods, 2.1 EXHAUST SYSTEMS
abnormal space temperatures, high-velocity air currents at pass- Hoods and Other Ventilation Equipment
through windows, condensation, negative building pressure, etc.
Wall-mounted, conventional range hoods ventilate most residential
• Performance verification check of all control systems related to kitchens. There are unlimited style-based variations of the conven-
the CKV system every two years. tional range hood shape. Deep canopy hoods are somewhat more ef-
• Capture and containment verification check of kitchen exhaust fective because of their capture volume. Other styles have less
hoods every year. volume, or a more flat bottom, and may be somewhat less effective at
• Verify proper outside air quantities every two years. capturing effluent. To the extent that residential range hoods are often
Preventative maintenance is key to maintaining designed perfor- mounted between cabinets, with portions of the cabinets extending be-
mance and life cycle cost of a CKV system. As grease builds up low the sides of the hood, performance may be improved because the
inside the kitchen exhaust ductwork, so does the static pressure and cabinet sides help contain and channel the exhaust flow into the hood.

An increasingly popular development in residential kitchen ven- intended for use in conjunction with residential gas and electric
tilation is using a ventilating microwave oven in place of the typical cooking appliances only, and are investigated to determine the
residential range hood. Microwave ovens used for this purpose typ- effects of increased air temperature and grease on electrical compo-
ically include small mesh filters mounted on the bottom of the oven nents. The filters provided as a part of the fan are also checked for
and an internal exhaust fan. Means are usually provided to direct the flammability and smoke propagation. Products include hood fans
exhaust flow in two directions: back into the kitchen or upward to an intended to mount directly over (but not directly on) ranges, sepa-
exhaust duct leading outdoors. The latter is more expensive, but rate hoods provided with lights or other wiring and intended for use
highly preferred; otherwise, if directed back to the kitchen, walls, over ranges in conjunction with a remote blower, downdraft fans,
ceiling, and cabinet surfaces are likely to become coated with grease and oven ventilators for use over wall-insert ovens. Fans intended
from condensed grease vapor, and grease residue can damage paint for mounting directly on cooking equipment are investigated in
and varnish. Additionally, typical microwave oven ventilators do conjunction with the cooking appliances, and are typically listed as
not include vertical surfaces that provide a reservoir volume to con- part of the accessory to the cooking appliance. Fans installed in
tain the convective plume during transient effects, such as removing close proximity to a stove, range, or oven where fumes, grease-
the lid from a cooking vessel. Consequently, microwave oven laden air, or the like may be present and intended to discharge air
ventilators often provide lower exhaust capture and containment away from the cooking area should be installed to discharge air to
performance than standard range hoods. the exterior of the building and not into concealed walls or ceiling
Downdraft range-top ventilators have also become more pop- spaces or into the attic. Ductless fans intended for use in cooking
ular. Functionally, these are an exception, because they capture areas are not required to discharge air to the building exterior.
contaminants by producing velocities over the cooking surface Fire-actuated dampers are never part of the hood and are almost
greater than those of the convective plume. With enough velocity, never used. Grease filters in residential hoods are much simpler,
their operation can be satisfactory; however, velocity may be lim- and grease collection channels are rarely used because inadequate
ited to prevent adverse effects such as gas flame disturbance and maintenance could allow grease to pool, creating a fire and health
cooking process cooling. Additionally, this method is more effec- hazard.
tive for exhaust from cooking near the range surface, and it is usu- Conventional residential wall hoods usually have standard dimen-
ally much less effective for capturing the convective plume from sions that match the standard 3 in. modular grid of residential cabi-
taller cooking vessels, because the convective plume is too far nets. Heights of 6, 9, 12, and 24 in. are common, as are depths from
above the ventilator intake to be affected by it. 17 to 22 in. Width is usually the same as the cooking surface, with
Ironically, many high-end kitchens have less efficient ventilation 30 in. width nearly standard in the United States. Current U.S.
than standard range hoods. Inefficient methods include Housing and Urban Development (HUD) Manufactured Home Con-
struction and Safety Standards call for 3 in. overhang per side.
• Mounting range tops in cooking islands with no exhaust hood or
Hood mounting height is usually 18, 24, or 30 in., and sometimes
other means of ventilation
even higher with a sacrifice in collection efficiency. A lower-mounted
• Mounting ovens in cabinets, separate from rangetops, without any
hood captures more effectively because there is less opportunity for
way to remove heat and effluents from the oven
lateral air currents to disrupt the convective plume. Studies show
• Using low-profile exhaust devices with insufficient overhang over 18 in. is the minimum height for cooking surface access. Some codes
the appliance and no reservoir to contain convective plume during require a minimum of 30 in. from the cooking surface to combustible
dynamic effects cabinets. In that case, the bottom of a 6 in. hood can be 24 in. above
• Having duct runs, particularly in larger homes, with very high the cooking surface.
static pressure losses, so that the actual exhaust flow rate is much A minimum airflow rate (exhaust capacity) of 40 cfm per linear
lower than the nominal exhaust fan rating foot of hood width has long been recommended by the Home
Whole-kitchen exhaust fans were more common in the past, but Ventilating Institute (HVI 2004), and confirmed by field tests. Ad-
they are still used. Mounted in the kitchen wall or ceiling, they ven- ditional capacity, with speed control, is desirable for handling un-
tilate the entire kitchen volume rather than capturing contaminants usually vigorous cooking and cooking mistakes, because airflow
at the source. For kitchen exhaust fans not above the cooking sur- can be briefly increased to clear the air, and speed can be reduced to
face, and without a capturing hood, 15 air changes per hour (ach) is a quieter level for normal cooking.
recommended; for ceiling-mounted fans, this is usually sufficient, Recommended minimum exhaust airflow rates vary among
but for wall-mounted fans, it may be marginal. model codes. A minimum airflow rate (exhaust capacity) of 40 cfm
Residential exhaust hoods are often furnished with multiple- per linear foot of hood width has long been recommended by the
speed fans, so that users can match exhaust fan speeds (and noise) Home Ventilating Institute (HVI 2004), and confirmed by field
with the cooking process and resultant convective plume. Carrying tests. ASHRAE Standard 90.2 requires a minimum exhaust rate of
this concept further, there are high-end residential exhaust hood man- 100 cfm intermittent. IMC (ICC 2018a) requires a minimum
ufacturers that provide an automatic two-speed control that increases exhaust rate of 100 cfm intermittent or 25 cfm continuous. Addi-
fan speed when higher convective plume temperature is sensed. tional capacity, with speed control, is desirable for handling unusu-
Continuous low-level, whole-building ventilation is increasingly ally vigorous cooking and cooking mistakes, because airflow can be
used to ensure good indoor air quality in modern, tightly built houses briefly increased to clear the air, and speed can be reduced to a qui-
with less infiltration. ASHRAE Standard 62.2 requires kitchen ven- eter level for normal cooking.
tilation in most residences. Some whole-building ventilation sys- In some instances, commercial cooking equipment is used in res-
tems can intermittently increase airflow to achieve the needed idential applications. In these instances, special care should be taken
reduction in cooking effluent. In that case, there must be provision for using adequate Type I or Type II exhaust hoods, ducting, and air
to avoid introducing and accumulating grease and other cooking flow requirements that are more in line with commercial or mechan-
effluent that may cause undesirable growth of microorganisms. ical codes, because residential codes do not address this scenario.
Differences Between Commercial and  Exhaust Duct Systems
Residential Equipment Residential hoods offer little opportunity for custom design of an
Safety requirements covering residential cooking area fans are exhaust system. The range hood has a built-in duct connector and
contained in UL Standard 507. These fans and accessories are the duct should be the same size, whether round or rectangular. A

hood includes either an axial or a centrifugal fan. The centrifugal fan Maintenance
can develop higher pressure, but the axial fan is usually adequate for
low-volume hoods. The great majority of residential hoods in the All listed hoods and kitchen exhaust fans are designed for
United States have HVI-certified airflow performance. In all cases, cleaning, which should be done at intervals consistent with the
it is highly preferable to vent the exhaust hood outdoors through a cooking practices of the user. Although cleaning is sometimes
roof cap, rather than venting back into the home, whether into the thought to be for fire prevention, the health benefits of removing
kitchen or elsewhere. nutrients available for the growth of organisms can be more
important.
Replacement (Makeup) Air
The exhaust rate of residential hoods is generally low enough and 3. RESEARCH
natural infiltration sufficient to avoid the need for replacement air
systems. Although this may cause slight negative pressurization of Research Overview
the residence, it is brief and is usually less than that caused by other ASHRAE Technical Committee TC 5.10, Kitchen Ventilation,
equipment. Still, backdrafts through the flue of a combustion appli- has been active in research related to kitchen ventilation, as shown
ance should be avoided and residences with gas furnace and water in Table 14. This research has tended to focus on answering ques-
heater should have the flue checked for adequate flow. NFPA Stan- tions related to field-related issues, such as how to measure exhaust
dard 54 provides a method of testing flues for adequate performance.
airflow rates for hood and replacement air systems (RP-623 and
Sealed-combustion furnaces and water heaters are of less concern.
RP-1376) and how much grease is produced by cooking appliances
Sometimes commercial-style cooking equipment approved for (RP-745 and RP-1375), and a current project is evaluating the
residential use is installed in residences. IMC (ICC 2018a) requires
grease and heat gain from unhooded countertop cooking appliances
that exhaust hood systems capable of exhausting 400 cfm or greater
(RP-1631). Some of the research focused on design aspects of
be provided with makeup air at a rate equal to the exhaust rate. Addi-
tionally, the makeup air system is to be equipped with a means of kitchen ventilation systems, from optimizing exhaust hood perfor-
mance (RP-1202 and RP-1480), to evaluating the grease removal
closure and operated simultaneously with the exhaust system to

ensure proper building pressurization. efficiency of filtering devices (RP-851 and RP-1151) and reducing
High-Rise Systems Table 14 Summary of TC 5.10 Research Projects

Multistory structures with a common exhaust system serving ASHRAE
multiple kitchen areas have additional requirements, as detailed in Year(s) Project Title
the Domestic Kitchen Exhaust Equipment section of the IMC. Typ- 1993 to 1994 RP-623 A Field Test Method for Determining Exhaust
ically, each resident’s hood fan discharges into a common exhaust Rates in Grease Hoods for Commercial
riser duct, at the top of which is a large fan rated for kitchen exhaust Kitchens (Gordon and Parvin 1994)
duty. A diversity factor is included in the sizing of this duct and fan, 1996 to 1997 RP-851 Determining the Efficiency of Grease-
because not all of the kitchen hoods will operate simultaneously. Removal Devices in Commercial Kitchen
Static pressure sensor(s) located in the duct riser controls the speed Applications (Schrock 1998)
of this fan so that a small but continuous negative duct pressure is 1998 to 1999 RP-745 Identification and Characterization of Efflu-
maintained regardless of the number of hoods being operated. ents from Various Cooking Appliances and
Processes as Related to Optimum Design of
Makeup air for this kitchen exhaust is typically provided by a cen-
Kitchen Ventilation Systems (Gerstler et al.
tral makeup air unit that serves the entire building’s makeup air 1998)
needs, including those for other exhausts (e.g., toilets, clothes 2000 to 2001 RP-1033 Effects of Air Velocity on Grease Deposition
dryers). Commissioning of these makeup and exhaust air systems is in Exhaust Ductwork (Kuehn 2000)
required to ensure each area has sufficient exhaust airflow to remove 2001 to 2003 RP-1151 Development of a Draft Method of Test for
convective heat and effluent generated by the cooking process. Determining Grease Removal Efficiencies
(Welch 2004)
Energy Conservation 2003 to 2005 RP-1202 Effect of Appliance Diversity and Position on
The energy cost of residential hoods is quite low because of the Commercial Kitchen Hood Performance
few annual running hours and the low rate of exhaust. For example,
2007 to 2008 RP-1375 Characterization of Effluents from Additional
it typically costs less than $10 per heating season in Chicago to run Cooking Appliances (Kuehn 2008)
a hood and heat replacement air, based on running at 150 cfm for an 2008 to 2009 RP-1362 Revised Heat Gain and Capture and Contain-
hour a day and using gas heat. ment Exhaust Rates from Typical Commer-
cial Cooking Appliances (Swierczyna
Fire Protection for Residential Hoods 2008)
Residential hoods must be installed with metal (preferably steel) 2008 to 2010 RP-1376 Method of Test to Evaluate Field Performance
duct, positioned to prevent grease pooling. Residential hood exhaust of Commercial Kitchen Ventilation Sys-
ducts are almost never cleaned, and there is no evidence that this tems (Kuehn 2010)
causes fires. 2008 to 2009 RP-1480 Island Hood Energy Consumption and
Energy Reduction Strategies (Swierczyna
There have been some attempts to make fire extinguishers et al. 2010)
available in residential hoods, but none has met with broad accep- 2010 to 2013 RP-1469 Thermal Comfort in Commercial Kitchens
tance. However, grease fires on the residential cooking surface, (Stoops 2013)
almost always the result of unattended cooking, continue to occur. 2013 to 2015 RP-1631 Countertop Commercial Appliance Emis-
There is no industry-accepted standard of design in residential sions (Zhang 2015)
fire-extinguishing equipment. When extinguishing systems are 2017 to present RP-1614 Developing a Test Method to Determine the
installed over residential range tops, the system should comply with Effectiveness of UVC Systems on Commer-
UL Standard 300A. cial Cooking Effluent

the velocity of airflow in the exhaust ductwork (RP-1033). Other ASHRAE. 2008. Testing, adjusting, and balancing of building HVAC sys-
projects evaluated relationships between appliances and ventilation tems. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 111-2008 (RA 2017).
systems and the HVAC system in the space (RP-1362). ASHRAE. 2016. Ventilation for commercial cooking operations. ANSI/
A comprehensive study has been conducted using both field mea- ASHRAE Standard 154-2016.
ASHRAE. 2014. Standard for the design of high-performance green build-
surements and field surveys regarding thermal comfort in commercial ings. ANSI/ASHRAE/USGBC/IES Standard 189.1-2014.
kitchens (RP-1469), and a research project (RP-1614) has been initi- ASHRAE. 2013. Commissioning process for buildings and systems. ANSI/
ated on developing a method of test to determine the effectiveness of ASHRAE Standard 202-2013.
UVC systems installed in commercial kitchen ventilation systems. ASTM. 2016. Test methods for fire resistive grease duct enclosure systems.
Standard E2336-16. American Society for Testing and Materials, West
Benefits to the HVAC Industry Conshohocken, PA.
Many of the research projects that TC 5.10 sponsored have ASTM. 2017. Test method for capture and containment performance of
affected energy use and sustainability in the food service industry. commercial kitchen exhaust ventilation systems. Standard F1704-17.
RP-1033 data showed that grease deposition on the walls of duct American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM. 2017. Test method for heat gain to space performance of commercial
actually decreased when the duct velocity was lowered from 1500
kitchen ventilation/appliance systems. Standard F2474-17. American
fpm to 500 fpm. These data allowed both NFPA Standard 96 and the Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
International Mechanical Code (ICC 2009) to allow lower duct ASTM. 2015. Test method for grease particle capture efficiency of commer-
velocities. These changes allow demand-controlled ventilation cial kitchen filters and extractors. Standard F2519-05 (R2015). Ameri-
systems (in which airflow is lowered during noncooking periods of can Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
the day) to be used across the United States to achieve significant Brohard, G., D.R. Fisher, V.A. Smith, R.T. Swierczyna, and P.A. Sobiski.
energy savings. 2003. Makeup air effects on kitchen exhaust hood performance. Califor-
The two projects related to hood performance (RP-1202 and RP- nia Energy Commission, Sacramento.
1480) not only evaluated how wall canopy and island hoods perform Brown, S.L. 2007. Dedicated outdoor air system for commercial kitchen
ventilation. ASHRAE Journal (July).
with various appliances, but also evaluated methods of reducing the
Elovitz, G. 1992. Design considerations to master kitchen exhaust systems.
exhaust airflows required for the hoods to capture the cooking efflu-
ASHRAE Transactions 98(1):1199-1213. Paper AN-92-16-2.

ent more efficiently. These include items such as optimizing the Fisher, D.F. 1998. New recommended heat gains for commercial cooking
appliance position underneath the hoods, installing side panels, and equipment. ASHRAE Transactions 104(2). Paper TO-98-14-1.
designing hoods to use larger overhangs if possible. If exhaust air is Fisher, D.F. 2003. Predicting energy consumption: Clearing the air on kitch-
reduced, this also generally reduces how much conditioned air needs ens. ASHRAE Journal (June).
to be brought back into the space to replace the air that is exhausted, Fuller, S., and S. Peterson. 1996. Life-cycle costing manual for the federal
leading to large energy savings in restaurants. RP-1362 measured the energy management program. Handbook (NIST HB) 135. National Insti-
heat gain from appliances underneath hoods, and these data can be tute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD.
used to more accurately size the HVAC equipment needed to condi- Gerstler, W.D., T.H. Kuehn, D.Y.H. Pui, J.W. Ramsey, M.J. Rosen, R.R.
Carlson, and S.D. Petersen. 1998. Identification and characterization of
tion the kitchen space.
effluents from various cooking appliances and processes as related to op-
Earlier projects related to grease emissions (RP-851, RP-745, timum design of kitchen ventilation systems. ASHRAE Research Project
and RP-1151) were used to help develop ASTM Standard F2519. RP-745 (Phase II), Final Report.
Data from these research projects, along with Standard F2519 and Gordon, E.B., and F.A. Parvin. 1994. A field test method for determining ex-
data from RP-1375, revolutionized the kitchen ventilation industry haust rates in grease hoods for commercial kitchens (RP-623). ASHRAE
with regard to how mechanical filters actually perform in the field Transactions 100(2):412-419. Paper 3824.
and the ASTM Standard provides a framework for making more HUD. [Annual]. Manufactured home construction and safety standards. 24
efficient filters that help reduce the amount of grease built up in CFR 3280. Code of Federal Regulations, U.S. Department of Housing
ductwork, on exhaust fans, and on the roof of buildings. and Urban Development, Washington, D.C.
HVI. 2008. The guide to home ventilation and indoor air quality. Home Ven-
Another project (RP-1631) evaluated the appliance emissions tilating Institute, Arlington Heights, IL.
and heat gain to space from countertop commercial cooking appli- IAPMO. 2018. Uniform mechanical code. IAPMO/ANSI Standard UMC 1-
ances to help determine whether these processes require a ventila- 2019. International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials,
tion hood or can be vented to the space Ontario, CA.
RP-623 and RP-1376 both examined how to accurately measure ICC. 2018a. International mechanical code. International Code Council,
the exhaust and replacement air in food service establishments. By Washington, D.C.
being able to more accurately measure the airflows, restaurants can ICC. 2018b. International fuel gas code. International Code Council, Wash-
be properly balanced to the design conditions so that excess energy ington, D.C.
is not consumed. ICC. 2018c. International building code. International Code Council, Wash-
ington, D.C.
REFERENCES ICC. 2018d. International fire code. International Code Council, Washing-
ton, D.C.
ASHRAE members can access ASHRAE Journal articles and Itron, Inc., and California Energy Commission. 2006. California commer-
ASHRAE research project final reports at technologyportal.ashrae cial end-use survey. CEC-400-2006-005. www.energy.ca.gov/ceus/2006
.org. Articles and reports are also available for purchase by nonmem- _enduse.html.
bers in the online ASHRAE Bookstore at www.ashrae.org/bookstore. Kuehn, T.H. 2000. Effects of air velocity on grease deposition in exhaust
ductwork (RP-1033). ASHRAE Research Project, Final Report.
ASHRAE. 2017. Thermal environmental conditions for human occupancy. Kuehn, T.H. 2008. Characterization of effluents from additional cooking
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-2017. appliances. ASHRAE Research Project RP-1375, Final Report.
ASHRAE. 2016. Ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality. ANSI/ Kuehn, T.H. 2010. Method of test to evaluate field performance of commer-
ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2016. cial kitchen ventilation systems. ASHRAE Research Project RP-1376,
ASHRAE. 2016. Ventilation and acceptable indoor air quality in low-rise Final Report.
residential buildings. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.2-2016. Kuehn, T.H., W.D. Gerstler, D.Y.H. Pui, and J.W. Ramsey. 1999. Compari-
ASHRAE. 2016. Energy standard for buildings except low-rise residential son of emissions from selected commercial kitchen appliances and food
buildings. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2016. products. ASHRAE Transactions 105(2):128-141. Paper 4285.
ASHRAE. 2007. Energy-efficient design of low-rise residential buildings. NEMA. 2016. Motors and generators. Standard MG 1-2016. National Elec-
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 90.2-2007. trical Manufacturers Association, Rosslyn, VA.

NFPA. 2017. Installation of sprinkler systems. ANSI/NFPA Standard 13- UL. 2010. Fire resistive grease duct enclosure assemblies, 2nd ed. Standard
2017. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA 2221-2010. Underwriters Laboratories, Northbrook, IL.
NFPA. 2017. Dry chemical extinguishing systems. ANSI/NFPA Standard UL. 2016. 1400 degree Fahrenheit factory-built chimneys, 2nd ed. ANSI/UL
17-2013. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA. Standard 2561-2016. Underwriters Laboratories, Northbrook, IL.
NFPA. 2017. Wet chemical extinguishing systems. ANSI/NFPA Standard UL. 2004. Fire testing of sprinklers and water spray nozzles for protection of
17A-2017. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA. deep fat fryers, 1st ed. Outline of Investigation 199E-2004. Underwriters
NFPA. 2014. Inspection, testing, and maintenance of water-based fire pro- Laboratories, Northbrook, IL.
tection systems. Standard 25-2014. National Fire Protection Associa- Welch, W.A. 2004. Development of a draft method of test for determining
tion, Quincy, MA. grease removal efficiencies. ASHRAE Research Project RP-1151, Final
NFPA. 2015. National fuel gas code. Standard 54-2015. National Fire Pro- Report.
tection Association, Quincy, MA. Zhang, J. 2015. Countertop commercial appliance emissions. ASHRAE
NFPA. 2013. Ventilation control and fire protection of commercial cooking Research Project RP-1631.
operations. Standard 96-2013. National Fire Protection Association,
Quincy, MA. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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T HIS chapter focuses primarily on commercial kitchen ventila-

Kitchen ventilation is a complex web of interconnected HVAC sys- Sustainability

1.1 COMMISSIONING iii. Cooking fire suppression

b. Effluent control requirements determine which appliances require an exhaust hood.

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Fig. 2 Typical DCKV Equipment and Configuration

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evaluated by pressure drop as well as particulate capture efficiency.

Fig. 4 Styles of Commercial Kitchen Exhaust Hoods

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appliance, but also because of the decreased distance between the

of the replacement air, which would have otherwise been drawn up

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Table 7 Exhaust Static Pressure Loss of Type I Hoods

Extractor 0.80 to 1.35 1.30 to 1.70 1.70 to 3.00 2.90 to 4.20

• Installing shelving or ancillary equipment (e.g., salamander)

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Table 8 Type II Hood Duty Classification by Appliance Type

Ovens, microwave, electric All

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precipitator (ESP), (3) some means of odor control such as acti-

into ventilation systems. According to UL Standard 710B, these

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drippings land on extremely hot surfaces and burn. Nitrogen oxide

Thermal Plume Behavior

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hamburgers. no cooking. no cooking.

illustrates a heated plume with and without cooking effluent as it

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Fig. 19 Gas Underfired Broiler Mass Emission Versus

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• Ruined quickly if they are grease-coated or subjected to water.

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each of the individual types, and combining them tends to com-

Fig. 27 Schlieren Image Showing Effective Plume

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in Casual Kitchens in Institutional Kitchens

Thermal Comfort Research Results

1.10 EXHAUST SYSTEMS

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