What is Neuron?

It's a nerve cell that sends commands to the muscles and receives the sensory signal from the
brain

Structure of Neuron
Neurons also called nerve cells, are transmitting and receiving messages from our brain.
Although the neurons have much in common with other cell types, they are distinct in both
structure and function. While various types of neurons exist, they all have a similar structure.
Neurons are able to interact with other cells and relay information over long distances. The size,
shape, and function of the neurons differ depending on their position and location. Almost all
neurons therefore have three basic parts: a cell body, an axon, and dendrites.

Cell body: Neurons have a cell body that includes a nucleus, as do other cells in a body.
Physically, neurons are held in place by glial cells. Glial cells provide nutrients, insulate neurons,
help repair damage and generally promote neuronal functioning.

Axon: Each neuron has a long, slim, extension-like tube called an axon. The axon carries
messages to other neurons, which the dendrites receive.

Dendrites: A small neuronal structure is used to communicate with each other. At the end of
each neuron, there is a cluster of fibers, called dendrites. It is getting messages from other
neurons. They resemble a twisted tree branches.

Synapse
The places where neurons connect and communicate with each other are called synapses. A
neuron at a synapse releases a chemical transmitter that diffuses over a small gap and activates
special sites on the target cell called receptors. The target cell may be another neuron or a
specialized region of a muscle. Neurons can also communicate through direct electrical
connections (electrical synapses).

Neurotransmitters
A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger, which carries boosts and balances signals
throughout the body between neurons (also called nerve cells) and target cells. These target cells
could be present in glands, muscles, or other neurons.

A list of the most frequently discussed neurotransmitters is given below.

Acetylcholine

The first neurotransmitter was found to be acetylcholine. It is a small-molecule direct action that
primarily works in the muscles, helping to translate our intentions to move into actual actions as
signals are passed from the neurons to the muscle fiber. However, it also has other functions
within the brain, including helping direct attention and playing a key role in facilitating
neuroplasticity across the cortex.

Dopamine

Dopamine is often referred to as a "pleasure chemical" because it is released when mammals are
recognized for their behavior and the reward could be food, drugs. It is one of the most
extensively studied neurochemicals, mainly because it plays such diverse roles in human
behavior and cognition. It involved with motivation, decision-making, movement, receipt of
incentives, concentration, work memory and learning.

Serotonin

Serotonin plays a key role in regulating mood, sleep, anxiety, sexuality, and appetite. Selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a type of antidepressant medication commonly
prescribed to treat depression, anxiety, panic disorder, and panic attacks. SSRIs work to balance
serotonin levels by blocking the reuptake of serotonin in the brain, which may help improve
mood and reduce anxiety feelings.

Glutamate

The most plentiful neurotransmitter found in the nervous system, glutamate plays a role in
cognitive functions such as memory and learning. Excessive amounts of glutamate can cause
excitotoxicity resulting in cellular death. This excitotoxicity caused by glutamate build-up is
associated with some diseases and brain injuries including Alzheimer's disease, stroke, and
epileptic seizures.

The Nervous System

The nervous system consists of the brain, the spinal cord, the sensory organs and all the nerves
that connect these organs to the rest of the organism. Together, these organs are responsible for
body function and coordination between the parts thereof. There are two primary components
of the nervous system: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system
(PNS).

The central nervous system (CNS) comprises the spinal cord and the cortex. The brain plays
a key role in regulating certain bodily functions including consciousness, gestures, feelings,
emotions, voice and memory. The spinal cord carries messages between brain and peripheral
nerves, back and forth.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) refers to parts of the nervous system outside the brain
and spinal cord. This comprises cranial nerves, spinal nerves, roots and branches, peripheral
nerves, and junctions with neuromuscular nerves. Although actually being part of the central
nervous system (CNS), the anterior horn cells are often shared with the peripheral nervous
system because they are part of the motor unit. It has two parts. One is somatic division that is
known as voluntary and another one is autonomic division that is known as involuntary. Somatic
division is in our control such as hearing and touch. Autonomic division is out of our control
such as things occurring involuntarily, without conscious control.

The Endocrine System

The endocrine system is networks of glands that produce the hormones in your body that help
cells communicate to each other. They are responsible for nearly every cell, organ and function
in your body. If your endocrine system is not healthy, you might have problems developing
during puberty, getting pregnant or managing stress.

Hormones are the chemicals used by the endocrine system to transfer signals through the body
to organs and tissue. They migrate to their target organ or tissue once released into the
bloodstream, which has receptors that recognize and respond to the hormone.

A part of the endocrine system is the pituitary gland. Its main function is to secrete hormones
into the bloodstream. Such hormones that affect other organs and glands, in particular the
thyroid, reproductive organs, and adrenal glands. Often, the pituitary gland is called the master
gland, since it is involved in so many processes. It is small and oval-shaped and is situated
behind the nose, close to the brain's underside. It is attached by a stalklike structure to the
hypothalamus.

The Brain
EEG - Electroencephalogram

PET - Positron Emission Tomography

fMRI - Functional magnetic resonance imaging

TMS - Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Structure
The brain structure consists of three main parts: forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain, each with
multiple parts.

Forebrain
The Cerebrum was also known as the cerebral cortex, the cerebrum is the main component of the
human brain and it is associated with higher brain activity such as thought and performing.
Nerve cells form the gray surface, which is much thicker than our thumb. In other parts of the
brain and body, white nerve fibers underneath the surface carry signals between nerve cells. Its
wrinkled surface raises the surface area and is a six-layered structure, called the neocortex, found
in mammals. It is composed of four parts, called lobes. They are frontal lobe, parietal lobe,
occipital lobe, and temporal lobe. A deep furrow divides the cerebrum into two halves, known as
the hemispheres left and right. Although the two hemispheres look almost symmetrical, it
appears that each side works differently. Our imaginative side is known as the right hemisphere,
and our rational side is called the left hemisphere. A bundle of axons, called the corpus callosum,
connects the two hemispheres.

Midbrain

The midbrain is situated below the cerebral cortex and above the hindbrain, which positions it
near the brain centre. It consists of tectum, tegmentum, and cerebral aqueduct, peduncles of the
cerebrum and numerous nuclei and fasciculi. The midbrain's primary function is to serve as a
kind of relay station for our visual and auditive systems. Portions of the midbrain called the red
nucleus and substantia nigra are involved in body movement control and contain a large number
of neurons that produce dopamine. Neuron degeneration in substantia nigra is related to
Parkinson's disease.

Thalamus

The thalamus exists between the midbrain and the cerebral cortex. It consists of nuclei, which
receive various sensory and motor inputs. Instead, the thalamus relays certain signals to specific
parts of the cerebral cortex. The thalamus also controls consciousness, sleep, and wakefulness,
feeding, and contentment, and alertness.

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is composed of multiple nuclei with many different functions, similar to the
thalamus. The hypothalamus regulates the autonomic nervous system through the generation and
release of hormones. It can control sleep-wake cycles, respiration, and other autonomic
responses through its effect on the endocrine system.

Hindbrain

The hindbrain is the brain's most basic component, and its central core is well covered. It
regulates all of our most vital processes with three structures: the medulla, pons, and
cerebellum.
The medulla regulates the body's automatic (involuntary) functions, such as respiration, heart
rate and blood pressure.

The pons is part of the brainstem. It regulates multiple functions including sensations and
movements of hearing, balance, taste, and facials.

The cerebellum plays a role in motor control and movement which includes balance, subtle
movement and balance. It also plays a part in cognitive functions like mindfulness and
language.

New Brain
Cerebral cortex

The thin outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres of the brain, which acts as the main center of
control and center of information processing. The cerebral cortex is not required to perform
many simple actions but is crucial to the creation of new episodic memories, fancy associations
and many new programs of movement. The cerebral cortex is composed of four parts or lobes.

Frontal lobe - control of voluntary movement, involved in attention, short-term memory tasks,
motivation, planning.

Parietal lobe - integrates proprioceptive and mechanoceptive stimuli, involved in language

processing.

Occipital lobe - center for visual processing

Temporal lobe - decoding sensory input into derived meanings for retention of visual memory
and language comprehension

Areas: 3 major areas

The Motor Area - Motor area controls our voluntary movement

Sensory Area - Sensory area receives and process sensory information such as touch and taste

The Association Area - Association area is responsible for memory and speech.

Neuroplasticity and the brain

Neuroplasticity refers to the capability of the brain to adapt or restructure itself. This also has
the ability to reorganize itself during life, by creating new neural connections. Neuroplasticity
helps the neurons (nerve cells) in the brain to compensate for damage and disease and to adapt
their actions to new conditions or changes in their environment. It has the capability to change.
A stem cell is a cell with the unique ability within the body to develop into specialized cell
types. In the future, cells and tissues that have been damaged or lost due to disease may be
replaced with them. Stem cells provide the body with new cells as it grow, replacing
specialized cells that are damaged or lost.

Use:

In some therapy, stem cell is useful to replace missing or damaged cells that our body cannot
replace naturally. This can also support people dealing with cancer. The extraordinary ability
of stem cells to produce several hundred differentiated types of cells is driving their use for
regenerative medicine and promoting the discovery and production of conventional drugs.

Promise:

Sustained progress in these areas depends on improvement in the ability to directly develop
these cells, regulate their differentiation, and generate the quantities needed for clinical trials.
This article will examine advances taking place on both the laboratory bench and the
pharmaceutical production floor that help bring the stem cell promise closer to reality.

Critics:

Some opponents of stem cell research argue that it offends human dignity, harms human life or
destroys it.

Hemispheres
The human brain has the power to distinguish itself. This has the opportunity to learn to adjust
and adapt. Our brain has two hemispheres. This is the right hemisphere, and the other in the
left. The brain's left hand controls the body's right side. If the left side of the brain is dominant,
the person is logical, and more inclined toward academia. The brain's left hemisphere too is
called the digital cortex. It is responsible for processing language, speaking, reading, thinking
and reasoning. It plays a significant part in preserving equilibrium. The brain's right side
controls the body's left side. A dominant right-hemisphere individual outstands in the arts. It is
visual and intuitive. It is also called brain equivalent. This is responsible for nonverbal forms,
sketches, expressions of feeling, and processes. It helps young children to consider and
comprehend the notion of more or less.

Functions vary:

Hemisphere prevalence varies from person to person. For every person, the brain hemisphere
used in every activity is not always the same. People dominant in the Left hemisphere are
visual learners. At the other hand, dominant people in the right hemisphere are
visual and auditory learners. Rational thought and analytical skills, such as mathematics and
language, require the left-brain hemisphere. On the other hand, the right side of the brain is
responsible for creative activities such as arts, and emotionally connecting with others.
Therefore, a person left dominant in the brain is rational while the dominant in the right brain
is more emotional.

Injury:

Brain injury, or also known as stroke, may affect the body significantly. As we know, the brain
deals with most of the body's vital processes. Nevertheless, the brain region affected by the
injury will decide what possible signs and complications the body may have. Since the left-
brain hemisphere controls the body's right side, any injuries therein could result in right-sided
weakness. The following issues may occur, such as difficulty in understanding both written
and spoken words, difficulties with numbers etc. On the other hand, the prefrontal right
hemisphere controls the body's left leg. Any injury to the right side of the brain could lead to
weakness on the left side. The following issues may occur such as not being able to attend to
items on the left side of the body, trouble in remembering important events such as time, date
etc.

Split brain:

Most people have two distinct brain halves but these two halves interact with each other using
a special brain structure. However, these parts are entirely separated from each other on rare
occasions, resulting in what is generally called the split-brain. This term describes the
condition, which results from the surgical disruption of communication between our brain's
right and left hemispheres.

Myelin sheath
Myelin sheath acts as an insulator. Myelin sheath plays a significant role within the neuron.
This is a defensive fat covering. The myelin sheath allows for the quick and effective
transmission of electrical impulses along with the nerve cells. Those impulses travel through
the whole body. Myelin sheath tries to ensure the intake of those impulses remains.
Those axons that carry the most critical and urgently needed information have the highest
myelin concentrations. Example: pain information quickly passed through axon so we can
respond instantly.