Neural Communication

1:Whatare neurons, and how do theytransmit information?

Neurons are the elementary components of the nervous system, the bodys speedy electrochemical
nformation system. Sensory neurons carry incoming information from sense receptors to the brain and
spinal cord, and motor neurons carry information from the brain and spinal cord out to the muscles and
glands. Interneurons communicate within the brain and spinal cord and between sensory and motor
neurons. A neuron sends signals through its axons, and receives signals through its branching dendrites.
If the combined signals are strong enough, the neuron fires, transmitting an electrical impulse (the
action potential) down its axon by means of a chemistry-to-electricity process. The neurons reaction is
an all-or-none process.
2: How do nerve cells communicate with othernerve cells?
When action potentials reach the end of an axon (the axon terminals), they stimulate the release of
neurotransmitters. These chemical messengers carry a message from the sending neuron across a
synapse to receptor sites on a receiving neuron. The sending neuron, in a process called reuptake, then
normally absorbs the excess neurotransmitter molecules in the synaptic gap. The receiving neuron, if
the signals from that neuron and others are strong enough, generates its own action potential and
relays the message to other cells.
3: How do neurotransmitters influence behavior, and how do drugs and otherchemicals
affectneurotransmission?
Each neurotransmitter travels a designated path in the brain and has a particular effect on behavior and
emotions. Acetylcholine affects muscle action, learning, and memory. Endorphins are natural opiates
released in response to pain and exercise. Drugs and other chemicals affect communication at the
synapse. Agonists excite by mimicking particular neurotransmitters or by blocking their reuptake.
Antagonists inhibit a particular neurotransmitters release or block its effect.
The Nervous System
4:Whatare the functions of the nervous systems main divisions?
One major division of the nervous system is the central nervous system (CNS), the brain and spinal cord.
The other is the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which connects the CNS to the rest of the body by
means of nerves. The peripheral nervous system has two main divisions. The somatic nervous system
enables voluntary control of the skeletal muscles. The autonomic nervous system, through its
sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, controls involuntary muscles and glands. Neurons cluster
into working networks.
5. How does the endocrine systemthe bodys slower information systemtransmitits messages?
The endocrine system is a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream, where they travel
through the body and affect other tissues, including the brain. The endocrine systems master gland, the
pituitary, influences hormone release by other glands. In an intricate feedback system, the brains
hypothalamus influences the pituitary gland, which influences other glands, which release hormones,
which in turn influence the brain.
The Brain
6: How do neuroscientists studythe brains connections to behaviorand mind?
Clinical observations and lesioning reveal the general effects of brain damage. MRI scans now reveal
brain structures, and EEG, PET, and fMRI (functional MRI) recordings reveal brain activity.
7:What are the functions of importantlower-level brain structures?
The brainstem is the oldest part of the brain and is responsible for automatic survival functions. Its
components are the medulla (which controls heartbeat and breathing), the pons (which helps
coordinate movements), and the reticular formation (which affects arousal). The thalamus, the brains
sensory switchboard, sits above the brainstem. The cerebellum, attached to the rear of the brainstem,
coordinates muscle movement and helps process sensory information.
The limbic system is linked to emotions, memory, and drives. Its neural centers include the amygdala
(involved in responses of aggression and fear) and the hypothalamus (involved in various bodily
maintenance functions, pleasurable rewards, and the control of the hormonal system). The pituitary
(the master gland) controls the hypothalamus by stimulating it to trigger the release of hormones. The
hippocampus processes memory.
8:Whatfunctions are served bythe various cerebral cortex regions?
In each hemisphere the cerebral cortex has four lobes, the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal. Each
lobe performs many functions and interacts with other areas of the cortex.
The motor cortex controls voluntary movements. The sensory cortex registers and processes body
sensations. Body parts requiring precise control (in the motor cortex) or those that are especially
sensitive (in the sensory cortex) occupy the greatest amount of space. Most of the brains cortexthe
major portion of each of the four lobesis devoted to uncommitted association areas, which integrate
information involved in learning, remembering, thinking, and other higher-level functions.
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8. What are neurons?
Neurons are cells that transmit information through neural
impulses and glial cells, which mainly serve support func-
tions. Neurons have a cell body; dendrites, which receive
messages; and trunklike axons, which conduct and then
transmit messages to other cells by means of chemicals called
neurotransmitters. Many neurons have a myelin coating that
insulates their axons, allowing for more efi cient conduction
of messages. Afferent neurons transmit sensory messages to
the central nervous system. Efferent neurons conduct mes-
sages from the central nervous system that stimulate glands
or cause muscles to contract.
9. What are neural impulses?
Neural impulses are electrical charges that are conducted along
axons through processes that allow sodium ions to enter cells
and then pump them out. The neuron has a resting potential of
70 millivolts and an action potential of about +40 millivolts.
10. What happens when a neuron i res?
Neurons i re (transmit messages to other neurons, muscles, or
glands) by releasing neurotransmitters. They i re according to
an all-or-none principle up to hundreds of times per second.
Each i ring is followed by a refractory period during which
neurons are insensitive to messages from other neurons.
11. What is a synapse?
Neurons i re across synapses, which consist of an axon
terminal from the transmitting neuron, a dendrite or the
body of a receiving neuron, and a l uid-i lled synaptic cleft
between the two.
12. What do neurotransmitters do?
Acetylcholine is involved in muscle contractions and mem-
ory; imbalances of dopamine have been linked to Parkinsons
disease and schizophrenia; norepinephrine accelerates the
heartbeat and other body processes; serotonin is involved in
eating, sleeping, and emotional arousal; GABA inhibits anxi-
ety; and endorphins are naturally occurring painkillers.
13. What are the parts of the nervous system?
The nervous system is one of the systems that regulates the
body. It is made up of neurons and divided into the central
and peripheral nervous systems.
14. What are the divisions and functions of the periph-
eral nervous system?
The peripheral nervous system has two main divisions:
somatic and autonomic. The somatic nervous system trans-
mits sensory information about skeletal muscles, skin, and
joints to the central nervous system. It also controls skeletal
muscular activity. The autonomic nervous system (ANS)
regulates the glands and activities such as heartbeat, diges-
tion, and dilation of the pupils. The sympathetic division of
the ANS helps expend the bodys resources, such as when
l eeing from a predator, and the parasympathetic division
helps build the bodys reserves.
15. What are the divisions and functions of the central
nervous system?
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal
cord. Rel exes involve the spinal cord but not the brain. The
central nervous system has gray matter, which is composed
of nonmyelinated neurons, and white matter, which is com-
posed of bundles of myelinated (and thus whitish) axons.
The Brain: The Star of the Human
Nervous System
16. How do researchers learn about the functions of
the brain?
Researchers historically learned about the brain by studying
the effects of accidents. They have also studied the effects of
purposeful damage to the brain made by lesions. They have
seen how animals and people respond to electrical stimula-
tions of certain parts of the brain. They have studied the
waves emitted by the brain with the electroencephalograph.
With CAT scans, PET scans, and MRIs, computer-generated
images are made by passing radiation of some sort through
the brain.
17. What are the structures and functions of the brain?
The hindbrain includes the medulla, which regulates the
heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration; the pons,
which is involved in movement, attention, and respi-
ration; and the cerebellum, which is involved in bal-
ance and coordination. The reticular activating system,
which is involved in wakefulness and sleep, begins in
the hindbrain and continues through the midbrain into
the forebrain. Important structures of the forebrain
include the thalamus, which serves as a relay station for
sensory stimulation; the hypothalamus, which regulates
body temperature and various aspects of motivation and
emotion, such as eating and sexual behavior; the limbic
system, which is involved in memory, emotion, and moti-
vation; and the cerebrum, which is the brains center of
thinking and language.
18. What are the parts of the cerebral cortex?
The outer fringe of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex,
which is divided into two hemispheres and four lobes:
frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. When light strikes
the eyes, neurons in the occipital lobe i re. The somatosen-
sory cortex lies behind the central i ssure in the parietal
lobe, and the motor cortex lies in the frontal lobe, across the
central i ssure from the somatosensory cortex. The prefron-
tal cortex may be the executive center of the brainmaking
plans, solving problems, and drawing upon sensory informa-
tion from other areas of the cortex as needed.
19. What parts of the cerebral cortex are involved in
thinking and language?
Language areas of the cortex usually lie in the left hemi-
sphere, near the intersection of the frontal, temporal,
and parietal lobes. Wernickes area in the temporal lobe responds mainly to auditory information.
Brocas area in
the frontal lobe is mainly responsible for speech. Dam-
age to either area can result in an aphasiaa problem in
understanding (Wernickes aphasia) or producing (Brocas
aphasia) language.
20. What would it mean to be left-brained or
right-brained?
The left hemisphere is usually relatively more involved
in cognitive functions involving logical analysis and
problem solving, whereas the right hemisphere is usually
superior in visualspatial functions, aesthetic and emo-
tional responses, and creative mathematical reasoning.
But the notion that some people are left-brained (that is,
only logical and lacking completely in functions involving
visualspatial responses and the like) and others are right-
brained is exaggerated.
21. Does it matter whether one is left-handed?
About one person in ten is left-handed. Learning disabilities
are somewhat more common among left-handed people, but
so is creativity, as shown in the arts. Handedness appears to
have a genetic component.
22. What happens when the brain is split in two?
For the most part, the behavior of people who have had
split-brain operations (which sever most of the corpus cal-
losum) is perfectly normal. However, although they may
verbally be able to describe a screened-off object such as a
pencil held in the hand connected to the hemisphere that
contains language functions, they cannot do so when the
object is held in the other hand.
The Endocrine System: Chemicals
in the Bloodstream
23. What is the endocrine system?
The endocrine system consists of ductless glands that
secrete hormones. The pituitary gland secretes growth
hormone; prolactin regulates maternal behavior in lower
animals and stimulates production of milk in women;
and oxytocin stimulates labor in pregnant women. The
pineal hormone melatonin is connected with the sleep
wake cycle and the onset of puberty. Thyroxin affects
the bodys metabolism, and its deficiency in childhood
is connected with mental retardation. The adrenal cor-
tex produces steroids, which promote the development
of muscle mass and increase activity levels. The adrenal
medulla secretes epinephrine (adrenaline), which increases
the metabolic rate and is involved in general emotional
arousal. The sex hormones are responsible for prenatal
sexual differentiation. Female sex hormones regulate the
menstrual cycle.
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How are the structures of the nervous system linked?
The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and the
peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system is made up of the somatic division, which
controls voluntary movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs,
and the autonomic division, which controls involuntary functions such as those of the heart, blood
vessels, and lungs. (p. 70)
The autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system is further subdivided into the sympathetic
and parasympathetic divisions. The sympathetic division prepares the body in emergency situations, and
the parasympathetic division helps the body return to its typical resting state. (p. 72)
Evolutionary psychology, the branch of psychology that seeks to identify behavior patterns that are
a result of our genetic inheritance, has led to increased understanding of the evolutionary basis of the
structure and organization of the human nervous system. Behavioral genetics extends this study to
include the evolutionary and hereditary basis of human personality traits and behavior. (p. 73)
How does the endocrine system affect behavior?
The endocrine system secretes hormones, chemicals that regulate the functioning of the body, via
the bloodstream. The pituitary gland secretes growth hormones and inl uences the release of
hormones by other endocrine glands, and in turn is regulated by the hypothalamus. (p. 75)
How do researchers identify the major parts and functions of the brain?
Brain scans take a snapshot of the internal workings of the brain without having to cut surgically
into a persons skull. Major brain-scanning techniques include the elec-troencephalogram (EEG),
positron emission tomography (PET), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and transcranial
magnetic stimulation imaging (TMS). (p. 79)
What are the major parts of the brain, and for what behaviors is each part responsible?
The central core of the brain is made up of the medulla (which controls functions such as breathing
and the heartbeat), the pons (which coordinates the muscles and the two sides of the body), the
cerebellum (which con-trols balance), the reticular formation (which acts to heighten awareness in
emergencies), the thalamus (which communicates sensory messages to and from the brain), and the
hypothalamus (which maintains homeo- stasis, or body equilibrium, and regulates behavior re-lated to
basic survival). The functions of the central core structures are similar to those found in other
vertebrates. This central core is sometimes referred to as the old brain. (p. 81)
The cerebral cortexthe new brainhas areas that control voluntary movement (the motor
area); the senses (the sensory area); and thinking, reasoning, speech, and memory (the association
areas). The limbic system, found on the border of the old and new brains, is as-sociated with eating,
aggression, reproduction, and the experiences of pleasure and pain. (p. 84)
How do the two halves of the brain operate interdependently?
The brain is divided into left and right halves, or hemi-spheres, each of which generally controls the
opposite side of the body. Each hemisphere can be thought of as being specialized in the functions it
carries out: The left specializes in verbal tasks, such as logical reasoning, speaking, and reading; the right
specializes in nonverbal tasks, such as spatial perception, pattern recognition, and emotional expression.
(p. 89)
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MCQS:
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1. A neural impulse is initiated when a neurons charge momentarily becomes less negative, or even
positive. This event is called:
A.an action potential.
B.a resting potential.
C.impulse facilitation.
D.inhibitory.
2. Neurons convey information about the strength of stimuli by varying:
A.the size of their action potentials.
B.the velocity of their action potentials.
C.the rate at which they re action potentials.
D.all of the above.
3. Alterations in activity at dopamine synapses have been implicated in the development of:
A.anxiety.
B.schizophrenia.
C.Alzheimers disease.
D.nicotine addiction.
4. Jim just barely avoided a head-on collision on a narrow road. With heart pounding, hands shaking,
and body perspiring, Jim recognizes that these are signs of the bodys ght-or-ight response, which is
controlled by the:
A.empathetic division of the peripheral nervous system.
B.parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.
C.somatic division of the peripheral nervous system.
D.sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.
5. The hindbrain consists of the:
A.endocrine system and the limbic system.
B.reticular formation.
C.thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebrum.
D.cerebellum, medulla, and pons.
6. Juan is watching a basketball game. The neural impulses from his eyes will ultimately travel to his
primary visual cortex, but rst they
must pass through the:
A.amygdala.
B.hypothalamus.
Cthalamus.
D.pons.
7. The __________ lobe is to hearing as the occipital lobe is to vision.
A.frontal
Btemporal
C.parietal
D.cerebellar
8. Paul has profound difculty producing spoken language. If his problem is attributable to brain
damage, the damage would probably be
found in:
A.the cerebellum.
B.Sperrys area.
C.Brocas area.
D.Wernickes area.
9. Sounds presented to the right ear are registered:
A.only in the right hemisphere.
B.only in the left hemisphere.
C.more quickly in the right hemisphere.
D.more quickly in the left hemisphere.
10. In people whose corpus callosum has not been severed, verbal stimuli are identied more quickly
and more accurately:
A.when sent to the right hemisphere rst.
B.when sent to the left hemisphere rst.
C.when presented to the left visual eld.
D.when presented auditorally rather than visually.
1. Hormones are to the endocrine system as _________________ are to the nervous system.
A.nerves
B.synapses
C.neurotransmitters
D.action potentials
12. Jenny has brown hair and blue eyes and is 58 tall. What is being described is
Jennys:
A.genotype.
B.phenotype.
C.somatotype.
D.physiognomy.
13. Adopted childrens similarity to their biological parents is generally attributed to ____________;
adopted childrens similarity to their
adoptive parents is generally attributed to ____________.
A.heredity; the environment
B.the environment; heredity
C.the environment; the environment
D.heredity; heredity
14. In evolutionary theory, ___________ refers to the reproductive success of an individual organism
relative to the average reproductive
success in the population.
A.natural selection
B.gene ow
C.adaptation
D.tness
15. For which of the following assertions is the empirical evidence strongest?
A.The two cerebral hemispheres are specialized to handle different
types of cognitive tasks.
B.People have a separate stream of consciousness in each
hemisphere.
C.Each hemisphere has its own cognitive style.
D.Some people are right-brained, while others are left-brained.
Answers
1 A p. 75 6 C p. 90 11 C p. 99
2 C p. 76 7 B pp. 9394 12 B pp. 102103
3 B p. 80 8 C pp. 9697 13 A p. 105
4 D pp. 8283 9 D pp. 9798 14 D p. 107
5 D pp. 82, 89 10 B pp. 9899 15 A pp. 112113
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1. If you burn your finger, your immediate reaction will probably
involve all BUT which of the following?
a. the brain c. afferent neurons
b. the spinal cord d. efferent neurons
2. If you are typing on the computer keyboard, the sensation of your fingers touching the keys is most
likely communicated by
__________.
a. the autonomic nervous system.
b. motor pathway neurons.
c. sensory pathway neurons.
d. autonomic neurons.
3. The neurons of the motor pathway control __________.
a. stress reactions. c. involuntary muscles.
b. organs and glands. d. voluntary muscles.
4. What type of cell can become other types of cells in the body?
a. blood cells c. neurons
b. stem cells d. basal cells
5. Which of the following is NOT a function of the sympathetic division?
a. increasing digestive activity to supply fuel for the body
b. dilating the pupils of the eyes
c. increasing the heart rate
d. increasing the activity of the lungs
6. Which of the following would be active if you are sleeping?
a. sympathetic division
b. parasympathetic division
c. somatic division
d. motor division
7. Andrew never really grew to be very tall. The doctor told his parents that Andrews __________gland
did not secrete enough growth hormone, causing his small stature.
a. pituitary c. thyroid
b. adrenal d. pancreas
8. If the pancreas secretes too little insulin, it causes __________.
a. diabetes. c. hypothyroidism.
b. hypoglycemia. d. virilism.
1.a2.c3.d4.b5.a6.b7.a8.a
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Which of the following techniques uses a radioactive sugar tolook at the functioning of the brain?
a. EEG c. MRI
b. CT d. PET
2. Which brain structure is most responsible for our balance,posture, and muscle tone?
a. medulla c. reticular formation
b. cerebellum d. pons
3. Which brain structure would most likely result in death if damaged?
a. medulla c. reticular formation
b. cerebellum d. pons
4. If you were to develop a rare condition in which signals from your eyes were sent to the area of the
brain that processes sound and signals from the ears were sent to the area of the brain that processes
vision, which part of the brain would most likely be damaged?
a. hippocampus c. thalamus
b. hypothalamus d. amygdala
5. If you have problems storing away new memories, the dam-age is most likely in the __________area
of the brain.
a. hippocampus c. cerebellum
b. hypothalamus d. amygdala
1.d2.b3.a4.c5.a