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STEM_BCAL

PROPERTIES OF LIMITS
Consider the function
Let f and g be functions such that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6 both exist.
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−2
▪ Constant Coefficient | a constant coefficient k can
When x=2, the function is undefined, i.e., f(2) does not exist.
be taken out of the limit expression
DOMAIN: 𝑥 𝜖 ℝ | 𝑥 ≠ 2} 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒌[𝒇(𝒙)] = 𝒌 ∙ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)
{ 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

x=2
We investigate the function values when x is close to 2 but not ▪ Distributive Property | a limit expression can be
equal to 2. distributed among terms of a basic arithmetic
expression
x f(x) x f(x)
1.9 0.8 2.1 1.2
𝐥𝐢𝐦[𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙)
1.99 0.98 2.01 1.02 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
1.999 0.998 2.001 1.002
1.9999 0.9998 2.0001 1.0002 𝐥𝐢𝐦[𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) − 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙)
1.99999 0.99998 2.00001 1.00002 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

Notice that as x moves closer to 2, f(x) moves closer to 1. 𝐥𝐢𝐦[𝒇(𝒙) ∙ 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) ∙ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

LIMITS | Let f be a function at every number in some 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)

𝒇(𝒙)
open interval containing a, except possibly at the 𝐥𝐢𝐦 [ ] = 𝒙→𝒂
𝒙→𝒂 𝒈(𝒙) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙)∗
number a itself. The limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L. 𝒙→𝒂
In symbols,
*provided that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) ≠ 𝟎.
𝒙→𝒂
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳
𝒙→𝒂
These properties remain valid when 𝑥 → 𝑎 is replaced
if the following statement is true: given any 𝜺 > 𝟎, however with either 𝑥 → 𝑎 +or 𝑥 → 𝑎−.
small, there exists a 𝜹 > 𝟎 such that if 𝟎 < |𝒙 − 𝒂| < 𝜹, then
|𝒇(𝒙) − 𝑳| < 𝜺. ▪ Exponential Properties | Let f be a function such
that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) exists, and n is any positive integer.
𝒙→𝒂
Therefore, in the prelude,
𝐥𝐢𝐦[𝒇(𝒙)]𝒏 = [𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)]𝒏
2𝑥2 − 7𝑥 + 6 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟏
𝒙→𝟐 𝑥−2 ∗
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒏√𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒏√𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

ONE-SIDED LIMITS *provided that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) > 𝟎 if n is even.

𝒙→𝒂

▪ Left-Hand Limit ▪ Composite Function | if 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒃 and is the

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳 𝒙→𝒂
𝒙→𝒂− function f is continuous at b,
if for any 𝜺 > 𝟎, however small, there exists a 𝜹 > 𝟎 such
that if 𝟎 < 𝒙 − 𝒂 < 𝜹, then |𝒇(𝒙) − 𝑳| < 𝜺 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒃)
𝒙→𝒂

▪ Right-Hand Limit
or, equivalently,
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳
𝒙→𝒂+
if for any 𝜺 > 𝟎, however small, there exists a 𝜹 > 𝟎 such 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙))
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
that if 𝟎 < 𝒂 − 𝒙 < 𝜹, then |𝒇(𝒙) − 𝑳| < 𝜺

LIMITS OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

EXISTENCE OF TWO-SIDED LIMITS ▪ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒌 = 𝒌, where k is a constant
𝒙→𝒂
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) exists and is equal to L if and only if both ▪ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙 = 𝒂
𝒙→𝒂
𝒙→𝒂
𝐥𝐢𝐦− 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒇(𝒙) exist such that
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒇(𝒙).

𝒙→𝒂− 𝒙→𝒂

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SPECIAL CASE ▪ Logarithmic Function | let b be a positive real

LIMITS OF PIECEWISE FUNCTIONS number, 𝒃 ≠ 𝟏

KExamplek
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒂, a>0
𝒙→𝒂
𝟐
𝒙 − 𝟏, 𝒊𝒇 − 𝟎 < 𝒙 < −𝟏
𝒇(𝒙) = { 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏, 𝒊𝒇 − 𝟏 ≤ 𝒙 < −𝟐 } ▪ Trigonometric Function | let a be a real number
𝟓𝟎 − 𝒙, 𝒊𝒇 − 𝟎 < 𝒙 ≥ −𝟐 in the domain of the given trigonometric function

a) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏) = 1 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒂) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒔𝒄 (𝒙) = 𝒄𝒔𝒄 (𝒂)
𝒙→−𝟑 𝒙→−𝟑 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

b) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟓 − 𝟑 = 2 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝒂) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒆𝒄 (𝒙) = 𝒔𝒆𝒄 (𝒂)
𝒙→𝟑 𝒙→𝟏 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

c) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→−𝟏 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝒙) = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝒂) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒐𝒕 (𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒕 (𝒂)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
Since -1 is a boundary for conditions 𝒙 < −𝟏
and −𝟏 ≤ 𝒙 < 𝟐, we evaluate the one-sided limits of the ▪ Inverse Trigonometric Function | let a be a real
function at -1 number in the domain of the given inverse
trigonometric function
𝐥𝐢𝐦 (−𝟏)𝟐 − 𝟏 = 0 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟏 = 1
𝒙→−𝟏+ 𝒙→−𝟏−
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝒂) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒔𝒄−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒄𝒔𝒄−𝟏 (𝒂)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
∴ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) does not exist.
𝒙→−𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝒂) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 (𝒂)
INDETERMINATE FORM 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

If f and g are two functions such that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (𝒂) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒐𝒕−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒕−𝟏 (𝒂)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
𝒇(𝒙)
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟎, then is in the indeterminate form 𝟎/𝟎.
𝒙→𝒂 𝒈(𝒙)
SPECIAL LIMIT FORMULAS
▪ If this happens, re-evaluate by factoring or
multiplying conjugates. 𝒆𝒕 − 𝟏 𝒍𝒏 (𝒕 + 𝟏)
𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟏 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟏
𝒕→𝟎 𝒕 𝒕→𝟎 𝒕
KExample 1k
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑 (𝒙 + 𝟑)(𝒙 + 𝟏) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟏 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟎
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒕→𝟎 𝒕 𝒕→𝟎 𝒕
𝒙→−𝟏 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝒙→−𝟏 (𝒙 − 𝟐)(𝒙 + 𝟏)
KExample 1k
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑 (𝒙 + 𝟑)
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒙
𝒙→−𝟏 𝒙 − 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝒙→−𝟏 (𝒙 − 𝟐) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ∙ 𝟑)
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝟑𝒙
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑 −𝟏 + 𝟑 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = =− 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝟏 ∙ 𝟑)
𝒙→−𝟏 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 − 𝟐 −𝟏 − 𝟐 𝟑 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎

KExample 2k 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝟑) = 𝟑
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎
√𝒙 − 𝟐 √𝒙 − 𝟐 √𝒙 + 𝟐
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = ∙
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙−𝟒 𝒙 − 𝟒 √𝒙 + 𝟐 KExample 2k

√𝒙 − 𝟐 𝒙−𝟒 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝒙 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝒙 𝟒

𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ∙ )
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙−𝟒 (𝒙 − 𝟒)(√𝒙 + 𝟐) 𝒙→𝟎 𝟑𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝟒𝒙 𝟑
𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝒙 𝟒 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝒙
√𝒙 − 𝟐 𝟏 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟏 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = ∙ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙→𝟎 𝟑𝒙 𝟑 𝒙→𝟎 𝟒𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = =
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙 − 𝟒 √𝒙 + 𝟐 𝐥𝐢𝐦 √𝒙 + 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙→𝟒 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝒙 𝟒
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = ∙𝟎 = 𝟎
√𝒙 − 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝒙→𝟎 𝟑𝒙 𝟑
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = =
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙−𝟒 𝟐+𝟐 𝟒
Consider the function

1
LIMITS OF TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥2
▪ Exponential Function | let b be a positive real When x=0, the function is undefined, i.e., f(0) does not exist.
number, 𝒃 ≠ 𝟏 We can say that

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒃𝒙 = 𝒃𝒂 lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist.

𝒙→𝒂
𝑥→0

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Examine the table of values below. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒙 = −∞, for 𝒂 = 𝒌𝝅

𝒙→𝒂−
x f(x) x f(x)
0.1 100 -0.1 100 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒙 = +∞, for 𝒂 = 𝒌𝝅
𝒙→𝒂+
0.01 10000 -0.01 10000
0.001 1000000 -0.001 1000000 (𝟒𝒌+𝟏)𝝅
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 = +∞, for 𝒂 =
0.0001 100000000 -0.0001 100000000 𝒙→𝒂− 𝟐
0.00001 10000000000 -0.00001 10000000000
(𝟒𝒌+𝟏)𝝅
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 = −∞, for 𝒂 =
Notice that as x approaches 0, f(x) increases without bound. 𝒙→𝒂+ 𝟐

We can say that as x approaches 0, f(x) approaches positive (𝟒𝒌+𝟑)𝝅

infinity. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 = −∞, for 𝒂 =
𝒙→𝒂− 𝟐

INFINITE LIMITS (𝟒𝒌+𝟑)𝝅

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 = +∞, for 𝒂 =
𝒙→𝒂+ 𝟐
Let f be a function defined at every number in some
open interval l, including a, except possibly at the 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒙 = −∞, for 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝒙→𝒂−
number a itself. As x approaches a, f(x)
increases/decreases without bound. In symbols, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒙 = +∞, for 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝒙→𝒂+

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = +∞ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = −∞ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒙 = +∞, for 𝒂 = (𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)𝝅
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
𝒙→𝒂−

EVALUATING INFINITE LIMITS ALGEBRAICALLY

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒙 = −∞, for 𝒂 = (𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)𝝅
𝒙→𝒂+
If a is any real number and if 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒄 and
𝒙→𝒂
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟎, where c is a constant not equal to 0, then LIMITS AT INFINITY
𝒙→𝒂

c>0 c<0
Let f be a function that is defined at every number in
some interval (𝑎, +∞) or (𝑎, −∞). The limit of f(x) as x
lim g(x) = 0 through 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙) increases/decreases without bound, is L. In symbols,
positive values 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = +∞ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = −∞
𝒙→𝒂 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒙→𝒂 𝒈(𝒙)
lim g(x) = 0 through 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = −∞ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = +∞ 𝒙→+∞ 𝒙→−∞
negative values 𝒙→𝒂 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒙→𝒂 𝒈(𝒙)
Theorems of Limits at Infinity

KExamplek ▪ If k is a constant, then

𝒙+𝟐 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒌 = 𝒌 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒌 = 𝒌

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙→+∞ 𝒙→−∞
𝒙→𝟏+ 𝟏 −𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙 + 𝟐 = (𝟏) + 𝟐 = 𝟑 ▪ If r is a positive integer, then
𝒙→𝟏−

𝟏 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟏 − 𝒙 = 𝟎 through positive values* 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟎 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟎
𝒙→𝟏− 𝒙→+∞ 𝒙𝒓 𝒙→−∞ 𝒙𝒓

𝒙+𝟐 KExamplek
∴ 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ = +∞
𝒙→𝟏 𝟏−𝒙
𝟏
*Why through positive values? When you substitute any value to 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 𝒙
the left of 1, the result is always positive. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = ∙
𝒙→+∞ 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝒙−𝟐 𝟏
𝒙
INFINITE LIMITS OF TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
𝟏 𝟏
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 𝟐+𝒙 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐 + 𝐥𝐢𝐦
▪ Logarithmic Function | let b be a positive real 𝒙→+∞ 𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝒙→+∞
number, 𝒃 ≠ 𝟏 𝒙→+∞ 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝒙→+∞ 𝟐 𝟏
𝟏−𝒙 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟏 − 𝟐 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙
𝒙→+∞ 𝒙→+∞

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒙 = +∞ for 0 < b < 1 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 𝟐+𝟎

𝒙→𝟎+ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = =𝟐
𝒙→+∞ 𝒙−𝟐 𝟏 − 𝟐(𝟎)
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒙 = −∞ for b > 1
𝒙→𝟎+ CONTINUITY
▪ Trigonometric Function | let b be a positive real A function f is continuous at a number a is only if the
number and k an integer following conditions are satisfied.
(𝟐𝒌+𝟏)𝝅
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 = +∞, for 𝒂 = I. f(a) exists.
𝒙→𝒂− 𝟐
II. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) exists.
𝒙→𝒂

𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 = −∞, for 𝒂 =

(𝟐𝒌+𝟏)𝝅 III. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒂)
𝟐 𝒙→𝒂
𝒙→𝒂

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KExample 1k SLOPE OF A TANGENT LINE

𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟔 If f is defined on an open interval containing c, and if

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 = 2 the limit
𝒙−𝟐
i. f(2) is undefined. 𝒇(𝒄 + 𝒉) − 𝒇(𝒄)
ii. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟏 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟐 𝒉→𝟎 𝒉
iii. f(2) and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) are not comparable
𝒙→𝟐 exists, then the line passing through (c, f(c)) with slope
mtan is the tangent line to the graph of f at point (c,f(c)).
∴ 𝒇 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒂 = 𝟐.

KExample 2k DERIVATIVE

The derivative of a function f is that function f’, such

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎
𝒈(𝒙) = { } 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 = 0 that its value at a number x in the domain is given by
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 < 𝟎
either of the following limits:
i. g(0) = 0
ii. since 0 is a boundary for conditions 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉) − 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙 + ∆𝒙) − 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
and 𝒙 < 𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝒉 ∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙
if it exists.
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 = 𝟎
𝒙→𝟎− 𝒙→𝟎+
DIFFERENTIATION | the process of computing the
∴ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟎 derivative; operation of deriving a function f’ from a
𝒙→𝟎
function f
iii. g(0) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒙→𝟎
If a function has a derivative of c, the function is said to
∴ 𝒈 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒂 = 𝟎. be differentiable at c. A function is differentiable on an
open interval if it is differentiable at every number in
TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES the open interval.

Removable | the limit exists, however… NON-EXISTENCE OF A DERIVATIVE | since the

derivative of a function at a number c is defined in
▪ Missing Point/Hole | f(a) is undefined terms of a limit, it does not always exist, like when:
▪ Dislocated Point | 𝒇(𝒂) ≠ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂
▪ The graph is discontinuous at c
Essential | the limit does not exist because… ▪ The graph has a sharp corner at c
▪ The graph has a vertical tangent at c
▪ Jump | 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒇(𝒙) ≠ 𝐥𝐢𝐦− 𝒇(𝒙) ▪ The graph has a cusp at c
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
▪ Infinite/Asymptotic | 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = ±∞
𝒙→𝒂 RULES ON DIFFERENTIATION
▪ Alternating Point | values of f(x) oscillate
between two values Let f and g be differentiable functions at x
_______________________________________________ ▪ Constant Coefficient | a constant coefficient k can
be taken out of the derivative expression
The Tangent Line Problem
𝒅 𝒅
[𝒌 ∙ 𝒇(𝒙)] = 𝒌 ∙ 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
(c+h, f(c+h)) ▪ Distributive Property | a derivative expression can
(c, f(c)) y=f(x) be distributed among sum or difference of terms

𝒅 𝒅 𝒅
[𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

h
𝒅 𝒅 𝒅
[𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Consider y=f(x), mtan the tangent of the graph at P(c,f(c)). We ▪ Product Rule | applies to differentiating factors
cannot find the slope of the tangent given only the tangent P.
Thus, we set a point Q(c+h,f(c+h)) such that a secant can be
formed by points P & Q. 𝒅
[𝒇(𝒙) ∙ 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒈′ (𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙)𝒇′(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙
Notice that as h, the distance between point P & Q, decreases
and approaches 0, the secant line slowly resembles the slope of
the tangent line; thus, we can make a better approximation of
the slope of the tangent line as h approaches 0.

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▪ Quotient Rule | applies to differentiating rational DERIVATIVES OF TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

expressions
▪ Exponential Functions
𝒅 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙)𝒇′(𝒙) − 𝒇(𝒙)𝒈′(𝒙)
[ ]= , 𝒈(𝒙) ≠ 𝟎 𝒅 𝒙 𝒅 𝒙
𝒅𝒙 𝒈(𝒙) [𝒈(𝒙)]𝟐 [𝒆 ] = 𝒆𝒙 [𝒂 ] = 𝒂𝒙 ∙ 𝒍𝒏(𝒂), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
KExamplek Differentiate.
▪ Logarithmic Functions
𝟒𝒙 + 𝟓
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒅 𝟏
𝟖𝒙
[𝒍𝒏(𝒙)] =
𝒅𝒙 𝒙
We know that
𝒅 𝟏
𝒅 𝒅 𝒅 [𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙] = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1
𝟒𝒙 + 𝟓 = 𝟒 𝒙+ 𝟓=𝟒+𝟎=𝟒 𝒅𝒙 𝒙 ∙ 𝒍𝒏(𝒂)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒅 𝒅 ▪ Trigonometric Functions
𝟖𝒙 = 𝟖 𝒙=𝟖
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒅 𝒅
By virtue of the quotient rule, 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝒙) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝒙) = −𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒙)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
(𝟖𝒙)(𝟒) − (𝟒𝒙 + 𝟓)(𝟖) 𝒅 𝒅
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝒙) = 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 (𝒙) 𝒄𝒐𝒕 (𝒙) = −𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 (𝒙)
[𝟖𝒙]𝟐 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝟑𝟐𝒙 − (𝟑𝟐𝒙 + 𝟒𝟎) 𝒅
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝒔𝒆𝒄 (𝒙) = 𝒔𝒆𝒄 (𝒙) ∙ 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝒙 )
𝟔𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
−𝟒𝟎 𝟓
𝒇′ (𝒙) = =− 𝟐 𝒅
𝟔𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝟖𝒙 𝒄𝒔𝒄 (𝒙) = −𝒄𝒔𝒄 (𝒙) ∙ 𝒄𝒐𝒕 (𝒙)
𝒅𝒙
DERIVATIVES OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
▪ Inverse Trigonometric Functions
▪ Constant Term | the derivative of a constant k is 0
𝒅 𝟏 𝒅 𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝒙) = − 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝒙) = −
𝒅 𝒅𝒙 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐
𝒌=𝟎
𝒅𝒙
𝒅 𝟏 𝒅 𝟏
▪ Derivative of X 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (𝒙) = − 𝒄𝒐𝒕−𝟏 (𝒙) = −
𝒅𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐
𝒅
𝒙=𝟏
𝒅𝒙 𝒅 𝟏 𝒅 𝟏
𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒄𝒔𝒄−𝟏 (𝒙) = −
𝒅𝒙 𝒙√𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 𝒅𝒙 𝒙√𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏
▪ Power Rule | consider 𝑛 𝜖 ℚ
KExamplek Differentiate.
𝒅 𝒏
𝒙 = 𝒏𝒙𝒏−𝟏 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟓𝒙 ∙ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟓 𝒙 + 𝒄𝒐𝒕−𝟏 (𝒙)
𝒅𝒙
KExamplek Differentiate. We know that

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟒𝒙 + 𝟏𝟕 𝒅 𝒙 𝒅 𝟏

𝟓 = 𝟓𝒙 ∙ 𝒍𝒏(𝟓) 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟓 𝒙 =
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒙 ∙ 𝒍𝒏(𝟓)
By the power rule,
By virtue of the product rule,
𝒅
𝟐𝒙𝟑 = 𝟐(𝟑𝒙𝟑−𝟏 ) = 𝟔𝒙𝟐 𝒅 𝒙 𝟏
𝒅𝒙 𝟓 ∙ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟓 𝒙 = (𝟓𝒙 ) ( ) + (𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟓 𝒙)(𝟓𝒙 ∙ 𝒍𝒏(𝟓))
𝒅𝒙 𝒙 ∙ 𝐥 𝐧(𝟓)
By other properties of derivatives,
We also know that
𝒅 𝒅
− 𝟏𝟒𝒙 = −𝟏𝟒 𝒙 = −𝟏𝟒 𝒅 𝟏
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒄𝒐𝒕−𝟏 (𝒙) = −
𝒅𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐
By constant rule,
Thus,
𝒅
𝟏𝟕 = 𝟎 𝟓𝒙 𝟏
𝒅𝒙
𝒇′ (𝒙) = ( ) + (𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟓 𝒙)(𝟓𝒙 ∙ 𝒍𝒏(𝟓)) −
𝒙 ∙ 𝐥 𝐧(𝟓) 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐
Thus,
_______________________________________________
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝟔𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟒

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OPTIMIZATION USING CALCULUS NOTE: What do the mean? These are indicators that tell
which factor is 0 at which critical value. That way, we can
Since the derivative is associated with the slope of the easily tell the signs for each factor (automatically negative at
graph of a function at a point, we might expect that it the left side of and automatically positive at the right side
is also related to other properties of a graph. The of ).
derivative can tell us a great deal about the shape of a
S4. Make appropriate concluding statements
graph.
For where the graph is increasing/decreasing:
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
g is increasing on (−1,0) ∪ (2, +∞)
Given the interval (a,b), the function is:
g is decreasing on (−∞, −1) ∪ (0,2)
▪ Increasing if 𝒇′ (𝒙) > 𝟎 ∀ 𝒙 𝝐 (𝒂, 𝒃)
▪ Decreasing if 𝒇′ (𝒙) < 𝟎 ∀ 𝒙 𝝐 (𝒂, 𝒃) For local extrema:

What about when 𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝟎? g(-1) = 0 is a local minimum value

▪ Critical Value | the value/s in the domain of f g(0) = 5 is a local maximum value
where f’(x)=0 or where f’(x) does not exist
g(2) = -27 is a local minimum value
LOCAL EXTREMA

Consider a function f. We call f(c) a: EXTREME VALUE THEOREM

▪ Local Maximum if there exists an interval (a,b) If the function f is continuous of the closed interval
containing c such that 𝒇(𝒙) ≤ 𝒇(𝒄) ∀ 𝒙 𝝐 (𝒂, 𝒃) [a,b], then f has an absolute maximum value and
▪ Local Minimum if there exists an interval (a,b) absolute minimum value on [a,b].
containing c such that 𝒇(𝒙) ≥ 𝒇(𝒄) ∀ 𝒙 𝝐 (𝒂, 𝒃)
The minimum and maximum of a function at an
Alternatively, if there is a sign change, then f(c) is a: interval are the extreme values or extrema of the
function on the interval. They are called:
▪ Local Maximum if f’(x) changes sign at c
from (+) → (-) ▪ Absolute Minimum Value | there exists a value c
▪ Local Minimum if f’(x) changes sign at c in the closed interval [a,b] such that f(c)=m, where
from (-) → (+) m is less than or equal to f(x) for all x in the closed
interval [a,b]
If the sign of f’(x) does not change at c, it is NOT a local
extremum.
∃ 𝒄 ∈ [𝒂, 𝒃] ∋ 𝒇(𝒄) = 𝒎; 𝒎 ≥ 𝒇(𝒙) ∀ 𝒙 ∈ [𝒂, 𝒃]
FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST FOR LOCAL EXTREMA
▪ Absolute Maximum Value | there exists a value d
KExamplek Find the critical numbers, intervals which in the closed interval [a,b] such that f(d)=M, where
graph increases and decreases, and local extrema for M is greater than or equal to f(x) for all x in the
closed interval [a,b]
𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟒 − 𝟒𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓
∃ 𝒅 ∈ [𝒂, 𝒃] ∋ 𝒇(𝒅) = 𝑴; 𝑴 ≥ 𝒇(𝒙) ∀ 𝒙 ∈ [𝒂, 𝒃]
S1. Differentiate g(x)

𝒈′ (𝒙) = 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟒𝒙 Solving Extrema Algebraically

CLOSED INTERVAL METHOD
S2. Assume a number c where g’(c)=0, then solve for the
critical numbers KExamplek 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏; [−𝟏/𝟐 , 𝟒]

𝒈′ (𝒄) = 𝟏𝟐𝒄𝟑 − 𝟏𝟐𝒄𝟐 − 𝟐𝟒𝒄 = 𝟎 S1. Differentiate f(x)

= (𝟏𝟐𝒄)(𝒄𝟐 − 𝒄 − 𝟐) = 𝟎 𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙
= (𝟏𝟐𝒄)(𝒄 − 𝟐)(𝒄 + 𝟏) = 𝟎 S2. Assume a number c where f’(c)=0, then solve for the
Critical numbers: c=0 c=2 c=-1 critical numbers

S3. Create a sign chart like the following 𝒇′ (𝒄) = 𝟑𝒄𝟐 − 𝟔𝒄 = 𝟎

−1 0 2 = (𝟑𝒄)(𝒄 − 𝟐) = 𝟎
𝟏𝟐𝒙 - - + + Critical numbers: c=0 c=2
𝒙−𝟐 - - - +
𝒙+𝟏 - + + + S3. Evaluate f(x) at the endpoints of the closed interval
- + - + and at the critical numbers

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At the critical numbers f(0) = 1 f(2) = -3 𝟑 𝟐

𝟐𝟕 = 𝒄
𝟒
At the endpoints f(-1/2) = 1/8 f(4) = 7
𝟏𝟎𝟖 = 𝟑𝒄𝟐
Identify the lowest and highest values of f(x).
𝟑𝟔 = 𝒄𝟐
S4. Make appropriate concluding statements
±𝟔 = 𝒄
f(2) = 3 is an absolute minimum value on [-1/2, 4]
Once again, we can neglect -6 as a critical number because
f(4) = 17 is an absolute maximum value on [-1/2, 4] there are no negative dimensions; thus,

WORD PROBLEMS INVOLVING OPTIMIZATION Critical number: 6

KExamplek S5. Evaluate V(x) at the endpoints of the interval and

at the critical values
A manufacturer wants to design an open box having a
square base and surface area of 108 in2. What At the critical numbers V(6) = 108
dimensions will produce a box with maximum
At the endpoints V(0) = 0 V(6√3) = 0
volume?
Since we want to maximize the volume, we identify
S1. Express the surface area in terms of x and y, then
the maximum value.
solve for y
∴ 𝑽(𝟔) = 𝟏𝟎𝟖 is an absolute maximum value
Let x be the measure of the sides of an open box (in inches)
S6. Construct the appropriate concluding statement
Let y be the measure of the height of an open box (in inches)

𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖 ∴ the dimensions of the box that will produce a maximum
volume are 6 in. by 6 in. by 3 in.
𝟒𝒙𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖 − 𝒙𝟐 END OF REVIEWER.

𝟐𝟕 𝟏
𝒚= − 𝒙
𝒙 𝟒
S2. Model the volume function

𝟐𝟕 𝟏 𝟏
𝑽(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 ( − 𝒙) = 𝟐𝟕𝒙 − 𝒙𝟑
𝒙 𝟒 𝟒

S3. Find the interval where V(x) can be, in this case,
maximized

𝑽(𝒙) = 𝟎

𝟏
𝟐𝟕𝒙 − 𝒙𝟑 = 𝟎
𝟒
𝟏 𝟑
𝟐𝟕𝒙 = 𝒙
𝟒
𝟏𝟎𝟖𝒙 = 𝒙𝟑

𝟏𝟎𝟖𝒙 − 𝒙𝟑 = 𝟎

(𝒙)(𝟏𝟎𝟖 − 𝒙𝟐 ) = 𝟎

x=0 x=±𝟔√𝟑

We can neglect negative values because there are no negative

dimensions, thus, we will maximize V(x) in the closed interval
[0, ±𝟔√𝟑].

S4. Differentiate V(x) and solve for its critical values

𝟑
𝑽′ (𝒙) = 𝟐𝟕 − 𝒙𝟐
𝟒
𝟑
𝑽′ (𝒄) = 𝟐𝟕 − 𝒄𝟐 = 𝟎
𝟒

7
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