PHYS 4010 3.

0 Angular momentum

~ is defined by
Classically the angular momentum vector L

~ = ~r × p~
L
In quantum mechanics the angular momentum operator is given by

~ = −i~~r × ∇
L ~

Explicitly we can write the components of this operator as

 
∂ ∂
Lx = −i~ y ∂z − z ∂y
 
∂ ∂
Ly = −i~ z ∂x − x ∂z
 
∂ ∂
Lz = −i~ x ∂y − y ∂x

We can work out the commutators. They are

[Lx , Ly ] = i~Lz
[Ly , Lz ] = i~Lx
[Lz , Lx ] = i~Ly

These three commutation relations can be written as

[Li , Lj ] = i~ijk Lk
where ijk is the Levi-Civita symbol. In three dimensions the levi-Civita
symbol is defined as follows

+1
 if (i, j, k) is cyclic
ijk
 = −1 if (i, j, k) is anti-cyclic

0 otherwise


~ 2 = L2x + L2y + L2z we also find that

Remembering that L
h i
L~ 2 , Lz = 0

~ 2 and Lz
This implies that we can find simultaneous eigenfunctions of L

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PHYS 4010 3.0 Angular momentum

Now, we can define the two operators L+ and L−

L+ = Lx + iLy
L− = Lx − iLy

where L− = L†+
This allows us to write

L~ 2 = L− L+ + L+ L− + L2
z
2
and leads to other useful commutation relations

[Lz , L+ ] = ~L+
[L , L ] = −~L−
 2z −
L ,L = 0
 2 +
L , L− = 0
[L+ , L− ] = 2~Lz

Using these, we can write

~ 2 = L∓ L± + L2 ± ~Lz
L z

Now suppose we have found the eigenfunctions of Lz . Let

Lz φm = m~φm
Now consider the the state L+ φm Let’s act on this state with Lz

Lz L+ φm = (~L+ + L+ Lz )φm
= (~L+ + L+ m~)φm
= ~(m + 1)L+ φm

So, we see that L+ is a “raising” or “step-up” operator. We can conclude

that

L+ φm ∝ φm+1

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PHYS 4010 3.0 Angular momentum

and
L+ (L+ φm ) ∝ φm+2
Similarly, we can find that L− is a “lowering” or “step-down” operator.

L− φm ∝ φm−1
and
L− (L− φm ) ∝ φm−2
Now, since [L2 , Lz ] = 0, we know we can find a set of eigenfunctions φm
such that

Lz φm = m~φm
and
L2 φm = ~2 K 2 φm
where as yet K 2 is undetermined. Therefore

hL2 i = ~2 K 2 = hL2x i + hL2y i + hL2z i

= hL2x i + hL2y i + m2 ~2

Therefore ~2 K 2 > ~2 m2 and finally |K| > |m|

So, we see that a given sequence of m, namely mmax · · · mmin must fall
inside |K|
Therfore

L+ φmax = 0
L− φmin = 0

Consider

L2 φmax = L− L+ φmax + L2z φmax + Lz ~φmax

= L2z φmax + Lz ~φmax
= ~2 m2max φmax + ~mmax ~φmax

Therefore

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PHYS 4010 3.0 Angular momentum

~2 K 2 = ~2 mmax (mmax + 1)
Similarly by acting on φmin we find

~2 K 2 = ~2 mmin (mmin − 1)
Putting these two together we find one solution consistent with our as-
sumptions mmax = −mmin
Therefore if we call mmax = l, we have mmin = −l and all the possible m
values are

m = {l, l − 1, l − 2, · · · − l + 1, −l}
~ 2 eigenvalue is ~2 (l(l + 1)
and the L
We can write the simultaneous eigenfunctions as

~ 2 φlm = ~2 (l(l + 1)φlm

L
Lz φlm = ~mφlm

We now explicitly construct the operators and eigenfunctions in spherical

polar coordinates. where

x = r sin θ cos φ
y = r sin θ sin φ
z = r cos θ

Consider Lz in cartesian coordiantes

~ ∂ ∂ 
Lz = x −y
i ∂y ∂x
∂ ∂
We will need to find ∂y and ∂x in spherical polar coordinates. In fact we
will need to construct the entire transformation matrix that takes us from
∂ ∂ ∂  ∂ ∂ ∂ 
, , ⇒ , ,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂r ∂θ ∂φ

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PHYS 4010 3.0 Angular momentum

In practice it is easier to construct the inverse matrix and then invert it.
For example
∂ ∂x ∂ ∂y ∂ ∂z ∂
= + +
∂r ∂r ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂r ∂z
implies that the first row of the inverse matrix is
∂x ∂y ∂z
, ,
∂r ∂r ∂r

⇒ sin θ cos φ, sin θ sin φ, cos θ

Taking similar steps we can construct the entire matrix
 
sin θ cos φ sin θ sin φ cos θ
 r cos θ cos φ r cos θ sin φ −r sin θ 
−r sin θ sin φ r sin θ cos φ 0
Inverting this matrix we obtain
1
sin θ cos φ 1r cos θ cos φ − r sin
 
θ
sin φ
 sin θ sin φ 1 cos θ sin φ 1
cos φ 
r r sin θ
1
cos θ − r sin θ 0
Therefore reading the first row we see that
∂ ∂ cos θ cos φ ∂ sin φ ∂
= sin θ cos φ + −
∂x ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
From the second row we see
∂ ∂ cos θ sin φ ∂ cos φ ∂
= sin θ sin φ + +
∂y ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
So substituting this into

~ ∂ ∂ 
Lz = x −y
i ∂y ∂x
~  ∂ ∂ 
= r sin θ cos φ − r sin θ sin φ
i ∂y ∂x

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PHYS 4010 3.0 Angular momentum

We get the remarkably simple

~ ∂
Lz =
i ∂φ
Unfortunately Lx and Ly are not so simple
 ∂ ∂ 
Lx = i~ sin φ + cot θ cos φ
∂θ ∂φ
 ∂ ∂ 
Ly = i~ − cos φ + cot θ sin φ
∂θ ∂φ
~ ∂
Lz =
i ∂φ
~ 2 = L2 + L2 + L2 operator
We can construct the L x y z

2
h 1 ∂
2 ∂ 1 ∂2 i
L = −~ sin θ +
sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂φ2
Now that we have the explicit operators the eigenvalue equations can be
solved

~ 2 φlm = ~2 (l(l + 1)φlm

L
Lz φlm = ~mφlm

In fact the φlm are the spherical harmonics, the Ylm (θ, φ) They are a
complete orthonormal set.
Z
|Ylm (θ, φ)|2 sin θdθdφ = 1
Z
∗
Ylm (θ, φ)Yl0 m0 (θ, φ) sin θdθdφ = δll0 δmm0

The spherical harmonics can be constructed from

h 2l + 1 (l − m)! i1/2
Ylm (θ, φ) = Plm (cos θ)eimφ
4π (l + m)!
Here the Plm (cos θ) are the Associated Legendre functions. They are
related the Legendre polynomials Pl (θ) in the following way.

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PHYS 4010 3.0 Angular momentum

dm Pl (µ)
Plm (µ) = (−1)m (1 − µ2 )m/2
dµm
where µ = cos θ and the Legendre polynomials Pl (µ) are given by

1 dl 2
Pl (µ) = (µ − 1)l
2l l! dµl
The first few Legendre polynomials are

P0 = 1
P1 = cos θ
1
P2 = (3 cos2 θ − 1)
2

The first few Associated Legendre polynomials are

P00 = 1
P10 = cos θ
P11 = − sin θ
1
P20 = (3 cos2 θ − 1)
2
P21 = −3 sin θ cos θ
P22 = 3 sin2 θ

The first few Spherical Harmonics are

1
Y00 = √
4π
1 3 1/2

Y10 = cos θ
2 2π
1 3 1/2
 
Y11 = − sin θeiφ
2 2π
1  3 1/2
Y1−1 = sin θe−iφ
2 2π

A few of the spherical harmonics are pictured below

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PHYS 4010 3.0 Angular momentum

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PHYS 4010 3.0 Angular momentum

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PHYS 4010 3.0 Angular momentum

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