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    Chapter 1: General References

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    Bouazizizi MOHAMED
    The document discusses coordinate reference systems used on maps. It describes how grid coordinate systems use perpendicular axes to define locations, and how the most common global coordinate system uses latitude and longitude references based on the equator, prime meridian and other defined lines. It also addresses some problems with map projections like distortion of shapes, sizes and distances that increase further from the reference lines.

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd

    Chapter 1: General References

    Uploaded by

    Bouazizizi MOHAMED
    28 views37 pages
    The document discusses coordinate reference systems used on maps. It describes how grid coordinate systems use perpendicular axes to define locations, and how the most common global coordinate system uses latitude and longitude references based on the equator, prime meridian and other defined lines. It also addresses some problems with map projections like distortion of shapes, sizes and distances that increase further from the reference lines.

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    DD-01 (1)

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    The document discusses coordinate reference systems used on maps. It describes how grid coordinate systems use perpendicular axes to define locations, and how the most common global coordinate system uses latitude and longitude references based on the equator, prime meridian and other defined lines. It also addresses some problems with map projections like distortion of shapes, sizes and distances that increase further from the reference lines.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    28 views37 pages

    Chapter 1: General References

    Uploaded by

    Bouazizizi MOHAMED
    The document discusses coordinate reference systems used on maps. It describes how grid coordinate systems use perpendicular axes to define locations, and how the most common global coordinate system uses latitude and longitude references based on the equator, prime meridian and other defined lines. It also addresses some problems with map projections like distortion of shapes, sizes and distances that increase further from the reference lines.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    of 37

    Chapter 1 : GENERAL REFERENCES DD-01

    I) Coordinate references

    How to localize a point (eg. well position) on the field (on a map) ?

    Î Coordinates.
    Chapter 1 : GENERAL REFERENCES DD-01

    I) Coordinate references

    Location on Maps

    Most maps allow us to specify the location of points on the Earth's surface
    using a coordinate system. For a two-dimensional map, this coordinate system
    can use simple geometric relationships between the perpendicular axes on a grid
    system to define spatial location.
    Chapter 1 : GENERAL REFERENCES DD-01

    I) Coordinate references

    A grid coordinate system defines the location of points from the distance
    traveled along two perpendicular axes from some stated origin.

    The location represented by the star has the coordinates:


    7 (X-axis), 4 (Y-axis).
    Chapter 1 : GENERAL REFERENCES DD-01

    I) Coordinate references

    ?
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    Reference point?

    The reference point in the


    all earth coordinate system is
    the alone fixed point : the
    earth center.
    But to reconstitute the grid
    system a projection on earth
    surface is needed. Then, we
    have to decide about an other
    reference point for the grid
    system.
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    Î Coordinates on Earth:
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    The reference point on earth’s


    surface is located in the
    intersection between 2 fictive
    plans:
    - Equatorial plan that constitute
    the perpendicular plan to earth
    rotation axis and dividing earth
    globe into 2 equal hemispheres.
    - Prime meridian plan,
    perpendicular to Equatorial plan
    and containing earth rotation axis
    (so crossing both poles) and
    chosen passing through
    Greenwich village near London
    in UK.
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    From the equator several other parallel circles are drown above and below
    constituting the latitudes. Each circle is characterized by the angle made between
    earth center and Equator.

    In the same way several meridians are drown and crossing both poles: Longitude.

    Meridians are not parallel but they have the same size. On the contrary latitudes
    circles are parallel but they have different size (decreasing radius toward both poles)
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    The superposition of latitudes and


    longitudes gives a grid network called:
    Graticular network
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    Latitude is measured in degrees North or South of the equator.


    Longitude is measured in degrees East or West of the Prime Meridian or
    Greenwich Meridian.

    Special points and lines in the terrestrial system are:

    - Equator (0' latitude)


    - North and South Poles (90' latitude N or S)
    - Greenwich Meridian (0' longitude E or W)
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    1st Problem:
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    1st Problem:
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    1st Problem:

    This problem is in part due to the changing relationship between latitude and
    longitude. Near the Equator a 'block' of 1° x 1° latitude and longitude is almost a
    square, while the same 'block' near the poles is almost a triangle.
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    1st Problem:
    Distortions

    All projections result in some distortion of the relationships between features on


    the sphere when they are projected onto a flat surface. These distortions include:
    » the direction between a feature and surrounding features
    » the distance between a feature and surrounding features
    » the shape of any feature
    » the size of any feature

    The only 'projection' which has all features with no distortion is a globe.
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    1st Problem:

    Conical Projections
    Azimuthal Projections
    This projection is based on the concept of the 'piece of paper' being rolled into a
    This
    coneprojection
    shape andistouching
    based onthe
    a 'flat
    Earthpiece
    on aofcircular
    paper' line.
    touching
    Mostthe Earth at athe
    commonly, point.
    tip of
    The pointisispositioned
    the cone usually a Pole,
    over abut thisand
    Pole is not
    theessential.
    line where the cone touches the earth
    Azimuthal
    is a line of projection is this
    latitude; but usedisto map
    not polar regions
    essential. areas.
    The line of latitude where the cone
    touches the Earth is called a Standard Parallel.
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    Conic projections are usually used for regional/national maps of mid-latitude


    areas – such as Australia, North Africa & Europe.
    These projections:

    • are fan shaped when used to map large areas


    • have distortions increasing away from the central circular line (the 'touch circle
    of the paper')
    • shapes are shown correctly, but size is distorted
    • usually have lines of longitude fanning out from each other and have lines of
    latitude as equally spaced open concentric circles
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    1st Problem:
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    1st Problem:

    Cylindrical projections are usually used for world


    maps or regional/national maps of Equatorial areas –
    such as Papua New Guinea.
    These projections usually:

    • Are rectangular or oval shaped


    • Have lines of longitude and latitude at right-angles to each other
    • Have distortions increasing towards away from the central circular line (the
    'touch point of the paper')
    • Show shapes correctly, but size is distorted.
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    1st Problem:
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    2nd Problem:

    Earth is an oblate spheroid and


    in order to represent its surface as
    a flat map, complex mathematical
    transformations are required.

    Oblate Spheroid

    Y ≈ Z + 21 km
    I) Coordinate references DD-01
    I) Coordinate references DD-01
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    3rd Problem:

    Measurement?
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    3rd Problem:
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    3rd Problem:

    Direction on Maps

    Like distance, direction is difficult to measure on maps


    because of the distortion produced by projection systems.
    However, this distortion is quite small on maps with scales larger than 1:125,000.
    Direction is usually measured relative to the location of North or South Pole
    (rotational poles). Directions determined from these locations are said to be
    relative to True North or True South.

    The magnetic poles can also be used to measure direction. However, these
    points on the Earth are located in spatially different spots from the geographic North
    and South Pole. The North Magnetic Pole is located at 78.3° N, 104.0° W. In the
    Southern Hemisphere, the South Magnetic Pole is located in Antarctica and has a
    geographical location of 65° S, 139° E.
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    3rd Problem:

    Declination is the angle between


    rotational north pole (True North) and
    compass north (Magnetic North).

    The declination changes from


    one region to another it can be east,
    west or none.
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    3rd Problem:

    The Magnetic poles are not


    fixed overtime like rotational
    true poles. They are on
    continuous migration overtime
    considering many comics' and
    terrestrial core factors. Trough
    geological timescale, poles have
    inverted several times.

    The map shows Magnetic


    north pole migration from 1831
    to 2005.
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    3rd Problem:
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    Types of coordinate systems

    There are two common types of coordinate systems used in geographic information
    systems (GIS):

    • A global or spherical coordinate system such as latitude-longitude. These


    are often referred to as geographic coordinate systems.

    • A projected coordinate system based on a map projection such as


    transverse Mercator, Albers equal area, or Robinson, all of which (along with
    numerous other map projection models) provide various mechanisms to
    project maps of the earth's spherical surface onto a two-dimensional
    Cartesian coordinate plane. Projected coordinate systems are sometimes
    referred to as map projections.
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    In the field, the direction is determined by a magnetic compass which measures


    angles relative to Magnetic North. Using the declination diagram found on a map, individuals
    can convert their field measures of magnetic direction into directions that are relative to either
    Grid or True North. Compass directions can be described by using either the azimuth system
    or the bearing system.

    The azimuth system calculates


    direction in degrees of a full circle. A full circle
    has 360 degrees.

    In the azimuth system, north has a


    direction of either the 0 or 360°. East and west
    have an azimuth of 90° and 270°, respectively.
    South has an azimuth of 180°.
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    The bearing system divides direction into 4 quadrants of 90º (degrees). In


    this system, North and South are the dominant directions. Measurements are
    determined in degrees from one of these directions. The measurement of two
    angles based on this system are described as follow:

    Ex:
    N195° Î S15°W
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    Handheld Global Positioning Systems (GPS). GPS receivers can determine


    latitude, longitude, and elevation anywhere on or above the Earth's surface from
    signals transmitted by a number of satellites.
    These units can also be used to determine direction, distance traveled, and
    determine routes of travel in field situations.
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    The remaining dimension?

    The Altitude
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    The Altitude

    Altitude is calculated based on Mean Sea Level (MSL)


    MSL witch the world
    average sea level and constitutes the reference plan of map projection.
    Iso-values of altitude are computed on a given region and projected on the
    map to reconstitute the topographic map that can give all 3 dimensions values
    (X, Y and Z) of any point.
    I) Coordinate references DD-01
    I) Coordinate references DD-01

    Altitude values can be also


    represented by color scale
    map showing progressive
    color change with increasing
    altitudes.
    II) Depth references DD-01

    RT Î (Top Drive) // RKB Î (Kelly)


    RT (Rotary Table) or RKB (Rotary Kelly Bushing)

    Topographic profile

    RTE

    GE MSL: Mean See Level

    TVDSS TVD
    MD

    RTE: Rotary Table Elevation


    GE (or GL): Ground Elevation (or Level)
    MD: Measured Depth
    TVD: True Vertical Depth
    TVDSS: True Vertical Depth Sub-Sea

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