PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY

ASSIGNMENT

GM CROPS

DEVANJAN CHAKRAVARTY

Contents
Introduction

Gene transfer in nature and traditional agriculture

Types of modifications

Methods

Controversies
Introduction

Genetically modified crops (GMCs, GM crops, or biotech crops) are plants used in agriculture, the
DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods. In most cases, the aim is to
introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. Examples in food
crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, or environmental conditions, reduction of
spoilage, or resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a herbicide), or improving the
nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical
agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.

Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Between 1996 and 2015, the total surface area of
land cultivated with GM crops increased by a factor of 100, from 17,000 km2 (4.2 million acres) to
1,797,000 km2 (444 million acres).10% of the world's arable land was planted with GM crops in
2010.[3] In the US, by 2014, 94% of the planted area of soybeans, 96% of cotton and 93% of corn
were genetically modified varieties. Use of GM crops expanded rapidly in developing countries,
with about 18 million farmers growing 54% of worldwide GM crops by 2013. A 2014 meta-analysis
concluded that GM technology adoption had reduced chemical pesticide use by 37%, increased crop
yields by 22%, and increased farmer profits by 68%. This reduction in pesticide use has been
ecologically beneficial, but benefits may be reduced by overuse.Yield gains and pesticide reductions
are larger for insect-resistant crops than for herbicide-tolerant crops. Yield and profit gains are
higher in developing countries than in developed countries.

There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater
risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-
case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than
scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.] The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by
country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely
differing degrees of regulation.

However, opponents have objected to GM crops on several grounds, including environmental

concerns, whether food produced from GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to address
the world's food needs, whether the foods are readily accessible to poor farmers in developing
countries, and concerns raised by the fact these organisms are subject to intellectual property law.
Gene transfer in nature and traditional agriculture

DNA transfers naturally between organisms. Several natural mechanisms allow gene flow across
species. These occur in nature on a large scale – for example, it is one mechanism for the
development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. This is facilitated by transposons,
retrotransposons, proviruses and other mobile genetic elements that naturally translocate DNA to
new loci in a genome. Movement occurs over an evolutionary time scale.

The introduction of foreign germplasm into crops has been achieved by traditional crop breeders
by overcoming species barriers. A hybrid cereal grain was created in 1875, by crossing wheat and
rye. Since then important traits including dwarfing genes and rust resistance have been introduced.
Plant tissue culture and deliberate mutations have enabled humans to alter the makeup of plant
genomes.

Types of modifications
Transgenic

Transgenic plants have genes inserted into them that are derived from another species. The
inserted genes can come from species within the same kingdom (plant to plant) or between
kingdoms (for example, bacteria to plant). In many cases the inserted DNA has to be modified
slightly in order to correctly and efficiently express in the host organism. Transgenic plants are
used to express proteins like the cry toxins from B. thuringiensis, herbicide resistant genes,
antibodies[56] and antigens for vaccinations A study led by the European Food Safety Authority
(EFSA) found also viral genes in transgenic plants.[58]

Transgenic carrots have been used to produce the drug Taliglucerase alfa which is used to treat
Gaucher's disease. In the laboratory, transgenic plants have been modified to increase
photosynthesis (currently about 2% at most plants versus the theoretic potential of 9–10%).[60]
This is possible by changing the rubisco enzyme (i.e. changing C3 plants into C4 plants[61]), by
placing the rubisco in a carboxysome, by adding CO2 pumps in the cell wall, by changing the leaf
form/size. Plants have been engineered to exhibit bioluminescence that may become a sustainable
alternative to electric lighting.

Cisgenic

Cisgenic plants are made using genes found within the same species or a closely related one, where
conventional plant breeding can occur. Some breeders and scientists argue that cisgenic
modification is useful for plants that are difficult to crossbreed by conventional means (such as
potatoes), and that plants in the cisgenic category should not require the same regulatory scrutiny
as transgenics.

Subgenic

Genetically modified plants can also be developed using gene knockdown or gene knockout to alter
the genetic makeup of a plant without incorporating genes from other plants. In 2014, Chinese
researcher Gao Caixia filed patents on the creation of a strain of wheat that is resistant to powdery
mildew. The strain lacks genes that encode proteins that repress defenses against the mildew. The
researchers deleted all three copies of the genes from wheat's hexaploid genome. Gao used the
TALENs and CRISPR gene editing tools without adding or changing any other genes. No field trials
were immediately planned. The CRISPR technique has also been used to modify white button
mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus).

Methods
Genetically engineered crops have genes added or removed using genetic engineering techniques,
originally including gene guns, electroporation, microinjection and agrobacterium. More recently,
CRISPR and TALEN offered much more precise and convenient editing techniques.

Gene guns (also known as biolistics) "shoot" (direct high energy particles or radiations against[49])
target genes into plant cells. It is the most common method. DNA is bound to tiny particles of gold
or tungsten which are subsequently shot into plant tissue or single plant cells under high pressure.
The accelerated particles penetrate both the cell wall and membranes. The DNA separates from the
metal and is integrated into plant DNA inside the nucleus. This method has been applied
successfully for many cultivated crops, especially monocots like wheat or maize, for which
transformation using Agrobacterium tumefaciens has been less successful. The major disadvantage
of this procedure is that serious damage can be done to the cellular tissue.

Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation is another common technique. Agrobacteria

are natural plant parasites, and their natural ability to transfer genes provides another engineering
method. To create a suitable environment for themselves, these Agrobacteria insert their genes into
plant hosts, resulting in a proliferation of modified plant cells near the soil level (crown gall). The
genetic information for tumor growth is encoded on a mobile, circular DNA fragment (plasmid).
When Agrobacterium infects a plant, it transfers this T-DNA to a random site in the plant genome.
When used in genetic engineering the bacterial T-DNA is removed from the bacterial plasmid and
replaced with the desired foreign gene. The bacterium is a vector, enabling transportation of
foreign genes into plants. This method works especially well for dicotyledonous plants like
potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco. Agrobacteria infection is less successful in crops like wheat and
maize.

Electroporation is used when the plant tissue does not contain cell walls. In this technique, "DNA
enters the plant cells through miniature pores which are temporarily caused by electric pulses."

Microinjection is used to directly inject foreign DNA into cells.

Plant scientists, backed by results of modern comprehensive profiling of crop composition, point
out that crops modified using GM techniques are less likely to have unintended changes than are
conventionally bred crops.

In research tobacco and Arabidopsis thaliana are the most frequently modified plants, due to well-
developed transformation methods, easy propagation and well studied genomes. They serve as
model organisms for other plant species.

Introducing new genes into plants requires a promoter specific to the area where the gene is to be
expressed. For instance, to express a gene only in rice grains and not in leaves, an endosperm-
specific promoter is used. The codons of the gene must be optimized for the organism due to codon
usage bias.

Controversy
GM foods are controversial and the subject of protests, vandalism, referenda, legislation, court
action and scientific disputes. The controversies involve consumers, biotechnology companies,
governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations and scientists. The key areas are
whether GM food should be labeled, the role of government regulators, the effect of GM crops on
health and the environment, the effects of pesticide use and resistance, the impact on farmers, and
their roles in feeding the world and energy production.

There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater
risk to human health than conventional food but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-
case basis before introduction.Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than
scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by
country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely
differing degrees of regulation.

No reports of ill effects have been documented in the human population from GM food.Although GM
crop labeling is required in many countries, the United States Food and Drug Administration does
not require labeling, nor does it recognize a distinction between approved GM and non-GM foods.
The federal government of the United States passed a law that requires labeling regulations to be
issued by July 2018, and allows indirect disclosure such as with a phone number, bar code, or web
site.

Advocacy groups such as Center for Food Safety, Union of Concerned Scientists, Greenpeace and the
World Wildlife Fund claim that risks related to GM food have not been adequately examined and
managed, that GM crops are not sufficiently tested and should be labelled, and that regulatory
authorities and scientific bodies are too closely tied to industry.[citation needed] Some studies have
claimed that genetically modified crops can cause harm; a 2016 review that reanalyzed the data
from six of these studies found that their statistical methodologies were flawed and did not
demonstrate harm, and said that conclusions about GM crop safety should be drawn from "the
totality of the evidence... instead of far-fetched evidence from single studies".