GENETIC ENGINEERING – According to Smith (n.d.

), Genetic Engineering – also known as Genetic

Modification – is a process where an organism’s DNA is altered through the use of laboratory-based
technologies. This could entail altering a single base pair (A-T or C-G), removing a region of DNA, or
adding a new segment of DNA.

Additionally, according to an article titled “Gene Therapy and Genetic Engineering,” agriculture
has already made considerable use of genetic engineering to enhance organisms. This can be seen
primarily in genetically modified (GM) crops – also known as GMOs, or genetically modified organisms.
Apart from that, human growth hormone, human insulin, a blood clotting protein, and other medications
are now produced by genetically modified bacteria and other microorganisms. It is further stated that the
number of these compounds may rise in the future (Gene Therapy and Genetic Engineering - MU School
of Medicine, n.d.).

I. Artificial selection (early genetic engineering) – It is the process by which people identify desirable
qualities in plants and animals then take action to improve and maintain those traits in subsequent
generations. Artificial selection functions in the same way as natural selection, with the exception that in
natural selection, decisions are made by nature rather than by humans (Artificial Selection, n.d.).

A. Selective breeding – The great majority of crop species were developed by humans using conventional
breeding techniques applied to naturally occurring, wild plants. These methods depend on selective
breeding, also known as artificial selection, which is the reproduction of organisms with desired features
with the assistance of humans (Ha & Schleiger, n.d.).

B. Hybridizations – This refers to Another technique used in selective breeding. It is a process where two
organisms with unlike characteristics are crossed to produce the best in both organisms. Genetically
related parents breed together through hybridization, which can happen to both plants and animals and
produce a hybrid type (Artificial Selection: Definition, Characteristics, Experiments, 2022).

C. Inbreeding – In this method, mating takes place between directly related species for genetically
improved plants and animals. Children are more likely to experience issues because recessive genes are
more likely to cause genetic abnormalities than dominant genes. Due to inbreeding, animal or plant health
is more at risk, and it also narrows the gene pool and drives certain lines extinct. The basic goal of
inbreeding (which is another form of selective breeding) is to preserve the desired traits of the parents in
the offspring (Artificial Selection: Definition, Characteristics, Experiments, 2022).

II. Recombinant DNA technology – It is the process of creating artificial DNA by combining genetic
components (DNA) from various sources. The term genetic engineering is commonly used to refer to
recombinant DNA technologies (Recombinant DNA Technology- Tools, Process, and Applications, n.d.).
Applications of recombinant DNA technology

1. Scientific applications – Among its scientific applications include the creation of vaccinations and
protein medicines such human insulin, interferon, and growth hormone. It is also employed in the
development of gene therapy and the production of clotting factors for the treatment of hemophilia
(Genetic Engineering Is Key to Drug Discovery and Production, n.d.).

2. Diagnose genetic disease – Recombinant DNA technology has rapidly expanded our ability to
diagnose diseases. In fact, according to Caskey (1987), it has been widely applied to the difficulty of
identifying molecular defects in humans that cause acquired infectious diseases, somatic mutations linked
to neoplasia, and heritable diseases.

3. Recombinant DNA techniques can be used to for genetic fingerprinting identification – Matching DNA
molecules to one another for identifying purposes has been made feasible by the development of retrieval
techniques and the use of DNA probes. This process – utilized in a forensic procedure – is called DNA
(Recombinant DNA and Biotechnology, n.d.).

4. Agricultural Applications - Recombinant DNA is widely used in agriculture to create genetically

modified organisms, which aid in the production of genetically modified crops. The great majority of
foods on the market today are genetically engineered. Global food productivity has grown thanks to
recombinant DNA, and farmers are using fewer pesticides and herbicides (R. Verma et al., 2022).

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5. Nanotechnology – Transgenes and nanoparticles interact directly with the elements of the
agroecosystem when recombinant DNA technology and nanotechnology are applied. Superweeds with
increased invasiveness are created when transgenes from transgenic plants escape and infiltrate wild plant
species (Guleria & Kumar, 2018).

6. Therapeutic Applications – This technique makes it possible to generate essential proteins in a safe,
cost-effective, and sufficient amount for dietary needs and health issues. Furthermore, genetic alterations,
gene therapy, and recombinant DNA technology are frequently applied in the bioremediation and
treatment of critical diseases (Khan et al., n.d.).

Safety Issues and Ethics of recombinant DNA technology – Although Recombinant DNA technology
has significant contributions to health care, it also involves certain safety and ethics issues which include:
(1) Gene Pollution of the environment resulting in superweeds (antibiotic-resistant microbes); (2) Health
effects of foods from GMOs; (3) Allergenicity/adverse immune reactions/effectiveness of pharmaceutical
compounds produced using rDNA technology; (3) Risks in gene therapy (Vaishnav & Demain, 2009).

III. Genetically modified organisms – These are animals, plants, or microorganisms that have had their
DNA altered by genetic engineering. While genetically modified plants are frequently found in today's
food supply, genetically engineered animals are primarily used for research purposes (Genetically
Modified Organisms, n.d.).

A. Transgenic plants or crops and examples – Transgenic plants are those that have acquired desirable
and essential traits. Transgenic plant technology has been crucial in reviving the already overburdened
agriculture industry. The first transgenic plant to hit the market was the "Flavr Savr" tomato, created by
Celgene. Despite its economic failure, this crop helped to create additional transgenic plants like Bt
cotton, Bt brinjal, and Golden rice (Transgenic Plants - Unacademy, 2022).

B. Transgenic animals and examples - The term "transgenic animals" refers to animals with modified
genomes. To change an animal's DNA, a foreign gene is put into its genome. The goal of this technique is
to enhance the target animal's genetic characteristics. Examples of transgenic animals include Dolly Sheep
and Transgenic Mice (Transgenic Animals - Methods, Examples and Applications, n.d.).

“Knock-out” Technology – In the context of genomics, a knockout is an organism that has had one or
more particular genes removed or rendered inactive through genetic engineering. In order to investigate
the effects of deleting a gene from an organism, scientists develop knockout creatures. This frequently
enables them to get insight into the function of the deleted gene (Morris, n.d.).

“xenotransplantation” – This refers to the use of non-human cells, tissues, or organs to treat human
medical diseases. Xenotransplantation is an experimental treatment which is only permitted in the most
extreme and uncommon circumstances (Xenotransplantation, n.d.).

Advantages/Benefits of GMO

1. Crops – Among the numerous possible benefits of GM crops is the use of fewer environmentally
hazardous pesticides (or insecticides) and increased agricultural production. There are significant
environmental benefits to using fewer chemical pesticides and highly toxic herbicides, such as reducing
farm runoff that might otherwise contaminate water systems (The Benefits of Genetically Modified Crops
—and the Costs of Inefficient Regulation, n.d.).

2. Animals - Genetic engineering of animals provides answers for raising quality of life and public health.
They can be employed as model organisms in research on illnesses, therapies, immunizations, and
chemical toxicity. The benefits encompass improving food production, lowering environmental impact,
improving human health, maximizing animal welfare, and creating innovative industrial uses. Both the
quantity and quality of milk, meat, etc., produced can be enhanced by them (Discuss the Advantages of
GMO - Biology Q-A, n.d.; Genetically Engineered Animals: Frequently Asked Questions - BIO, n.d.).

3. Environment – Even though modern living has resulted in a significant increase in emissions from
transportation and building, genetically modified farmers are actively addressing climate change through
sustainable farming methods. Farmers can minimize potentially hazardous things like carbon emissions

2
while conserving natural resources like water by growing genetically modified crops. Farmer cultivation
of genetically modified crops can help guarantee that people have access to food while maintaining the
planet as a healthy habitat for all living things (Becker, 2017).

4. Society – GMOs help keep food production costs down, which benefits consumers by requiring fewer
pesticides, land, and water. Food crops including corn, soybeans, and sugar beets can now be purchased
for as little as 15–30% less thanks to genetically modified agriculture. Additionally, GMOs have
contributed to feeding the world's population of 7 billion people, of which 1 in 8 suffer from hunger and
malnutrition, as well as more than 300 million Americans (BENEFITS OF GMOS, 2017).

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 Controversies on GMO
1. Safety – The biggest threat caused by GM foods is their potential for negative physiological impacts on
humans. Consuming these genetically modified foods is thought to increase the risk of developing
antibiotic-resistant illnesses. Since the consequences on health are unknown, many choose to avoid these
foods (Bawa & Anilakumar, 2013).

2. Access and Intellectual Property – Similar to other biotechnology domains, intellectual property rights
are anticipated to be crucial in guaranteeing financial and intellectual returns for the investments that
enable the research and advancements. The idea that too broad intellectual property rights shouldn't be
granted is crucial when it comes to inventions and discoveries made as a consequence of genomic
research and other biotechnology-related uses (Sciences et al., 2000).

3. Ethics - Since they consider this to be an unnatural kind of food production, many religious and
cultural societies are against these kinds of foods. Additionally, a lot of people find it uncomfortable to
think that DNA from animals could be transferred to plants and vice versa (Bawa & Anilakumar, 2013).

4. Labeling - Manufacturers do not disclose on the label that foods are created by genetic manipulation
because they believe it would negatively impact their business, which is undeniably a bad practice (Bawa
& Anilakumar, 2013).

5. Society - Experts believe that as demand for these foods rises, developing nations will become more
dependent on developed nations as it's possible that in the future, these nations will control food
production (Bawa & Anilakumar, 2013).

6. Environmental Risk – GM plant contamination has detrimental effects on the environment, the
economy, and society. Organic farming, non-GM crops and foods, and wild and weedy crop relatives are
all at risk from the gene flow from GM crops. Canada has seen instances of GM canola, flax, wheat, and
pig escapes (Environmental Impacts | CBAN, n.d.).

7. Threat to biodiversity – Certain genetically modified crops may have detrimental effects on ecosystems
of soil and water as well as non-target creatures. For instance, a large portion of the monarch butterflies’
habitat in North America has been devastated due to the spread of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant
corn and soy (Environmental Impacts | CBAN, n.d.).

IV. Cloning – It is the technique used by scientists to create exact genetic duplicates of living creatures.
Among the things that can be cloned are genes, cells, tissues, and even whole animals (Cloning, n.d.).

Applications of Cloning
1. Cloning is a procedure that produces proteins, vaccines, and antibiotics (What Is the Application of
Cloning-, n.d.).

2. Cloning is used in agriculture to produce plants that are resistant to pests (What Is the Application of
Cloning-, n.d.).

3. Cloning is also utilized to create transgenic animals and for gene therapy (What Is the Application of
Cloning-, n.d.).

4. Through livestock cloning, desirable traits such as quick development and abundant milk production
can be replicated without the genetic "lottery" and mixing that occur during sexual reproduction (What Is
the Application of Cloning-, n.d.).

5. It allows an animal with a certain genetic alteration to reproduce more quickly than it would through
regular mating (What Is the Application of Cloning-, n.d.).

3 Types of Cloning
1. DNA (gene) cloning – This refers to the creation of copies of genes or segments of DNA (National
Library of Medicine, n.d.).

2. Therapeutic (stem cell) cloning – The goal of therapeutic cloning is to use cloned embryos so that stem
cells can be extracted from them without ever placing the embryos in a womb. Therapeutic cloning made
it possible to cultivate stem cells that are genetically similar to a patient (Rugnetta, 2024).

4
3. Reproductive (organism) cloning) – This refers to the creation of copies of whole animals. It is the
process of cloning an embryo and implanting it into a real or artificial uterus. The fetus grows from the
embryo and is eventually carried to term (National Library of Medicine, n.d.; Rugnetta, 2024).

Two techniques:
a. Embryo splitting – One of the most recent advancements in reproductive biotechnology is embryo
splitting. Using this technique, embryos can be divided into 2-, 4-, or even 8-cell stages, allowing each
blastomere to develop independently while maintaining genetic homogeneity (Rahbaran, et al., 2021).

b. Somatic cell Nuclear transfer (SCNT) – The transfer of a somatic cell's nucleus to an egg cell is known
as somatic cell nuclear transfer. The procedure involves taking out the nucleus of a somatic cell and
inserting it into an unfertilized egg that has already had its nucleus removed. After being nourished and
allowed to split, the egg with its donated nucleus develops into an embryo. After that, the embryo is
implanted into a surrogate mother, where it grows (Bailey, 2021).

V. Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine – A stem cell line is a collection of cells grown in a
laboratory that are all descended from a single initial stem cell. Using stem cells or their derivatives, stem
cell treatment, commonly referred to as regenerative medicine, enhances the healing response of
damaged, diseased, or malfunctioning tissue. It is the next stage of organ transplantation, using cells
rather than the few donor organs (Stem Cells: What They Are and What They Do, n.d.).

Two types of stem cells

1. Embryonic Stem Cells (ESC): received from: inner cell mass (ICM) of the developing blastocyst stage
embryos five to eight days after fertilization. In vitro, embryonic stem cells (ESCs) can proliferate
indefinitely and are regarded as an immortal epiblast derivative. They can be kept at a natural checkpoint
in their differentiation process and, given the right feeder cells, can grow into undifferentiated colonies.
This pluripotent phenotype can be sustained forever (Schwartz et al., 2014).

2. Adult Stem Cells (ASC): can be received from: different tissues of the body including bone marrow,
blood, fat, dental pulp, placenta, liver and brain. The therapeutic potential of adult stem cells is enormous
for a wide range of medicinal uses (Thirumala et al., 2009).

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Potential of Stem Cells – Stem cells have the potential to be developed into new tissue for use in
regenerative and transplant therapy (Stem Cells: What They Are and What They Do, 2022).

1. Totipotent (total): Totipotent (omnipotent) stem cells can differentiate into extra-embryonic cells (the
placenta) and any of the 220 cell types present in an embryo (MacDonald, 2023).

2. Pluripotent (plural): All of the body's cell types can be produced by pluripotent stem cells, with the
placenta being an exception (MacDonald, 2023).

3. Multipotent (multiple): Within a certain lineage, multipotent stem cells can differentiate into a
restricted range of cell types (MacDonald, 2023).

4. Oligopotent: Oligopotent cell lines can differentiate into a relatively limited number of different kinds
of cells, which include the lymphoid system's cells, myeloid cells, B cells, T cells, plasma cells, NK cells,
and others (Oligopotent Cell Potency, Differentiation and Classification, 2023).

5. Unipotent: An even more specialized form of stem cell than multipotent stem cells are called unipotent
stem cells. Unipotent stem cells can only differentiate into one type of specialized cell and have very
limited differentiation ability. Usually, they are connected to the particular regrowth of a certain kind of
tissue or organ (Unipotent Stem Cells Clinisciences, n.d.).

VI. The Human Genome Project

The Human Genome Project was a large, well-organized, and highly collaborative international
effort that produced the first human genome sequence as well as the sequences of several other well-
studied organisms. It was one of the most significant and ambitious scientific projects in human history,
and it was carried out from 1990 to 2003. It was headed by an international team of scientists that wanted
to thoroughly examine every single molecule of DNA, or a genome, in a particular group of animals.

Without the perseverance and dedication of an international consortium of thousands of

researchers, the HGP could not have been accomplished as quickly and effectively. The sequencing of the
human genome involved researchers from 20 separate universities and research centers across United
States, United Kingdom, Germany, France, China, and Japan – which created the International Human
Genome Sequencing Consortium (Human Genome Project Fact Sheet, n.d.; The Human Genome Project,
n.d.).

Aims: In 1988, the Human Genome Project's original objectives were described by a special committee
of the US National Academy of Sciences. These objectives included sequencing the entire human genome
in addition to the genomes of a few carefully chosen non-human animals (Human Genome Project Fact
Sheet, n.d.).

What we have learned from HGP: Soon after it was completed, scientists working on the Human
Genome Project made the entire draft sequence of the human genome available to the public. The
"Bermuda Principles," which outlined the guidelines for the prompt dissemination of sequence data, were
adopted by project researchers during two meetings held in Bermuda. This protocol is the result of those
discussions. This historic agreement is credited with fostering a broader understanding/awareness and
openness to the exchange of data in genomic research, making it one of the most important legacies of the
Human Genome Project (Human Genome Project Fact Sheet, n.d.).

Summary of findings of the Human Genome project: The primary achievement of the project was
sequencing the human genome for the first time, which gave researchers important insights into the
human genetic code and subsequently advanced medical research and biology (The Human Genome
Project, n.d.).

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