Overview of Genetic engineering

Genetic engineering is the act of modifying the genetic makeup of an organism. Modifications
can be generated by methods such as gene targeting, nuclear transplantation, transfection of
synthetic chromosomes or viral insertion. Selective breeding is not considered a form of genetic
engineering.

Genetic engineering deals with the direct manipulation of genes of organisms. Techniques like
molecular cloning and transformation are used to achieve this. With the help of these
techniques, the genetic structures and characteristics of a life form can be altered.

In molecular cloning, a DNA sequence is isolated and its multiple copies are obtained. This
technique is often used in the amplification of DNA sequences. In the transformation technique,
a change is brought about in the genetic structure of a cell by introducing a foreign DNA into
it.

A segment of DNA is a protein sequence. By changing this sequence, different versions of that
protein can be obtained. Until now, genetic engineering has been successfully applied for the
improvement of crops and in the manufacture of medicines to a certain extent. It has been used
in the alteration of genes in organisms to develop improved versions of the species.

How are genetic engineering techniques used to modify crops?

 The most common method is of using a gene gun to introduce genes into plant cells. DNA
bound to particles of gold or tungsten are shot into the plant tissue or cells, under high pressure.
The particles penetrate the cell wall and membranes, DNA separates from the metal and
integrates itself in the plant DNA inside the nucleus.
 In the Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated technique, Agrobacteria introduce their genes
into plant hosts.
 In case of electroporation, DNA enters plant cells through small pores created by electric
pulses.
 In microinjection, genes are injected into the DNA.

Potentials of Modern Biotechnology to combat food insecurity

Genetic engineering to introduce new traits in plants, can lead to increase in their yield, improve
agricultural practices, and improve the nutritional value of food. Plants tolerant to weed killers,
allow farmers to kill weeds without worrying about the crops. The advantages of herbicide or
insecticide-resistant crops are similar. The future of genetically engineering crops could be the
development of edible vaccines. Development of potatoes with edible vaccines for diarrhea,
and cultivation of tobacco with antibodies for dental caries, is in the stage of pre-clinical human
trials.
Out of the three important cereals namely wheat, rice, and corn, wheat was the last to be
transformed genetically. Recombinant DNA techniques were used to create the first transgenic
wheat around the 1980s.
Biotechnology is the term used for genetic engineering in food. As the name suggests, it is a
technology based on biology. It deals with agriculture, medicine, and food science. Before
1971, this term was used in relation with the agriculture and food processing industries.
By the use of genetic engineering, genes can be transferred to a developed variety of crop to
achieve a higher yield. The transfer of genes which impart the characteristic of greater yield, is
critical. But it is also one of the most beneficial applications of genetic engineering in food.
With the help of genetic engineering techniques, certain desirable traits are introduced in crops,
which include pest resistance, improvement in the crop's nutrient profile, or resistance to
environmental conditions and chemical treatments.
An antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant cultivated in 1982 was the first genetically modified
crop. Field trials to produce insect-resistant tobacco plants occurred for the first time in the
USA and France. China was the first country to allow the use of transgenic plants.
Biotechnology can be used to improve the nutritional value of foods. This is indeed an
application of great potential. Along with the improvement in nutrition, a better taste can be
imparted to foods by engineering them genetically. This requires the use of biotechnology to
slow down the process of food spoilage. It can result in the production of fruits and vegetables
that have a longer shelf life. Perishability of foods can be reduced to a great extent, thus giving
a boost to the agriculture and food industry.
Tomatoes were the first food crop with an edible fruit where it was possible to insert genetic
material in the cell's chloroplast and chromoplast plastomes. They have been genetically
engineered to study fruit ripening. Those with an antifreeze gene were developed to make them
frost-tolerant. They were tested to improve their tolerance to cold and drought. They have been
altered to develop resistance to bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis and to improve their nutrient
profile and taste.
Recently, researchers have identified a plant gene called At-DBF2, which when transferred to
tomato and tobacco cells, increases their endurance to harsh soil and climatic conditions. It is
often seen that certain types of soils or climatic conditions in certain regions, are the reasons
for less growth of the crops there. This limitation can be overcome by genes that impart a
withstanding capacity to crops. Similarly, it is good if genetic engineering can reduce the
dependability of crops on fertilizers. It can make the plants tolerant to herbicides and resistant
to harmful insects and pests.
In 1999, the first virus-resistant papayas were commercially grown in Hawaii. The
University of Hawaii started developing a papaya cultivar resistant to Papaya Ringspot virus.
Viral genes encoding capsid proteins were transferred to the papaya genome. The proteins
generate an immune response-like reaction, making the papaya immune or unsusceptible to the
ringspot infection. Genetically modified papayas are approved for consumption in the USA
and Canada, but not in the European Union.
Figure 1 Virus-resistant papayas

Genetic engineering can be used to produce new substances such as proteins or other nutrients
in food. Foods can be genetically modified to increase their medicinal value. Researchers see
edible vaccines as a potential use of genetic engineering in food. This will give rise to
homegrown vaccinations and easily available medicines. The costs incurred in their
transportation and other costs involved will substantially reduce, leading to cost-effectiveness
in medications. Corn has been engineered to produce pharmaceuticals.
Certain corn strains are genetically engineered to introduce desirable traits in them. Cultivars
resistant to glyphosate herbicides were brought into commercial use in Monsanto in the year
1996. This corn variety was called the Roundup Ready Corn. Liberty Link corn variety,
resistant to glufosinate was developed by Bayer CropScience.
Maize has been genetically modified to express proteins from the bacteria Bacillus
thuringiensis, which is poisonous to certain insect pests. This corn variant is known as Bt corn.
Lately, corn varieties resistant to ear worms and root worms have been developed. In 2013,
drought tolerance was introduced into corn. These corn hybrids were known as DroughtGard
and were produced in Monsanto.
Criticism
The darker side of genetic engineering in food is that the processes involve the use of herbicides
and contamination of genes in crops. Horizontal gene transfer and recombination can give
rise to new pathogens. It may introduce virulency among pathogens. If certain resistance genes
spread in the harmful bacteria themselves, we may waste our defences to diseases. By
genetically engineering food, we are in a way ignoring the possibility that transgenic life forms
could be harmful.

Genetically engineered crops may supersede natural weeds. Genetic engineering in food may
prove to be dangerous to other weeds and natural organisms. The self-replication of
genetically modified life forms might render us helpless in controlling their production and
growth.
If not done with great care, genetic engineering can have negative side effects on food. It can
lead to undesirable mutations in genes. It may produce allergies in crops. Moreover, in case
of genetically modified seeds, all of them are identical in their genetic structure. This might
cause a widespread failure of a crop due to a pest attack. Some argue that in refining the
appearance and taste of food, its nutritional value may be compromised.
This makes us realize that the seemingly rosy picture of genetic engineering in food may prove
to be thorny too. Genetic engineering should be used with responsibility. High standards should
be exercised to ensure safety in the genetically engineered foods. The bottom line is that before
we introduce genetic alterations in food, we should have a clear understanding of their dangers.
Failing to understand the negative aspects of genetic modification of foods, may pose a risk to
our health and safety.

Genetically Modified Foods Role Increasing Food Production

In the developing world, 840 million people are chronically undernourished, surviving on
fewer than 8000 kJ/day (2000 Kcal/day). Approximately 1.3 billion people are living on less
than US$1/day and do not have secure access to food. Many of these are also rural farmers in
developing countries, depending entirely on small-scale agriculture for their own subsistence
and to make their living. They generally cannot afford to irrigate their crops or purchase
herbicides or pesticides, leading to a vicious circle of poor crop growth, falling yields and pest
susceptibility. In addition, the world’s population is predicted to double over the next 40 years,
with over 95% of individuals being born in developing countries. It is estimated that to meet
these increased demands, food production must increase by at least 40% in the face of
decreasing fertile lands and water resources. GM plant technologies are one of a number of
different approaches that are being developed to combat these problems. Specifically, studies
are under way to genetically modify plants to increase crop yields, or to directly improve
nutritional content.

Crop yields worldwide are significantly reduced by the action of pathogens, parasites and
herbivorous insects. Two examples of commercial GM crop growth in this area are the insect-
resistant crops expressing the bt gene (from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis) and virus-
resistant GM papaya. The first of these has been particularly successful; in the USA, for
example, insect resistant GM maize is grown over an area of 10.6 million hectares and
comprises 35% of all maize (GM and non-GM) grown in the country. At the laboratory level,
resistance has also been engineered to bacterial and fungal plant pathogens.

A primary cause of plant loss worldwide is abiotic stress, particularly salinity, drought, and
temperature extremes. In the future, these losses will increase as water resources decline and
desertification intensifies. Drought and salinity are expected to cause serious salinization of all
arable lands by 2050, requiring the implementation of new technologies to ensure crop survival.
Although a number of promising targets have been identified in the production of abiotic stress
tolerant GM plants, research remains at the laboratory-based level. An example is the study by
Shou et al. demonstrating that expression of an enzyme in GM maize activates an oxidative
signal cascade that confers cold, heat and salinity tolerance.

Genetically Modified Foods Role in Increasing Nutritional Content

In the developed world the nutritional content of food items is not of major concern, as
individuals have access to a wide variety of foods that will meet all of their nutritional needs.
In the developing world, however, this is often not the case, with people often relying on a
single staple food crop for their energy intake. GM technology offers a way to alleviate some
of these problems by engineering plants to express additional products that can combat
malnutrition. An important example of the potential of this technology is the ‘Golden Rice
Project’. Vitamin A deficiency is widespread in the developing world and is estimated to
account for the deaths of approximately 2 million children per year. In surviving children it has
been identified as the leading cause of blindness. Humans can synthesize vitamin A from its
precursor β-carotene, which is commonly found in many plants but not in cereal grains. The
strategy of the Golden Rice Project was to introduce the correct metabolic steps into rice
endosperm to allow β-carotene synthesis. In 2000, Ye et al. engineered rice that contained
moderate levels of β-carotene and since then researchers have produced the much higher
yielding ‘Golden Rice 2’. It is estimated that 72 g of dry Golden Rice 2 will provide 50% of
the RDA of vitamin A for a 1–3-year-old child.

Golden Rice was developed for farmers in the poorest countries, and from the beginning, the
aim of the scientists was to provide the technology free of charge, which required the
negotiation of more than 100 intellectual and technical property licenses 73). Golden Rice will
be given to subsistence farmers with no additional conditions and is an impressive example of
a health solution that can be offered by plant biotechnology.

Sources
 https://www.nature.com/subjects/genetic-engineering
 https://biologywise.com/genetic-engineering-in-food
 http://www.nature.com/scitable/content/ne0000/ne0000/ne0000/ne0000/25886366/dia
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 https://healthjade.com/are-genetically-modified-gm-foods-safe-to-eat/