Proceedings of The Twelfth (2002) International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference

Kitakyushu, Japan, May 26 –31, 2002

Copyright © 2002 by The International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers
ISBN 1-880653-58-3 (Set); ISSN 1098-6189 (Set)

The “State of the Art” in Composite Material Development and

Applications for the Oil and Gas Industry
By Jeremy C. Price
Halliburton-KBR, Houston, Texas, USA

ABSTRACT weight of structural composites with cars and civil aircraft at 10

percent. Despite this success and the proven benefits that can be
The insurgence of composite materials in offshore oil and gas applied to offshore Oil and Gas development this industry has been
development has been very evident during the last decade after 35 very conservative in its exploitation of these materials. The last
years of satisfactory service in the aerospace and transportation decade has seen a significant effort to commercialize composites in
industries. Offshore production from deeper water depths has offshore environments especially where higher payload capacities are
prompted this effort to enable the selection of composites as an required. This has coincided with the shift to ultra deepwater
economic alternative to standard metallic materials. In particular, developments in depths greater than 1500 feet and provided an array
composite materials are being employed in offshore topside of new generation platform designs where a high strength-to-weight-
components and structures, subsea risers and mooring ropes and ratio is desirable with respect to possible cost reductions. In general,
subsurface tubing/tools. However, successful implementation and reducing the weight of components on a Tension Leg Platform (TLP)
certification requires critical technical issues to be addressed such as by a kilogram leads to two additional kilograms of weight removed
fire and high temperature resistance, durability, reliability, moisture from the rest of the structure (hull, tethers, foundations and piles).
absorption and non-destructive examination etc. Regulatory design Composites provide compelling economic advantages for deepwater
guidelines and acceptance criteria must also be developed in exploration and production, provided they can achieve the required
conjunction with rigorous certification tests and the application of performance and reliability goals. Hence if project profitability is
theoretical composite research to better understand composite enhanced through a reduction in capital cost and/or a reduction in
performance capabilities and characteristics. operation and maintenance cost, while not compromising operational
safety and reliability, then the project drivers are very favorable. In
addition installation and life cycle costs, compared to traditional
KEY WORDS: Composites, oil and gas, technical issues, materials, should be taken into account to complete the cost benefit
performance, qualification, certification. analysis.

To date the performance requirements of the majority of topside

INTRODUCTION composite components have been relatively moderate since standard
glass fiber composites have been able to meet functional
Advanced polymer-matrix composites combine reinforcing fibers requirements. In order for offshore operators to be competitive with
(glass, polymeric, or carbon) with a vinyl ester, epoxy, phenolic or steel components and realize economic benefits, the cost per pound of
thermoplastic resin matrix. Their flexibility enables the development these components needs to be in the $2-5 range. Even though this
of true integrated sections where thickness can be varied to match cost might be higher than respective steel components the economic
discreet stress variations and the fiber mix and orientation can be benefits may be achieved because of their significantly lower weight
tailored to satisfy different structural demands within the same and lower installation cost. For more heavily loaded components such
element. However there are other technical issues that have to be as composite production riser and accumulator bottles, carbon fiber is
resolved, which will be discussed in the following sections. needed to meet the performance requirements. Since carbon fiber is
more expensive than glass fiber, design optimization with hybrid
For almost 40 years composite materials have provided the composites should be considered to reduce cost to the range of $10-
transportation and aerospace industries with the advantages of 20 per pound in order to be competitive with steel components.
lightweight structural efficiency/flexibility and corrosion resistance Composite technology is also expected to introduce changes and
which has provided the additional benefit of cost reduction. This opportunities to revolutionize drilling and downhole operations with
evolution has meant that military aircraft contain as much as 75% by broad applicability and efficiency both onshore and offshore.

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LIMITATIONS AND ISSUES
Furnace tests using the time/temperature curve given in standard
A wide array of technical issues are being addressed to implement ASTM E 119 have been carried out on phenolic grating which
large scale substitutions of composites offshore. These can be broadly performed to the satisfaction of the US Coast Guard when compared
summarized as follows: to carbon steel grating.

• Fire and high temperature performance

• Moisture absorption Durability and Reliability
• Ultraviolet radiation
• Impact resistance Long-term composite material durability is an important issue
• Creep/stress rupture because resins, fibers, manufacturing methods and environments,
• Fatigue expected service life and consequences of failure are severe in oil and
• Reliability/risk gas applications. It is important to determine how the resin and fiber
materials are affected in terms of long-term property degradation by
• Repair
chemicals for drilling/workover operations and downhole thermal
• High-stress design
conditions. In addition, the effect of multiaxial cyclic loading on
• Compressive load behavior degradation and composite performance under complex combined
• Nondestructive evaluation loads in combination with environmental degradation also needs to be
• Joints and joining addressed.
• Residual-stress effects
• Smoke and toxicity An assessment of reliability should consider three broad categories of
• Thick section behavior catastrophic failures:
• Scaling and modeling
• Vortex-Induced vibration • Creep rupture failure due to constant sustained loads
• Sudden failure due to static loads
Some of the more critical technical issues will be discussed in the • Fatigue failure due to cyclic loads
following sections:
For each of these categories the effect of service environment must be
Fire and High Temperature Resistance considered in relation to temperature and chemical exposure.
Accelerated tests are required to determine long-term mechanical
This is mainly an issue in topside applications, including grating, properties based on short-term tests.
Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) piping and structural member
substitution. It has been shown that five-minute hydrocarbon fire Based on these tests a durability-based design methodology should be
resistance in the empty and dry condition is unlikely to be achieved developed that incorporates the environmental effects and various
by GRP pipe without an additional fire protection layer. By failure categories into a life-prediction design tool. As an example, if
surrounding the pipe with two 3 mm layers of ceramic fiber blanket a Weibull distribution is assumed for each of the above failure modes,
encapsulated within a resin matrix it is possible to extend the fire the reliability (R) or probability of survival can be estimated by:
resistance to five minutes with a relatively small increase in cost.
R = exp[- { σ/ α}β ]
Typically, specifications for Glass reinforced epoxy (GRE) or GRP
require the following tests: where α and β are the scale and shape parameters determined
experimentally. For the different failure modes, σ corresponds to
1. Hydrocarbon Fire Simulation Test (normally,IMO Level 3) stress for sudden failure, time to failure for creep rupture and cycles
2. Jet Fire Test (only where jet fire exposure may be a hazard) to failure.
3. Explosion simulation The determination of structural reliability calculations will enable the
selection of safety factors, which should be linked to a specified
safety class.
Phenolic resins have been shown to have considerable potential in
fire sensitive applications such as firewater piping, because of their Fatigue Performance
good high temperature properties, low smoke emission and low flame
spread. An acid cured polysiloxane product was developed and Fatigue performance is particularly important in the design of
utilized on an East-Coast Canadian project but unfortunately composite production catenary riser systems.
problems arose with the product and much of it was subsequently The slope of the fatigue curve generally depends on the material
replaced with copper-nickel because of joining and resin curing system (ie carbon or glass) and the failure mode (ie tensile,
problems. Other resins such as cycloaliphatic amine- cured epoxy compressive or shear). Fatigue life and fatigue crack growth tests
have been investigated for high temperature aggressive service using multi-axial loads need to be conducted for the anticipated
resistance and have shown advantages with respect to water service conditions.
absorption up to 95 degrees C. Other designs incorporate an external
layer of synthetic veil saturated with epoxy resin, which is Different resin systems with both glass and carbon reinforcement
encapsulated in an intumescent fire protective coating and certified to have been fatigue tested under prolonged exposure to seawater and
meet the L3 Fire endurance rating according to IMO resolution A.753 compared to dry conditions. Stiffness monitoring during fatigue
. The liner is double reinforced aromatic amine cured corrosion showed a gradual modulus reduction caused by increasing microcrack
resistant epoxy and density, followed by a distinct transition to a more rapid decline
a continuous angular filament wound 65% minimum glass corresponding to the onset of delamination. Phenolic and polyester
reinforcement or cage, using aromatic cure premium epoxy resin.

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resins exhibit similar wet fatigue performance but the matrix-fiber floating production storage vessel (FPSO), semi-submersible or spar
interfacial strength for the latter is reduced by pre-exposure in system that is subject to wave, current and other platform loading,
seawater. This corresponds to a reduction in the number of cycles to including VIV. VIV analysis and modeling, through research
the transition point. Finally, only in the case of the polyester was projects, for both sheared and uniform current is needed to increase
there a significant effect of water, which significantly reduced the our understanding and refine response prediction capabilities for
allowable strains to a level comparable with those for the phenolic composites.
resin.

The effect of fabrication technique on fatigue properties has also been DESIGN CODES AND REGULATORY ASPECTS
examined for vinyl ester composites Large scale hand contact
molding produces a void content of 4% with some material Design codes are available for FRP piping and pressure vessels but
variability. However laminates produced using a vacuum technique currently codes and standards for Composites in structures are
greatly improved fatigue behavior at high stains ( low cycle) but the currently not available. Guidelines have been published and the
allowable strains for large cycle behavior were similar. anticipated DNV Offshore standard OS-501 “Composite
Components” is in preparation. An ISO Standard for Reinforced
Thermoplastic Pipe (RTP) is also under development. Performance
Non-Destructive Examination based requirements have generally been adopted in which composite
designs meet minimum performance criteria. The performance based
The inherent low density and anisotropic characteristics and guidelines should serve as a recommended practice and standard that
multitude of internal interfaces of composites render many of the defines minimum requirements for design, materials and fabrication.
traditional NDT techniques used for metals less useful. An important This will assist in contractual matters as well as provide cost-effective
aspect of composite use is damage assessment and evaluation. solutions based on complete limit state design with reliability based
standardization of safety factors.
The most common defects in composite materials are planar and
parallel to the surface, which is the most suitable orientation for Composite structures can be divided into sub-structures, which can be
ultrasonic inspection. However, because of the high scattering and related to a safety class and further divided into components. The
high absorption of ultrasonic signals by composites, a lower range of functional requirements, loads and environmental exposure should be
probe frequencies (0.5 to 2 MHz) must be used at the expense of assigned to each component. Loads and environments must be
defect size resolution. For inspecting near the surface a higher described more accurately than for metals, because extreme values
frequency probe is preferred and the pulse echo mode will allow and long term distributions have to be known. (Time dependent
greater depths to be inspected. Also by increasing the probe diameter properties are more critical than static properties). The extreme values
and utilizing higher power a trade off is achieved with spacial are needed for strength calculations and long-term distributions are
resolution. required to evaluate the change of material properties with time.

Studies have been undertaken on carbon-epoxy laminates with Failure modes must be defined for each component in a general
oblique incidence C-Scan ultrasonics and focussed transducers to sense, e.g. leakage and related to specific failure mechanisms such as
determine if changes in tensile properties can be determined after low fiber failure etc. Design guidelines should be based on a hierarchy of
level impact loading. A comparison of tensile test data with failure events. Design analysis requires a careful evaluation of the
ultrasonic data revealed that the variation in mechanical properties, link between failure modes and failure mechanisms. Design equations
such as axial stiffness, were too small to be measured. This was a and failure criteria should then be defined for each failure
result of a delamination and matrix disbondment rather than of a mechanism. Defined failure mechanisms are fiber failure, matrix
broken fiber nature. In the tensile mode a discontinuity in the fiber cracking, delamination, buckling, stress relaxation, creep, fatigue,
integrity must be present for the tensile properties to be affected. impact failure, abrasion , wear, yielding, deflections and stress
rupture.
Acoustic emission techniques have proven application for composite
materials and are included in ASTM standards for the testing of GRP
pressure vessels and filament wound pipes. Piezoelectric sensors
operating in the 100-300kHz range are used to detect localized bursts The primary concern of regulatory authorities such as the US Coast
of stress waves produced when loading is applied. Event sources in Guard and Minerals Management Service (MMS) is the level of
acoustic emission can be matrix cracking, delamination, debonding, passive fire safety that composites provide. Typically offshore
fiber pull out, fiber fracture and friction. Cracking of adhesives used platforms are classified into hazardous areas levels. Codes of federal
in jointing and weeping can also be detected. regulations and policy guidelines have been established to address
structural fire integrity characteristics based on location and service.
One of the current more promising NDE methods for composites In particular the requirements for flame spread, smoke and toxicity
involves the integration of fiber optic sensors into structural members testing have been specified for both FRP grating and cable trays.
to monitor strain in-situ.

Vortex Induced Vibration

QUALIFICATION ISSUES
Fatigue failure due to vortex-induced vibration (VIV) with current
exposure to long, slender, cylindrical structures is well known and As mentioned above, structural performance during service life is the
has been analyzed for steel catenary risers. This has been well criteria by which composites are deemed qualified for certain
documented for currents in which the flow velocity is uniform in applications. Testing is required based on various standards to verify
magnitude and direction along the cylinder span. The dynamic performance. Qualification of GRP piping and joints is based on
response of composite risers is particularly important in a TLP, ASTM 2992 with water as the test medium at 65 degrees C. Failure

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points are measured in pressure over a period of time to create a design methodology and experimental databases in the relatively
regression curve up to 10,000 hours. The failure mechanism for GRP thick laminates required for oil and gas structural composites.
in water and hydrocarbon service is by weeping, matrix cracking and
an array of micro-cracks which link together to form a fluid path. The
test results in water therefore translate to hydrocarbon service. Given FUTURE AND CURRENT APPLICATIONS
the long duration of this test short-term controlled burst tests have
been developed to measure the limit of elastic behavior. The Piping Systems
agreement between theory and experiment suggests that this test does
monitor initial matrix cracking. Work is proceeding to establish a link Composite materials for piping systems may be classified as Glass or
between this elastic limit and the lower confidence limit of the fiber reinforced Plastic/Polyester (GRP/FRP), Glass re-inforced
regression curve, which will mean that GRP pipe failure is controlled Epoxy (GRE), Re-inforced Thermoplastic (RTP/RTRP,
by matrix crack initiation. Short-term burst tests are first carried out Thermoplastic or re-inforced thermoset Liners, GRE with
to determine the failure pressure, then the pressure is reduced in thermoplastic liner or steel strip re-inforced GRE.
subsequent tests to develop the regression curve. Firewater Piping

Generally in order to qualify composite products the following steps Most offshore platform designers specify either GRE or FRP for
should be undertaken: firewater systems in accordance with specifications ASTM D2996,
2992,3681,2925,2105 and C851. Typically GRE is made from epoxy
• Define the application envelope in terms of fixed and cyclic resin of the Bisphenol type with an aromatic or cyclo-aliphatic amine
loading, environment, temperature and service life. type of curing agent. Structural glass fiber reinforcement is of the E-
• Determine failure modes and use primary failure mode as glass type with a sizing compatible with the specified epoxy resin.
basis for qualification. Interior surfaces shall have a uniform resin rich lining consisting of
• Determine test procedure and number of tests with respect to chemical resistant C-glass or synthetic fibers such as polyester. The
test severity, pipe is manufactured by winding resin-impregnated continuous
• Select minimum and maximum temperatures of intended fiberglass strand roving onto the outside of a mandrel in a
application. predetermined pattern under controlled tension.
• Consider the inclusion of end fitting and transition joint
qualification tests Piping systems offshore are normally restricted to water service since
• Equate qualification data to intended service conditions. many operators do not permit GRE or FRP products in hydrocarbon
service because of safety concerns during combustible events.

APPLICATION OF RESEARCH Composite Risers

Clearly, as indicated in the sections above there are still many Composite drilling and production riser (CPR) development began
technical issues that will require research funding in the areas of fire over 20 years ago and recent designs have reached the commercial
resistance, VIV, reliability and fatigue to name but a few. The stage for application. In the last five years, several major national and
theoretical predictions from research must be compared to international initiatives on composer risers have been conducted in
experimental evidence and field history data from initial applications the USA, North Sea and South America regions. CPR’s have the
to enable the specification of failure criteria and design specifications. potential for reducing capital expenditure because of their lighter
Deterministic uncertainties in the accuracy of the failure criteria can weight resulting in lower top tension and subsequent reduced
be covered by a partial resistance model factor. buoyancy requirements. Other potential benefits are listed below:

Because of the inhomogeneity, anisotropic and thermal behavior of • Reduced deck loads may allow reduced structural deck
polymer composites, as well as the possibility of low resistance to weight
fatigue fracture, the analysis of their response to loads and • Reducing mooring system and simplified anchorage and
environmental factors are an order of magnitude more complex than foundation
those associated with homogeneous materials. The final mechanical • Reduced coating and maintenance
properties of any structural component depend on the manufacturing • Reduced installation and retrieval costs
method, which requires control of the physical and chemical • Reduced cathodic protection and increased thermal
processes. The variation in properties resulting from manufacturing insulation.
process variation must be taken into account in the design modeling
and qualification process. Current CPR designs consist of thermoplastic and/or metallic internal
and external liners, and several hybrid hoop reinforcement layers in
In particular, until recently failure mechanisms in thick section an epoxy matrix. There is a choice of fiber reinforcement materials
composites (beams, plates and or shells) were not well understood such as carbon, glass, aramid and ultra high molecular weight
and difficult to predict with no effective test methods for polyethylene. The amount of circumferential fiber is determined by
characterization. Such experimental techniques should be sensitive to the shut-in well head pressure, which is equally distributed between
the composite type (laminate, fiber or particle reinforced composites, the inside and outside surfaces of the tube wall to maximize external
for instance). Also the compressive strength of thick-section pressure buckling capability. Low angle carbon helical layers in the
composite structures cannot be measured since they do not scale up CPR provide axial strength and stiffness and E-glass layers at the mid
from smaller test specimens because the micro, meso and macroscale wall increase the stability of the cross section by increasing the
behavior of these materials is not comparable. Multi-axial stress separation distance between the inside and outside circumferential
states and strengths are an important consideration when developing reinforcement.

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Both ABB and Conoco/Kvaerner with Lincoln composites have field continuing on testing the permeation barrier and developing the high
demonstrated composite risers with promising results. temperature resin. Halliburton, in partnership with Fiberspar is also
commercializing composite coiled tubing in well completion, well
workover and pipeline remediation applications. A systematic test

Drill Pipe and Hoses

program is also being conducted to characterize collapse performance
The use of composite drill pipe can reduce drilling torque and rig of various designs.
pick-up tension loads at the well head.
The density of drilling mud is much closer to that of a polymer Reinforced Thermoplastic pipe (RTP) is a relatively new product and
composite than it is to that of steel. This means that deviated drilling consists of a thermoplastic liner, reinforcement and a thermoplastic
operations could benefit considerably by making use of the greater protective outer covering. The liner functions as the fluid barrier and
natural buoyancy of a composite pipe when down hole, thereby adds compressive strength if needed. Aramid fibers are used as the
reducing the required loads and tension loads at the platform. This is reinforcement while Polyethylene is the thermoplastic but can be
not an issue in vertical drilling where the weight of the string is substituted by other materials such as PVDF and poly-ketones (PK).
required to provide “weight on bit”, but in the non-vertical sections of Diameters are available in the range 4 to 10 inch and pressure ratings
deviated wells where additional weight means lost torque. up to 100 bar in a service temperature range –40 degrees C to 60
degrees C. The buried flowlines for 16 inch and smaller pipe on the
Unbonded flexible pipe plays an important role in the drilling service Exxon Chad project are manufactured from RTRP for a design
industry by providing high pressure conduit for early well test and pressure of 4600 kPa.
well stimulation activities.
Typically RTP’s are designed with due consideration for the
following performance requirements over the design life:
Flowlines and Spoolable Composite Piping and Tubing
• Chemical and corrosion resistance to internal fluids
Unbonded flexible pipe has been employed for more than 25 years as • Tensile load
static flowlines and dynamic risers in with fixed and floating • Internal pressure
production systems and has recently been qualified and applied in • Bending
water depths up to 6600 feet. Specifications and Recommended • UV photo-degradation resistance
Practices for bonded and unbonded flexible pipe are included in API • Permeated gases
standards 17B,17J and 17K .An unbonded flexible pipe is made up of
successive thermoplastic and steel layers while bonded flexible pipe
differs in that the steel reinforcement is impregnated with elastomer. The connection mechanism is a vital component in the design of
In order to reduce the weight of flexible pipe, composite materials RTPs. The end fitting or termination must conform to all the design
have been developed as a replacement for the steel tensile armor parameters applied to the pipe and tested as part of the qualification
layers. The degree to which the strength and modulus of a composite process. Wellstreams Halliflow spoolable pipe consists of a corrosion
material approaches 100% of the corresponding filament properties is resistant thermoplastic flexliner wound with a high strength aramid
linked to filament alignment and the integrity of the fiber matrix fiber flextape. An ultraviolet resistant thermoplastic Flexshield
interface. Both epoxy and vinylester thermoset resins, rather than protects the pipe from severe external environments. The product is
thermoplastic, have been used and have provided an efficiency of available in the ID range 75 to 230mm, with a variety of pressure
80% of the real filament properties to the carbon fiber pultruded ratings and a minimum design temperature of minus 50 degrees C.
composite. Testing has shown that this design is able to provide a The high strength polyethylene/aramid fiber tapes are undergoing
very significant weight saving in 3000 meter water depths up to 50% regression analysis to provide qualification data on a 100 mm, 60
increasing the range of water depth, pressure and pipe diameter. degrees C design temperature and 60 bar design pressure.
Development is underway to develop the product to withstand higher
temperatures than 60 degrees C.
Spoolable pipe such as Fiber spar Composite tubing (FSCT) is
available for linepipe applications up to 100 mm ID and is currently Wellstreams Halliflow spoolable pipe consists of a corrosion resistant
undergoing full-scale field trials up to 80 mm diameter coiled tubing, thermoplastic Flexliner wound with a high strength aramid fiber
production tubing and SmartpipeTM . (embedded with data and power flextape. An ultraviolet resistant thermoplastic Flexshield protects the
conductors to obtain well data) applications. Structural property tests pipe from severe external environments. The product is available in
have bee completed at 180 and 225 degrees F. The product consists the ID range 75 to 230mm, with a variety of pressure ratings and a
of a thermoplastic liner, fiber/epoxy matrix and exterior fiber or minimum design temperature of minus 50 degrees C. The high
thermoplastic protective layer. Spoolable linepipe with high-density strength polyethylene/aramid fiber tapes are undergoing regression
polyethylene or cross-linked polyethylene is available in diameters to analysis to provide qualification data on a 100 mm, 60 degrees C
102mm and pressure ratings to 17.2 Mpa at a maximum temperature design temperature and 60 bar design pressure. These flexible pipe
of 82 degrees C. Polyvinylidine difluoride (PVDF) and other polymer products have been put into service in Prudhoe Bay on the North
materials can be used for higher temperatures. Halliburton has Slope. 5.5 inch. 3600psi jumpers were supplied and installed
recently completed the qualification of Fiberspar Smartpipe Coiled successfully to connect welheads to manifolds on drill pads.
Tubing for the Anaconda Advanced Well Construction system. This Development is underway to develop the product to withstand higher
system enables the geological steering of extended reach well paths, temperatures than 60 degrees C.
which were previously unobtainable. Fluid compatibility, structural
property verification and fatigue resistance tests in simulated field
operations were conducted to verify performance and work is

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Mooring Ropes family such as PVDF, ethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene (ECTFE),
fluoroinated ethylenepropylene (FEP), perfluoroalkoxy (PFA) and
There are numerous candidate materials for synthetic offshore others. Liner materials are selected based upon an evaluation of
mooring ropes such as Polyamide/Nylon, PET Polyester, HMPE corrosion requirements at the process temperature, with other
High Modulus Polyethylene (HMPE), aromatic polyamide or liquid considerations such as flame retardancy, mechanical properties and
crystal aromatic polyester. cost. PVC and CPVC are usually bonded directly to the FRP laminate
using a bonding resin, while other thermoplastic liners are typically
PET Polyester has moderate elastic stretch and excellent fatigue life manufactured with an embedded fabric or fiberglass backing. This
with applications for production and drilling platform mooring, backing provides a strong mechanical lock when overlaid with the
anchor handling, pendants and barrier nets. Field tests exceeding two fiberglass structural composite.
years have shown that this materials strength and rope stiffness did The fiberglass structure is applied using either hand lay up or
not degrade or deteriorate in a taut leg mooring system. filament wound techniques.
Polyamide/nylon has the highest elastic stretch and is primarily used
for mooring hawsers and tie-off lines. Emerging uses are heavy lift
pendants and shallow-water mooring systems. Finally HMPE has the Structural Items
highest strength but low stretch with a primary use in dockside
mooring and towing lines. Future uses are Ultra-deepwater mooring, Composite gratings were introduced offshore over 10 years ago and
mooring inserts across pipeline fields and Deepwater heavy lift, with contractor working experience it has been found that the total
anchor handling. installed cost is similar to that of steel grating. With the weight
savings on deepwater projects and quicker installation schedules it is
Currently a study is underway at Halliburton-KBR to investigate the fast becoming the product of choice for this application. In response
suitability of polyester mooring ropes and composite risers, compared to fire safety concerns as mentioned above phenolic grating has been
to steel options, for a Deep Draft Caisson Vessel (DDCV). installed on TLPs such as Mars with over 90,000 square feet
installed. Its use was limited to areas of low fire integrity risk and
forbidden in accommodation areas and lifeboat landings. It has been
estimated that future annual usage offshore could exceed 50,000 tons
TLP Tendons which is still less than 10 percent of platform weight.

The application of TLPs to ultra-deepwater depths greater than 6000 Work carried out to compare steel and composite flare booms
feet is hindered by the limitation of the conventional steel tether concluded that the composite design was the slightly more favorable
system but overcome by a lightweight composite tether system. cost efficient solution and exhibited the same stiffness and lowest
Prototype tethers have been developed based on the use of parallel natural frequency as the steel structure. Safety margins were higher
strands (50-75mm diameter) of pultruded carbon fiber composite rods due to the outstanding specific strength of organic matrix composite
(3-5mm diameter). Static and fatigue loading tests on the rods and material compared to steel and the weight was six times less than the
strands have been carried out to qualify the mechanical performance. steel structure.
When compared to carbon steel the composite tether exhibited
improved fatigue properties. After the completion of hydrodynamic In the North Sea and South America the use of composites has
model testing, full scale offshore testing and demonstration is generally been limited to secondary components or special
scheduled for the summer of 2002. applications. These include:

Pressure Vessels and Tanks. • Gratings, handrails, access structures, ladders

• Fire and blast walls, blast relief panels
The introduction of dual laminate composites with a thermoplastic • Small modules and subsea protection structures
liner and a fiberglass composite exterior have combined the best • Overwrapping of jacket legs for jet fire protection
advantages of thermoplastic corrosion resistance with the mechanical • Strengthening/enhancement of steel structures/blast walls
performance of reinforced thermoset plastics for use in the process • Open drains
industry. The increased mechanical strength of this combination has • Caissons
afforded the opportunity to provide non-metallic pressure vessels as a
• Cable trays
cost saving alternative to nickel based vessels in highly corrosive
• Repairs to piping
service. Accumulator bottles for TLPs are also being manufactured.
Composite tanks are normally specified for applications such as
storage for chemical injection. Construction is in accordance with
ASTM D3299 for filament wound tanks and ASTM D4097 for
CONCLUSIONS
molded types while ASME Section X can be used for large tanks.

1) Progress is continuously being made in resolving the technical

Since 1965 hundreds of thousands of composite pressure vessels have
issues presented in the paper.
been produced, mainly for gas storage in air transport applications.
Typically reinforcement materials are carbon, Kevlar and fiberglass
2) The application of composites in the oil and gas industry
with a variety of resins such as epoxy, cyanate ester, bismaleimide
continues to grow and develop in piping systems, spoolable tubing,
and polyamide. Designs are available to 25,000 psi operating
mooring ropes, tendons, vessels and structural components.
pressures and diameters to 100 inches. The thermoplastic liner
material includes most grades used for manufacturing small plastic
3) More co-operation and linkage is required between Industry and
pipes and equipment such as polyvinyl chloride, chlorinated
research institute composite projects.
polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), polypropylene and the fluoropolymer

130
4) Design codes and regulatory requirements are beginning to
become available for offshore environments.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Mark Kalman of

Halliburton and Dr Marcin Kaminski for their review and
contribution to this paper.

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