Materials considerations for aerospace

applications
R.R. Boyer, J.D. Cotton, M. Mohaghegh, and R.E. Schafrik
Selection of materials systems for aerospace applications, such as airframes or propulsion
systems, involves multiple and challenging requirements that go beyond essential performance
attributes (strength, durability, damage tolerance, and low weight). Materials must exhibit
a set of demanding properties, be producible in multiple product forms, and demonstrate
consistent high quality. Furthermore, they must be both commercially available and affordable.
The list of materials meeting these requirements is not long. Integration and transformation
of such highly engineered materials into airframe structures is likewise complex. The Boeing
747, for instance, requires more than 6,000,000 components from numerous materials
systems and suppliers worldwide. This necessitates that materials be stable and that
material design and structure engineering close on effective solutions simultaneously.
High-temperature turbine engines demand strong, lightweight, high-temperature materials
balanced by high durability and reliability in a severe service environment. Such applications
provide remarkable examples of how engineering imperatives influence materials research
and development for metallic and composite materials in terms of material chemistry, fabrication,
and microstructure.

Introduction be adequate for the near future. The next 20–30 years of
Modern aircraft comprise three major components: airframe, advancements in aerospace structures and engines will be driv-
propulsion, and systems. This article discusses materials and en more by both manufacturing and life cycle cost pressure.
key design and manufacturing considerations for airframe and This is especially true for polymer matrix composites, which
engine structures. The systems component, which provides have yet to benefit from the full potential of automation and often
power, control, and utilities, will not be addressed. rely on significant hand labor during manufacturing. Composites
Airframe materials have seen remarkable evolution from provide significant advantages with regard to weight and
the Wright brothers’ first powered-flight airplane, which was resistance to fatigue and corrosion that should translate into
made primarily of wood and fabric, to modern engineered significantly reduced maintenance costs. However, they also
alloys, primarily aluminum and carbon-fiber-reinforced poly- face some performance-related challenges, such as relatively
mer (CFRP) composites. Selection of materials for airframes low interlaminar strength and toughness, poor durability under
is a complex process that must be accomplished quickly across hot-wet (hygrothermal cycling) and other environmental condi-
a large number of interconnected components that meet the tions, and embrittlement due to ultraviolet (UV) light exposure.
design requirements at the lowest possible manufacturing and Design concepts must be coordinated with manufacturing
maintenance costs. Manufacturing must be done with minimal engineering, tooling, and vendors to confirm their concurrence
environmental impact from both incorporated materials and with the product definition to help ensure fabricability. As a
flyaway materials, such as cadmium, as well as minimal use method of controlling cost and aiding operators with fleets
of rare materials, such as rhenium. that include multiple airplane models, designs should strive
Historically, weight reduction has been a primary motivator for commonality across models.
of innovation in the aerospace industry, driven by safety, per- Similarly, the design of turbine engines emphasizes low
formance, fuel efficiency, and range. Although these factors operating costs, placing a premium on increasing fuel effi-
are important, engine and airframe efficiencies might already ciency and extending the time that an engine can remain

R.R. Boyer, RBTi Consulting, USA; [email protected]

J.D. Cotton, Boeing Research and Technology, The Boeing Company, USA; [email protected]
M. Mohaghegh, Boeing Commercial Airplanes, The Boeing Company, USA; [email protected]
R.E. Schafrik, Materials and Process Engineering, GE Aviation, USA; [email protected]
DOI: 10.1557/mrs.2015.278

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 MATERIALS CONSIDERATIONS FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
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on-wing before extensive maintenance and repair. Airline weight.6 All of these benefits have been realized to vary-
operators often require long-term maintenance agreements, ing degrees as experience accumulates. Disadvantages
10 years or longer, that guarantee such factors as mainte- of composites include higher recurring and nonrecurring
nance costs and engine time on-wing. This requirement is costs, high material costs, isolation requirements for some
driving common materials solutions across engine models, materials (to avoid galvanic corrosion, for instance), and
greater standardization of manufacturing methods, use of ma- lack of electrical conductivity. Also, unlike metals, com-
terials and coatings that enhance environmental resistance, and posite materials can be sensitive to impact damage. The long-
improved materials qualification testing that can better pre- term maintainability and repairability of composites5,7,8 show
dict long-term performance from short-duration testing. promise, but need to be demonstrated for longer service
lives.
Design considerations: Airframes The materials property requirements for airframes depend
The structural design of aerospace vehicles is governed by on the loading, environment, and materials for a particular
both generic regulatory requirements and product-specific component. The fuselage, for example, can be seen as a semi-
requirements defined by government agencies, industry, and their monocoque structure in which other components share the
customers, such as the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA), air- structural role with the skin, which supports the cabin pres-
lines, the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration sure (tension) and shear loads. Longitudinal stringers carry
(NASA), and military agencies.1,2 Most of the requirements the longitudinal tension and compression loads due to bend-
are interdependent, and many are readily quantifiable, but some ing; circumferential frames preserve the fuselage shape and
are less tangible. A successful design will meet all require- transfer floor loads to the skin; and bulkheads handle large
ments while balancing economic and performance objectives. concentrated loads.
Note that this article focuses on commercial and military The wing, in effect, is a beam that supports a bending load
aircraft airframes and engines. during flight.9 The wing supports both the static weight of the
The accident rate of commercial jet transports was reduced aircraft and additional loads due to maneuvering and turbu-
significantly during the 1960s through the combined efforts lence as well as takeoff and landing from the landing gear dur-
of manufacturers, regulatory agencies, and airlines. Although ing taxiing. The upper surface of the wing is primarily under
improvements continued in the 1970s, the rate of accidents compression because of the upward bending moment during
has subsequently been nearly constant. To achieve the indus- flight but can be under tension during taxiing. The stresses on
try goal of dramatically reduced accident rates, the current the lower part of the wing are the opposite.
emphasis on safety must be maintained and even increased. Table II lists examples of the design drivers for the wing
Because both the number of airplanes in service and the num- panel structures. The tail of the airplane, also called the
ber of flights will continue to increase, designers must find empennage, consists of two stabilizers, one horizontal and one
ways to improve structures and methods of detecting damage vertical, and control surfaces, such as elevators and rudders.4
or flaws before they fail to maintain the current low rate of The structural design of the horizontal and vertical stabilizers
accidents. The principal structural design criteria consist of is similar to that of the wing, except that the loads are generally
the core factors described in Table I. lower.

Critical material design criteria Critical considerations for specific aircraft structures
For metal structures, requirements for strength, durability, Each major part of an aircraft involves different considerations.
damage tolerance, fail safety, and so on have evolved over For fuselage design, durability and damage tolerance are the pri-
many generations of airplanes, based on the service history of mary drivers. Fatigue, both crack initiation and growth rate, and
a large fleet. The requirements are largely independent, except fracture toughness are the leading materials attributes. However,
for those regarding durability and damage tolerance. Metal strength, stiffness, and corrosion are also key parameters.
structures have high initial performance, service causes little Wing design is influenced by strength, durability, and
degradation,3,4 and their static strength is not much affected damage-tolerance requirements. For polymer matrix compos-
by fasteners and stress concentrations.3,4 Corrosion can be an ites, fatigue and corrosion resistance are not design drivers.
issue for metal structures, however, as is fatigue under high- Materials properties such as compressive yield strength, stiffness
magnitude cyclic tensile loading, which limits the lifetime of in compression, fatigue resistance, and fracture toughness are
the airframe. key considerations. This is due to ground–air–ground alternat-
Recent designs use increasing amounts of composite ing loads generated during flight.
materials in primary airframe applications.5 Composites The empennage includes both the vertical fin and horizon-
offer benefits including weight reduction, reduced fatigue and tal stabilizers. The fin design is primarily influenced by static
corrosion, lower part count, tailorable strength and stiffness, strength for engine-out conditions, when an engine shuts down.
and more efficient use of materials. The latter is expressed The design loads are compressive loads due to bending. As a
as a lower “buy-to-fly” ratio, which is the amount of mate- consequence, for this section of the aircraft, the stiffness in
rial used to fabricate a part relative to its final machined compression and the yield strength are important material

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 MATERIALS CONSIDERATIONS FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATIONSS

Table I. Critical material design properties.

properties. The design drivers for the
stabilizers are similar to those for the
Design Property Criteria Critical Material Property Property Evaluation
wings except that the loading is generally
Static Strength reversed.
Tension Structure must Fty, Ftu, Fbru, Fty and Ftu for net area Turning to other structures, the require-
remain elastic tension ments for the propulsion structure are gov-
to limit load and
carry ultimate load. OHT, FHT, Fbr Fbru for joint strength erned by strength, fatigue, and damage
For composite tolerance, whereas those for landing gears
Compression Fcy, EC Fcy for short columns
materials, are determined by strength, fatigue, and
manufacturing OHC, FHC, Fbr, CAI (BVID), EC for long columns
flaws and barely
corrosion. Table I shows the relationship
interlaminar toughness
visible impact between the design drivers and the critical
damage (BVID) GIc, GIIc, and panel- materials properties.
must be included. level BVID tests for
composites
Design considerations:
Shear Ftu45, Fty45, Fsu, G Ftu45, Fty45 for thin webs Aeroengines
FHC, OHC Fsu for thick webs Commercial passenger-carrying air-
FHT, OHT G for buckling planes mount the engines in outer cas-
ings (nacelles) that are attached to the
Durability
wing or to the empennage. Wing mount-
Fatigue Aircraft must meet Fatigue strength of open Low-load and high- ing is most common because it offers easy
its design service hole, notched specimens, load transfer-joint
accessibility from the ground and sets
objective with high low-load and high-load coupons data most
level of reliability. transfer-joint coupons; reliable for material the engine at a distance from the cabin so
There is heavy high-load transfer joints, evaluation that engine noise is lessened. However,
reliance on service interlaminar and pull-off
the presence of pylons near the wing can
experience. Critical fatigue for composites
requirement for disturb airflow over the wing and, hence,
Corrosion/ KISCC, SCC, threshold and Heavy reliance on
environment
metal structures increase drag and reduce lift.10 Thus,
and could be a exfoliation A, B, C, D service experience
exfoliation ratings for empennage-mounted engines can be the
design driver for
composite joints. metals; coupon testing for best solution in some cases.
degradation due to thermal The earliest turbine aeroengines, the
and humidity cycling
von Ohain engine, called Heinkel HeS
Damage Tolerance 3B, and the Whittle engine, known as
Crack growth Damage must be Fatigue crack growth, da/dN Inspection interval and Power Jets W.1, first flew in 1939 and
rate used to found before for metals; interlaminar methods based on 1941, respectively.11 Advancements in
determine becoming critical. properties and bondlines analysis validated
inspection For composite under cyclic loading and by test
turbine aeroengines since then have
intervals and materials, structure environment essentially involved improvements in
methods must demonstrate propulsive efficiency, including ther-
no detrimental
growth with
modynamic and aerodynamic efficien-
detectable flaw. cies, and in the materials that enabled
Residual strength higher-temperature performance and
Must carry limit Kc, Fty, elongation, Hc, Kc for low-toughness
load with large composite fracture or wide panels, Fty more efficient airflow within the engine
damage. toughness; Hc, n for high-toughness at high reliability and lower weight.
(residual strength curve) narrow parts; residual
Figure 1 shows a schematic of a large
for wide panels, CAI strength is evaluated
(VID) for local areas at the wide-panel and modern turbine aeroengine. Core air is
structural level mixed with fuel and burned to power the
Weight/Cost high-pressure turbine (HPT) and low-
pressure turbine (LPT). For a two-spool
Minimize within Density, material,
constraints. manufacturing, and engine architecture, the LPT drives the
maintenance costs fan stage and the low-pressure compres-
sor, whereas the HPT drives the high-
Note: CAI, compression after impact; da/dN, fatigue-crack growth rate; EC, edgewise compression; pressure compressor. The combustor
Fbr, breaking load; Fbru, ultimate bearing strength; Fcy, compressive yield strength; Fsu, ultimate shear strength;
Ftu, ultimate tensile strength; Ftu45, ultimate tensile strength at 45° off the longitudinal axis; Fty, yield accepts pressurized air from the com-
strength; Fty45, yield strength at 45° off the longitudinal axis; FHC, filled-hole compression; FHT, filled- pressors, mixes it with fuel, and burns it
hole tension; G, elastic constant; GIc, mode I interlaminar fracture toughness; GIIc, mode II interlaminar before discharging it into the HPT. The
fracture toughness; Hc, composite fracture toughness; Kc, plane-stress fracture toughness; KISCC,
threshold for stress-corrosion cracking; OHC, open-hole compression; OHT, open-hole tension; SCC, bypass air flows around the engine core
stress-corrosion cracking; VID, visible impact damage. and mixes with the core exhaust stream

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Table II. Critical considerations for wing panel design.4

expense of aluminum forgings, with
aluminum use decreased by about half.
Aluminum Wing Carbon Fiber Wing Panels and Spars
Also, ceramic-matrix composites and
Lower Surface Lower Surface titanium aluminides are now being used
Skin (plate) Fatigue, damage tolerance, Skin (CFRP tape) Static strength (tension), in lieu of nickel in selected applications
static strength (tension residual strength in the turbine, although the amount by
and shear) (tension), damage
tolerance (tension
weight is small enough that the usage of
residual strength) nickel alloys has not changed markedly.
Stringer (extrusion)
The use of new materials will increase
Stringer (CFRP tape) Stringer run-out
Interlaminar strength as the need for lighter-weight or higher-
temperature materials continues.
Upper Surface Upper Surface
A crucial aspect of materials usage
Skin (plate) Stability, static strength Spar (CFRP tape) Static strength, buckling, in turbine aeroengines is controlling ther-
(compression and damage tolerance
shear), damage (tension/compression/ momechanical processing conditions to
tolerance shear), CAI (with BVID) minimize material defects. Premium qual-
Stringer (extrusion) Stringer (CFRP tape) Stringer run-out
ity is required for rotating components,
Interlaminar strength which often leads to additional process-
Spars/Ribs ing, such as triple melting of superalloys
Spars/Ribs
and hot isostatic pressing of castings to
Spar Static strength, buckling/ Spar (CFRP tape) Static strength, buckling, close internal pores; tight processing
damage tolerance damage tolerance
(compression/shear/ (compression/shear/ limits; heightened inspection levels; and
tension) tension) detailed record keeping of each process
step. Design engineers do not use aver-
Note: CFRP, carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer; BVID, barely visible impact damage; CAI, compression age properties for their designs; rather,
after impact.
they conservatively use properties three
from the LPT before exiting the engine at the thrust nozzle.13 standard deviations worse than average (i.e., at the minus-three-
Modern engines employ a high-fan-bypass architecture (large sigma [–3σ] level) to account for processing variation. (Material
fan bypass ratio, which is the ratio of the total mass of air properties usually follow a Gaussian statistical distribution,
drawn into the engine by the fan to the mass of the air that flows although some properties, such as fatigue, need to be plotted
through the core of the engine). Earlier-generation engines had on a logarithmic scale to bring out the bell-shaped curve.)
a 4:1 fan bypass ratio, whereas modern engines have more than One approach to improve materials capability for use in tur-
twice this ratio. Primary factors in improved engine efficiency bine engines is to reduce processing variations, thus increas-
are this high bypass ratio and increased efficiency in the turbines. ing –3σ property limits. Material developments that lead to
The distribution of materials in a typical high-bypass engine, increased average property values without appreciably improv-
the CF6 produced by GE Aviation, is shown in Figure 2.14 ing the –3σ property limits do not necessarily result in useful
Newer engine models generally follow this distribution, except improvements. This is the primary reason for the focus with
that polymer matrix composites are increasing in usage at the propulsion materials on understanding the sources and
reducing the amount of material defects and
has been a key motivation for the development
of process modeling.

Materials considerations: Airframes

New alloys and tempers across aluminum, tita-
nium, and ferrous systems have been continu-
ously evolving since the start of the use of metal
structures in aircraft. Although some tailoring
of alloys has been achieved to improve per-
formance, especially corrosion resistance, and
to reduce cost, this has abated to some extent
because of the loss of design acreage to CFRP.
CFRP for major structures first played a sig-
nificant structural role on commercial aircraft
on the Boeing 777 (B777). (The first major use
Figure 1. Modern commercial high-bypass engine. Reproduced with permission from
Reference 12. © 2004 ASM International. was on the Lockheed Martin B-2 bomber.) The
skins and some of the internal structures on the

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 MATERIALS CONSIDERATIONS FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATIONSS

weight on earlier aircraft, but accounts for approximately

15% for new composite-intensive designs. Aluminum alloys
have experienced the largest reduction in use, from approxi-
mately 80% of the structural weight on earlier aircraft to about
25% on the 78715 (see Figure 3).
In the past, many aerospace alloys were developed by
empirical methods. In contrast, integrated computational
materials engineering (ICME) allows researchers to optimize
alloy compositions and thermal processing to achieve nov-
el materials more quickly and at lower cost. Thus, ICME is
Figure 2. Material usage by finished weight in the high-bypass being extensively pursued in research and manufacturing
CF6 aeroengine manufactured by GE Aviation. Reproduced with
permission from Reference 14. © 2001 The Minerals, Metals & facilities worldwide. (See the article in this issue by Xiong
Materials Society. and Olson for an example of the use of ICME in materials
design.)

horizontal and vertical stabilizers were fabricated from CFRP Aluminum alloy development
and have performed well, with low maintenance. That success The primary structural aluminum alloys have been the copper-
convinced Boeing to fabricate virtually the entire fuselage, containing 2XXX alloys (starting with 2024) and the zinc-
wing, and empennage skins and much of the support structure containing 7XXX alloys (starting with 7075). These alloys
of the successor B787 aircraft from CFRP. are still used today. Although these alloys have been modified
This evolution is illustrated by the change in the materials to improve their strength and toughness, the development
distribution of major structures on Boeing aircraft, with the of newer alloys such as 7150 and 7055 along with improved
amount of composite structure increasing with each new model, tempers has resulted in higher strengths and improved corro-
taking a major step with the B777 (Figure 3). With increasing sion resistance.
composite utilization, use of titanium has also increased Figure 4 illustrates improvements in the properties of
because of its galvanic, stiffness, and thermal-expansion 2XXX- and 7XXX-series alloys. Significant strides have been
compatibility with graphite composite and the development of made in improving both the static and fracture properties of
high-strength alloys to compete with steel in landing-gear each alloy. Many of these goals were achieved by reducing the
structures. Titanium accounted for 3–5% of the structural permissible levels of impurities, in particular iron and silicon,
which reduces the volume fraction of coarse second-phase
particles. Because these secondary phases are often the nucle-
ation sites for fatigue damage and fracture, improved purity
levels led to more damage-tolerant variants of the well-known
alloys, for example, alloy 2024 progressed to 2124, 2224, and
ultimately 2524.
Strength improvements were accomplished through improve-
ments in thermomechanical processing, including all elevated-
temperature processing from ingot breakdown, rolling of plate,
forging, extrusion, and so on, plus the final heat treatment.

Figure 4. Evolution of properties improvements in conventional

Figure 3. Distributions of structural materials used on selected 2XXX- and 7XXX- series alloys. Note: ksi, kilopounds per square
Boeing commercial aircraft. inch (1 ksi = 6.9 MPa, 1 ksi in.1/2 = 1.1 MPa m1/2).

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 MATERIALS CONSIDERATIONS FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
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However, the increased use of composites, which have replaced Ti-6Al-4V that is superplastically formable in sheets and,
many of the aluminum applications, has driven the industry to to a lesser extent, plates using standard production methods.
make more significant properties improvements, leading to the Other alloy systems require special chemistries or special pro-
development of more competitive third-generation aluminum– cessing, increasing costs, and do not have the formability of
lithium alloys. Ti-6Al-4V.
First- and second-generation alloys had higher lithium Another area being studied is additive manufacturing, again
contents, which was beneficial in terms of reducing density. to reduce component costs.19 (See the articles in this issue by
Some additional potential benefits of lithium were improved Babu et al. and Bandyopadhyay et al. for more information on
strength, modulus, corrosion resistance, and fatigue and dam- additive manufacturing.) Both powder and wire input stocks
age tolerance. However, not all of these potential benefits were are being evaluated utilizing laser-beam, electron-beam, and
realized, and some of the more significant issues with these plasma-transferred-arc energy sources. Because input stock is
alloys included low short-transverse fracture toughness, high significantly more expensive than wrought forms, the key sav-
anisotropy, and casting challenges. ings would result from reducing the buy-to-fly ratio.
These issues were largely overcome by third-generation Some suppliers have estimated that quite significant cost
airframe alloys, primarily based on the aluminum–copper– savings could be achieved using this technology. However,
lithium system with lower lithium contents, targeting strength one serious challenge is the nondestructive testing (NDT)
improvements with modest reductions in density. Incorporating of additively manufactured shapes. Initial applications will
minor levels of elements such as silver16 and zinc improves likely be for components with large fatigue and crack
both the strength and corrosion resistance of these alloys. This growth design margins. These would not be flight-critical
effort has resulted in improvements in microstructure control and would provide the opportunity for suppliers to demon-
through thermomechanical processing and heat treatment strate that they can provide a product of consistent quality
to provide the improvements required. Advances continue in with on-time deliveries. As development proceeds, suppli-
this alloy class in terms of increased strength, damage toler- ers could develop sufficient fatigue and NDT data to pro-
ance, corrosion resistance, and thermal stability with reduced vide customers the confidence they need to consider this
density. technology for more critical applications. Current studies
on additively manufactured parts are primarily focused on
Titanium alloy development Ti-6Al-4V.
Titanium and titanium alloys did not become production mate- Another potential benefit of additive manufacturing is the
rials until the 1950s, under significant government support. opportunity to vary the material composition at different loca-
Similarly to 2024 aluminum, Ti-6Al-4V was one of the first tions within a part. If higher strength is required in a given
titanium alloys developed and remains the predominant tita- location, for example, but is not desirable over the entire part
nium alloy in the aerospace industry, because of its balanced because of a corresponding loss in fracture toughness, one could
and robust property set. (Numbers in the alloy name indicate modestly increase the oxygen or iron content in that location
the weight percentages of each alloying addition.) In addition, without changing the properties through the rest of the part.
numerous other titanium alloys have been developed over the Powder metallurgy also offers the opportunity to develop
years17 that offer a wide range of properties. Ti-6Al-4V has an materials of much higher strengths than are possible using
ultimate strength level of ∼900 MPa with toughness ranging ingot metallurgy. Many of the most potent alloying additions
from ∼55 MPa m1/2 to well over 100 MPa m1/2, depending on to improve strength are difficult to melt because of segregation
the annealing temperature. Ti-6Al-2Sn-2Zr-2Mo-2Cr used at issues. This might not be an issue with powder products, how-
a strength level of about 1100 MPa has a toughness of about ever, as powder particles cool quite rapidly.
100 MPa m1/2, and Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al at about ∼1240 MPa has a In the United States, performance improvements are being
typical toughness of ∼55 MPa m1/2. pursued through Air Force Research Laboratory-sponsored
At present, most alloy development for airframe materials is Materials Affordability Initiative (MAI) programs. These are
focused on cost reduction, with relatively few dollars going research collaborations with industry through which each
toward performance improvements. An effort that has been company commits funding to pursue common goals. One such
pursued successfully at Boeing is the development of fine- initiative is alloy additions to alloys such as Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-
grain Ti-6Al-4V to enable a reduction of the superplastic- 2Mo and β-21S (Ti-15Mo-3Al-2.7Nb-0.25Si) to improve the
forming (SPF) temperature by about 110°C to about 775°C, elevated-temperature and creep strengths with a concomitant
and a reduction of the SPF/diffusion-bond temperature as well. increase in oxidation resistance.
The resulting reductions of the allowable processing tem-
peratures has several significant advantages, such as a large Ferrous alloy development
increase in die life, a decrease in surface contamination, and In general, steels offer the highest strengths for commercial
much greater comfort for the operators who must transfer the metallic structures and span a limited number of applications
sheets into and out of the press upon completion of forming.18 in aircraft such as landing gear, flap tracks, actuation compo-
Titanium is the only structural material with an alloy such as nents, and systems. The highest-tonnage ferrous alloy used for

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 MATERIALS CONSIDERATIONS FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATIONSS

airframes is the 4340M (or 300M) alloy, also referred to as stainless-steel-type alloys: (1) Ferrium S53 (AMS 5992) has
a high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steel. This alloy is used at a minimum tensile strength of 1930 MPa, matching that of
a minimum tensile strength of 1930 MPa with a toughness of 300M, with better corrosion resistance than the latter alloy.
∼60 MPa m1/2. This chromium–molybdenum steel alloy was This was the first ICME-designed and qualified alloy to fly
used for most of the landing-gear structures prior to the 1990s. (in December 2010), when it was used on landing gear on the
For new commercial aircraft designs, β-titanium alloys have Northrop T-38 aircraft. (2) Ferrium M54 steel (AMS 5616) was
replaced steels in many of these applications. designed as an ultrahigh-strength and high-fracture-toughness
Since about 2000, landing-gear structures for US Navy steel (minimum value of 110 MPa m1/2) with high resistance to
aircraft have had to meet a minimum fracture toughness stress–corrosion cracking. M54 has been qualified by the US
of 110 MPa m1/2. This requirement resulted in the develop- Navy for safety-critical hook shanks on the T-45 trainer and is
ment of AerMet 100 by Carpenter Technology Corporation in production for future spares.22
(Carpenter), which meets the 1930 MPa ultimate strength Two ultrahigh-performance carburizable steels have also
requirement with a minimum toughness of 110 MPa m1/2. This been designed to replace AISI 9310 and Pyrowear alloy 53
is not a stainless steel; it has corrosion characteristics simi- because of their higher strength, toughness, surface hardness,
lar to those of 300M, but with a minimum toughness about and fatigue and temperature resistance. Ferrium C61 (AMS
twice that of 300M.20 It is used for applications such as 6517) has a typical ultimate strength of 1655 MPa and is being
the main landing gear on F-18, F-22, and F-35 fighters and qualified for the transmission shafts of Boeing’s Chinook
the arrestor hook on the F-35. Carpenter also developed helicopter upgrade, allowing for increased power density with
AerMet 310, which has the capability of being heat-treated the existing geometry. Ferrium C64 (AMS 6509) is a higher-
to over 2000 MPa, still with a toughness superior to that of hardness alloy that is being qualified for future helicopter
300M. Although the improvements in mechanical properties transmission-gear steels across the US Army and Navy.22
significantly improved performance, the lack of stainless Utilization of nickel-based alloys on commercial airframes
corrosion properties limited applicability because of custom- has been minimal; they are included in the miscellaneous
ers’ desires to reduce maintenance. category in Figure 3. Inconel 625 is used, mostly as a sheet-
Corrosion is a significant issue for steel landing-gear struc- type product, in the annealed condition at a minimum tensile
tures. About every 7–10 years, the landing gear must be removed strength of 827 MPa at temperatures of about 700°C and
from the aircraft and cleaned. Specifically, cadmium and chro- sometimes slightly higher, primarily for plug and nozzle appli-
mium plating must be chemically removed and the landing gear cations in the engine exhaust area. (This section of the air-
refurbished to remove any rust or pits, after which the part is craft is separate from the engine propulsion unit and contains,
reassembled. This takes considerable time, effort, and expense, shapes, and directs the engine exhaust plume.) It is also used
compounded by the loss of aircraft service during maintenance. for brackets and high-temperature ducts. Inconel 718 is used
Stainless steels are also used on airframes, and their usage in the solution-treated and aged condition at a tensile strength
has been increasing since about 2000 with the development of of 1240 MPa in the nacelle area at temperatures up to 650°C.
higher-strength grades. A driving force for their development It is also used for high-strength fasteners at minimum tensile
is an interest in extending the time required between refur- strengths of 1520 MPa. The primary product forms are sheet,
bishments of the landing gear. These alloys have high nickel high-pressure ducts, and bar.
and chromium contents, providing good corrosion resistance.
Alloys such as 15-5PH (precipitation hardening) and PH13- Composites development
8 stainless steel alloys provide corrosion resistance, but their All of the potential benefits of using structural composites
strength until recently was limited to approximately the 1035– as an alternative to metallic structures have been attained in
1520 MPa range. Carpenter developed Custom 465 as part of varying degrees, based on experience with composite materi-
an effort to achieve higher-strength stainless steels that can als in aircraft. However, there are two open issues affecting
be heat-treated up to the 1930 MPa strength level as a direct composite material selection: (1) overall cost trends and (2)
replacement for 4340M. This would mitigate the corrosion issue long-term maintainability and repairability.
and eliminate the need to use undesirable cadmium for corro- The first composites used were “wet-layup” composites
sion protection. At this stage, Carpenter’s Custom 465 has been that impregnated dry fiber with polyester resin (much like for
heat-treated to ultimate tensile strengths of ∼1655–1795 MPa boats). These wet layups required high skill levels and,
with the performance of a “true” stainless steel. The resulting once the resin was mixed, a short-fuse process. The Boeing
parts have been used by major aircraft manufacturers world- Stratocruiser long-range airliner achieved a 20% weight
wide for applications such as torque tubes, pneumatic cylinders, savings over metal ducting by using a fiberglass composite.
braces, struts, fuse pins, and flap tracks. Carpenter also reports Supplier pre-impregnated fabrics (called prepregs) that pro-
making progress on a new stainless steel alloy, Custom 565, that vided consistent resin content and eliminated the messy pro-
can be heat-treated to very close to the 1930 MPa target.21 cess of wet layup were first used in 1961. The B727 aircraft
Using an ICME approach (see the article in this issue by utilized a first-generation fiberglass-reinforced cured epoxy
Xiong and Olson), QuesTek Innovations developed two new composite for radomes and fairing panels. The B737 aircraft

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 MATERIALS CONSIDERATIONS FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
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used both a first-generation fiberglass-reinforced 175°C-cure The success here then led to utilization of CFRP for wing,
epoxy in the hot areas and a second-generation fiberglass- empennage, and fuselage skins for the B787.
reinforced 120°C-cure epoxy (rubber-toughened/self-adhesive) Other types of composites are also being evaluated.
on radomes, fairings, and control-surface cover panels, mainly Titanium–graphite is a combination of titanium foil (Ti-15V-
with a honeycomb core. The B747 used similar materials in 3Cr-3Al-3Sn) and carbon-fiber epoxy, which improves the
similar applications on a much larger scale. The progression impact resistance and bearing strength of the laminate. Another
of composite development at Boeing is shown in Figure 5. fiber-reinforced polymer–metal composite is a combination
The introduction of carbon fibers in commercial aircraft of aluminum sheets and glass fiber/epoxy. The fiberglass
came about as a result of a NASA program (1975–1985) in col- improves the crack-growth (damage-tolerance) performance
laboration with Boeing, McDonnell Douglas, and Lockheed, of the aluminum.
called the Aircraft Energy Efficiency (ACEE) Program, to As a general rule, composite parts are lighter than their
design and fabricate CFRP parts. Among the parts manu- aluminum counterparts, but their costs have historically been
factured through this program were B737 spoilers; a B727 significantly higher. One way to offset this disadvantage is
elevator; and a B737 horizontal stabilizer torque box, where to reduce the part count. Composites provide the capabil-
the latter was the first primary structure made from CFRP ity to bond many smaller parts into a more monolithic struc-
by Boeing. The service experience for these parts was excel- ture, which reduces the number of fasteners. If done properly,
lent, with the horizontal stabilizer torque boxes still in com- the cost of the resulting monolithic part is less than that of
mercial service. fabricating and assembling multiple parts to form a metallic
The success of this effort led Boeing to employ CFRP on structure.
the B767 aircraft using the concepts developed through the
NASA program. The inboard ailerons, elevators, and rudders Materials considerations: Aeroengines
used the same material and design as the ACEE B727 elevator, Traditionally, turbine-engine fan blades have been made from
which used a standard-modulus carbon fiber with an untough- titanium, usually forged Ti-6Al-4V, attached to a forged tita-
ened 175°C resin cocured with aramid paper honeycomb core to nium disk that is also typically Ti-6Al-4V. This alloy has an
make panelized skins, spars, and ribs that were bolted together. excellent balance of mechanical properties, including ultimate
The B737 spoilers and outboard ailerons fabricated within tensile strength, ductility, and fatigue resistance, and can be
the NASA program were made from polyacrylonitrile-based readily forged, heat-treated, and machined. Smaller-diameter
standard-modulus (220 GPa) carbon fibers reinforced with engines use solid titanium blades, whereas larger-diameter
120°C- and 175°C-cure epoxy matrixes. This yielded a full- engines use hollow titanium blades that can be made by an
depth aluminum honeycomb core with precured skins bonded SPF/diffusion bonding process.
secondarily. Large engines, which can have fan blades with lengths
The B777 empennage and floor beams were fabricated well in excess of 1 m, can be made from polymer matrix com-
using intermediate-modulus (290 GPa) carbon-fiber prepregs posites (PMCs), usually carbon fiber in a toughened epoxy
for primary structure. In addition to the higher modulus, matrix. These composite blades, such as those on General
these prepregs had significantly better impact resistance. Electric’s GE90 engine (which powers B777 models up to the
B777X), GEnx engine (which powers the B787), and GE9x
engine (which powers the B777X), are lightweight and stiff
and exhibit superior fatigue life.23 PMC blades typically have
a bonded leading edge of Ti-6Al-4V or steel to allow the blade
to sustain a bird-ingestion event without catastrophic failure.
Higher-strength titanium alloys are sometimes employed for
fan disks if greater fatigue capability is desired or higher inlet
air temperatures are expected. In these cases, alloys such
as Ti-6Al-2Mn-4Zr-2Sn are considered even though they
are heavier and more challenging to process because of their
complex chemistry and higher strength. Fan cases are typi-
cally produced from cast aluminum 2219 or stainless steels,
but more recent engines have employed PMC fan cases for
weight savings, added stiffness, and corrosion resistance. The
low-pressure compressor also uses titanium alloys for airfoils
Figure 5. Timeline of composites development on Boeing and disks, including the workhorse Ti-6Al-4V.
aircraft. Note: CFRP, carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer; GRP, The aft portion of the high-pressure compressor oper-
glass-reinforced plastic; ACEE, Aircraft Energy Efficiency; ates beyond the temperature capability of titanium alloys, and
B, Boeing; DC, Douglas Commercial; MD, McDonnell Douglas;
NG, Next Generation. thus, nickel-based superalloys are employed, although higher-
strength and higher-temperature-capable titanium alloys such

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 MATERIALS CONSIDERATIONS FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATIONSS

as Ti-17 and Ti-6Al-2Mn-4Zr-2Sn (Ti-6-2-4-2) are used for weight savings with no detriment in properties; a portion of
the cooler early forward stages The temperatures in the rear the weight savings is due to the smaller-sized disk required
stage of the high-pressure compressor in a modern engine with to carry the weight of the blades.30 The disks and casing are
a high compression ratio can require cast superalloys for creep typically a nickel superalloy such as alloy 718 or Waspaloy.
resistance and powder superalloy disks for high-temperature Looking to the future, the need for improved materials and
creep and fatigue resistance.24 processes that enable further developments in propulsion sys-
The outer case of the combustor must resist high tempera- tems will continue unabated, with an imperative to reduce the
tures and high pressures from the combustion of jet fuel. It is time to develop, qualify, and deploy the improvement. Typical
typically produced from a nickel-based superalloy, such as timelines for developing and qualifying a new material have
alloy 718 or Waspaloy, for higher-temperature applications. been on the order of 10–20 years or more.31 Design engineers
These cases are usually ring-rolled to impart added strength. can conceive a design and analyze it within a matter of weeks;
The inner liner, which is a shield to protect the case from the materials community has taken years to accomplish similar
direct contact with the combustion flame, is usually made from tasks in their technology area.32
cobalt sheet material such as HS188 or nickel-based superal- Computational models have been important tools in short-
loy such as Hastelloy X. Development work has been done on ening development time because, properly employed, they can
producing the liner from SiC/SiC ceramic matrix composite estimate material properties and assist in the development of
(CMC), but this is only now being commercialized. New cobalt optimum materials processing routes. An exponential increase
alloys that are precipitation-strengthened have shown potential, has occurred in the use of modeling tools in the aerospace mate-
but they have yet to be scaled up and commercialized, and the rials community for metallic materials,33 with tools evolving
optimum chemistry is still being determined. from standalone use for specific problems to proactive use to
The high-pressure turbine (HPT), which is immediately aid accelerated development programs. A similar effort is
downstream from the combustor, has the highest gas-path tem- occurring for composite materials.
perature in its first stage. The temperature in modern jet engines As an example of what is possible, GE Aviation successfully
can be in the range of 1350–1450°C or higher; these temper- developed a low-rhenium nickel-based alloy for a single-crystal
atures approach or exceed the incipient melting point of the turbine blade alloy in two years, from start to full engine qual-
nickel-based superalloys used for the nozzles and blades of ification, versus the four to six years normally required for
the HPT. Therefore, these components are internally cooled modifying the chemistry of an existing alloy. Modeling tools
with air that is bled from an intermediate stage of the com- that supported the research and development efforts were an
pressor. They also have a thin insulating layer of a thermal important factor in this accelerated program.33
barrier coating (TBC), typically yttrium-stabilized zirconia. Future directions in cyberinfrastructure should include (a)
This TBC is applied over an oxidation protective layer, such qualification testing that incorporates an understanding of the
as MCrAlY (where M can be one or more of the elements iron, behavior of a material so that fewer tests need to be performed;
nickel, and cobalt), a nickel aluminide coating, or a platinum (b) cybermodeling tools that seamlessly perform multiscale,
aluminide coating. (See also the article by Clarke et al. in the multiphenomenon analyses; and (c) a cyberinfrastructure that
October 2012 issue of MRS Bulletin.25) supports the materials ecosystem, including model repository,
The airfoils are cast either as a directional solidified micro- database storage and retrieval, access control for collaborating
structure (with grains aligned parallel to the blade longitu- groups, and data visualization tools.
dinal axis) or, more commonly in modern engines, as single
crystals, to impart maximum resistance to stress rupture.26 Other materials considerations
The shrouds surrounding the tips of the HPT blades have been Certain other considerations, of which inexperienced engineers
made from single-crystal nickel-based superalloys, but recent might not be aware, can have a significant impact on function-
developments have shown that SiC/SiC CMC would offer ality. For instance, aluminum alloys and low-alloy steels are
advantages in terms of weight savings (one-third the density active in the galvanic series, whereas titanium- and nickel-
of nickel), higher operating temperature, and increased dura- based alloys and stainless steels are noble. If an active material
bility.27 These CMC shrouds are currently being qualified for is in contact with a noble material in the presence of moisture, a
GE’s LEAP engine, the successor engine to the CFM56.28 The galvanic corrosion cell will be initiated, with the active material
first-stage disk in the HPT is typically made from a powder being corroded. Titanium- and nickel-based alloys and stain-
nickel-based superalloy to provide the highest strength at the less steels do not create a corrosion issue when in contact with
operating temperature. These materials are so strong that they each other in the presence of moisture, although localized pit-
must be isothermally forged at a low, superplastic strain rate.29 ting can occur under certain circumstances.
The blades of the low-pressure turbine (LPT) are typically Corrosion was not a complex issue to handle in the past,
nickel-based superalloy castings. In the newest engines, such because a coat of primer or primer and a topcoat on each mate-
as the GEnx and LEAP engines, the rear stages of the LPT rial often solved the problem. However, new regulations that
can be cast γ-titanium aluminide, Ti-48Al-2Nb-2Cr, because limit the use of coatings containing hexavalent chromium will
this material, at half the density of nickel, offers significant add to the challenge of mitigating corrosion.

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 MATERIALS CONSIDERATIONS FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
M

Contact with carbon fibers in CFRP composites, aluminum titanium galls very easily. Some type of lubricant or coating
alloys, and low-alloy steels is an even more significant issue, must be used to eliminate this problem.
as direct contact with the carbon fibers in a moist environment The increased use of CFRP composites has played a key
can set up a very active corrosion cell. In this case, a good role in titanium usage. The fact that titanium has a low coeffi-
solution is to separate the metal from the CFRP with a layer cient of thermal expansion and is compatible with the graphite
of fiberglass. fibers in the composite in the presence of moisture, in con-
With regard to aluminum alloys, although higher-strength junction with its low density and high strength, make it an
2XXX and 7XXX alloys are not fusion-weldable, they are ideal material for interfacing with composites.
weldable by solid-state friction-stir welding. Where fusion HSLA steel must have a corrosion-resistant coating to
welding is required, 6XXX series alloys are generally used, minimize corrosion when not being worked on. The maxi-
although welding them is still not necessarily easy. Unless mum use temperature should be less than ∼290°C, or over-
strength is critical and corrosion is not a concern, the alloys aging can occur. These materials machine readily, except for
are used in an over-aged condition (T7), as opposed to a peak- the higher-strength alloys, in the range of 1930 MPa. Most of
temper T6 age. Aluminum alloys are not used at very high the machining is done prior to the final heat treatment. Once
temperatures, as they will over-age. The 2XXX T3- and T4- the final aging is done and the material is at full strength,
type and 7XXX alloys should generally be limited to ∼90°C. machining must be done very carefully to prevent heating
The 2XXX-T6 or -T8 tempers could be considered up to and the formation of untempered martensite, which is very
∼175°C. The 2X19 series alloys can be used at temperatures brittle. When HSLA steels are chrome plated for wear resis-
above ∼175°C. Aluminum–copper–lithium alloys can provide tance, there is the possibility of hydrogen embrittlement.
some properties advantages up to this temperature. The plated material must be baked at 175°C to drive out the
Titanium alloys have excellent corrosion resistance for hydrogen if pickup did occur: It takes only a few parts per
aerospace applications. They have a very thin, tough oxide million of hydrogen to create a problem. A notched speci-
surface that provides this corrosion resistance. However, men will be held under load after the bake out to ensure that
corrosion/hydrogen embrittlement can occur if hot hydraulic embrittlement did not occur.
fluid in commercial aircraft comes into contact with titanium.
The problem is due to an additive used for commercial aircraft Conclusions
to raise the flash point of the hydraulic fluid; military aircraft The selection of airframe materials and processes is a com-
do not use this additive, so they do not encounter this problem. plex endeavor, requiring a balance among myriad design,
Hydrogen accumulation can occur at temperatures in excess reliability, and maintainability requirements. Materials qual-
of ∼130°C. Therefore, most titanium alloys are not used in ity and fabricability must be given close scrutiny by design-
areas of potential hydraulic fluid leaks in hot structures, such ers in partnership with fabricators and part manufacturers
as struts, unless it can be shielded. The exception is β-21S, to ensure that the design is achievable at a reasonable cost.
which is the only titanium alloy used in the aerospace industry Ultimately, design and build quality and cost are critical
that is not affected by this problem. factors in light of the tremendous global competition in the
Titanium alloys are used from subzero temperatures to as aviation industry.
high as ∼600°C. Titanium is unique in that some sheet alloys, Materials for aeropropulsion applications must likewise
such as Ti-6Al-4V, are superplastically formable using stan- meet demanding property requirements and also demon-
dard manufacturing procedures. For the other alloy systems, strate high reliability in a severe operating environment.
special alloys or processing have been developed to enable this This requires a detailed understanding of the way in which
capability, but they cannot achieve the same elongations a material responds to various degradation mechanisms that
observed with Ti-6Al-4V sheet. are encountered in service, as well as knowledge of the vari-
Titanium alloys are generally difficult to machine, costing ations in material properties that result from defects intro-
about 10 times as much as the machining of aluminum alloys. duced during processing.
Stiff machines with high horsepower are required. The cutters There is a need for continuing improvement in materi-
must be kept sharp: Their lives are usually measured in minutes, als to support both airframe and advanced engine designs,
as opposed to hours for aluminum. It is very difficult to grind with the expectation that the materials community can sig-
titanium without inducing high residual stresses in the parts, nificantly shorten the development and implementation time
which are detrimental to fatigue performance. Sanding should without increasing development risk by taking advantage of
also be done with care. During sanding, extensive sparks can computational tools.
be thrown up. This must be minimized because, if one or more
hot sparks land back on the titanium, they bond back in and Acknowledgments
are contaminated with interstitial elements, also resulting in a The authors acknowledge significant efforts from several
substantial fatigue debit. Care must also be taken with regard parties for this article. We thank Drs. J. Grabowski and
to the motion of a contacting surface against titanium, because A. Asphahani from QuesTek Innovations for their assistance
with the steel alloys, Tim Armstrong and Mike Schmidt

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 MATERIALS CONSIDERATIONS FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATIONSS

from Carpenter Technology Corporation for updates on the 18. D. Sanders, L. Hefti, A. Bryant, S. Zeng, H. Guo, P. Gai, Z. Li, TITANIUM 2010:
26th Ann. Conf. Proc. (ITA, Northglenn, CO, 2010).
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stainless steel, and B. Reichlinger of The Boeing Compa- Science, Technology and Applications, M. Qian, F.H. Froes, Eds. (Elsevier,
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