SECOND GRADING REVIEWER b.

Non-essential amino acids - can be made by our bodies from other

amino acids; includes alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid,
Biological molecules are organic molecules needed for life. cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and
Biomolecules are categorized into: tyrosine.
Structures of protein:
CARBOHYDRATES – for energy source; most abundant organic 1.Primary- a protein’s sequence of amino acid
molecules with 1:2:1 ratio of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen 2.Secondary – refers to the local 3-dimensional folding of the
Classifications: polypeptide chain in the protein. The alpha helix (spiral) and the
Monosaccharides – one monomer of sugar; simple sugars; beta sheet (beta strand forming an accordion-like pleated sheet) are
monomer of carbohydrates the two common secondary structure motifs; Hydrogen bonding
between the C=O and N-H groups of peptide bonds is responsible for
its structure
3.Tertiary – formed when the distant segments of a primary
structure and the relationships of the side chains are bound in a 3-
dimensional folding of the entire polypeptide chain; Example:
albumin in egg
Glucose- chief source of energy; example: molasses 4.Quaternary- involves the fitting together of two or more
Fructose – sugars in fruit polypeptide chains, forming a functional protein. Ex: keratin and
Galactose - sugar in milk hemoglobin

Disaccharides - composed of two molecules of sugar link NUCLEIC ACIDS - are large organic molecules that carry the “code of
together by a glycosidic bond formed from dehydration reactions life”, thus allowing the transfer of genetic information from one
Sucrose – glucose + fructose; common example is table sugar generation to another
Maltose – glucose + glucose; malt sugar Nucleotide – monomer of nucleic acids
Lactose – galactose + glucose; milk sugar -consists of pentose sugar, nitrogenous base and a
phosphate group
Polysaccharides – composed of hundreds of monomers of glucose Polynucleotides:
or other simple sugars Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – double helix; A, T, C, G
Storage polysaccharides: Ribonucleic acid (RNA) – single strand; A, U, C, G
Glycogen - the main storage form of carbohydrates in Nitrogenous bases:
animals Purine – adenine (A) and guanine (G)
Starch - carbohydrates storage in plants Pyrimidine – cytosine (C), thymine (T) and for RNA only: uracil (U)
Structural polysaccharides:
Cellulose - the most abundant biomolecules in nature;
found in cell wall of plant cells
Chitin - the major substance in exoskeleton
of arthropods and crustaceans
Peptidoglycan - found in bacterial cell walls

LIPIDS - functions as long-term energy storage; insoluble in water;

structurally diversed biomolecule
Monomer: Fatty acid - are long chains of carbon atoms attached to
a carboxyl group, giving them their acidic properties
- carboxylic groups (hydrophilic heads)
faces the solvent and hydrocarbon chains (hydrophobic tails) are
directed towards the interior
CLASSIFICATIONS:
Triglycerides - non-polar molecule; three fatty acids are joined to
one molecule of glycerol by ester bonds; commonly found in adipose
tissue, butter, lard and olive oil; fats and oils
Fats -a type of lipid and are technically called triglycerides;
these are solid at room temperature
Oils – tend to be liquid at room temperature
a. Saturated - the carbon chain is completely surrounded by
hydrogen; only single covalent bonds between the
carbons. Solid at room temp.
b. Unsaturated - the carbon chain is partially surrounded by
hydrogen because of some double bonds between the DNA denaturation : The double-stranded DNA unwinds, and the
carbon atoms. Liquid at room temp. Often are Hydrogen bonds that hold the two strands together weaken and
hydrogenated in foods. finally break. The process of breaking a double-stranded DNA into
Phospholipids - consist of a glycerol molecule, a phosphate group single strands by application of some external stress or compound
and two fatty acids; found mainly in animal tissues such as a strong acid or base, a concentrated inorganic salt, an
Steroids and sterols - are organic compounds with four-fused rings organic solvent and rising temperature.
arranged in a specific configuration

Trans fat – is made from hydrogenation; unsaturated fats have been ENZYMES – are biological catalysts that accelerates chemical
converted to saturated fats by adding hydrogen; a form of fat that reactions
recent research associates with heart disease. Active site - is the region of an enzyme where substrate molecules
Bad Cholesterol (Low-Density Lipoprotein) – stores cholesterol in the bind and undergo a chemical reaction
blood stream Substrate - the substance on which an enzyme acts
Good Cholesterol (High-Density Lipoprotein) – regulates LDL storage
and promotes excretion

PROTEINS - Consist of long chains of amino acids called

polypeptides; important for growth and repair of tissues
Amino acid – monomer or building block of proteins
-have a central carbon atom surrounded by a hydrogen
atom, a carboxyl group (COOH), an amino group (NH2), and an R-
group (for their classification)
Peptide bond – the chemical bond formed between amino acids
through dehydration synthesis
Types of amino acids:
Activation energy - is the energy absorbed before it can start a
a.Essential amino acids - must be ingested since our bodies do not
chemical reaction.
manufacture these molecules; includes histidine, isoleucine, leucine,
lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine
 Alternative Mechanisms for carbon fixation: PEP carboxylase
initially fixes CO2

C4 pathway - initial carbon fixation takes place in mesophyll cells

and the Calvin cycle takes place in bundle-sheath cells. PEP
carboxylase attaches an incoming carbon dioxide molecul to the
three-carbon molecule PEP, producing oxaloacetate (a four-carbon
molecule).
CAM pathway - is a method of carbon fixation evolved by some
plants in dry circumstances. In most plants, the stomata – which are
like tiny mouths that take in oxygen all along the surfaces of their
leaves – open during the day to take in CO2and release O2

CELLULAR RESPIRATION - the aerobic harvesting of energy from

sugar by muscle cells (or other cells)
Steps:
Glycolysis - occurs in the cytosol/cytoplasm and can occur with or
without oxygen
- ATP is used to prime a glucose molecule, which is split in
Factors affecting enzymes activity: two. These three-carbon intermediates are oxidized and converted
Temperature - As the temperature increases, so does the rate of to two molecules of pyruvate, yielding a net of 2 ATP and 2 NADH.
reaction. But very hightemperatures denature enzymes. ATP is formed by substrate-level phosphorylation, in which a
pH - Enzymes are affected by changes in pH. The most favorable pH phosphate group is transferred from an organic molecule to ADP.
value - the point where the enzyme is most active - is known as the Pyruvate Oxidation - is the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA
optimum pH. by the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase. The reaction is: 1 pyruvate
Substrate concentration - Increasing Substrate + 1 NAD⁺ + CoA → 1 acetyl-CoA + NADH + CO₂ + H⁺ Pyruvate
Concentration increases the rate of reaction. This is because oxidation is the step that connects glycolysis and the Krebs cycle;
more substrate molecules will be colliding with enzyme molecules, releases CO2
so more product will be formed. Citric Acid Cycle/Kreb’s Cycle – occurs in mitochondrial matrix;
-First, enzymes process pyruvate, releasing CO 2 and
An enzyme inhibitor is a molecule that binds to an enzyme and producing NADH and acetyl-CoA
decreases its activity. Since blocking an enzyme's activity can kill a -In this cycle, two-carbon acetyl group is added to four-
pathogen or correct a metabolic imbalance, many drugs are enzyme carbon compound producing citrate which is degraded back to the
inhibitors. starting four-carbon compound
-For each turn of the cycle: 2CO2 are released; the energy
Competitive inhibition - an inhibitor that resembles the normal yield is 1 ATP, 3 NADH and 1 FADH2.
substrate binds to the enzyme, usually at the active site, and Oxidative Phosphorylation - involves the electron transport chain
prevents the substrate from binding and chemiosmosis
Allosteric/Non-competitive inhibition - is a type of -Electrons from NADH and FADH2 travel down the electron
+
enzyme inhibitionwhere the inhibitor reduces the activity of the transport chain to oxygen (final electron acceptor) which picks up H
enzyme and binds equally well to the enzyme whether or not it has to form water.
already bound the substrate -Energy released by these redox reactions is used to pump
+
H into the space between the membranes of the mitochondrion.
+
Allosteric inhibitor - binds to an enzyme at a site other than the -In chemiosmosis, the H diffuses back across the inner
active site. The shape of the active site is altered so that the membrane (down its concentration gradient) through ATP synthase
enzyme can no longer bind to its substrate complexes, driving the synthesis of ATP.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS – conversion of light energy into chemical energy

2 main parts:
Light reactions – takes place in the thylakoid membrane of the
chloroplast; use light energy to make two molecules needed for the
next stage of photosynthesis: the energy storage molecule ATP and
the reduced electron carrier NADPH
Photosystem II – absorbs photons of wavelength of 680
nm; It captures photons and uses the energy to extract electrons
from water molecules; First, when the electrons are removed, the
water molecule is broken into oxygen gas and hydrogen ions
(PHOTOLYSIS), which are used to power ATP synthesis.
Photosystem I - absorbs photons of wavelength of 700
nm; receives elecron from plastoquinone, b6f complex and
plastocyanin (electron transport chain); It is responsible for
providing high energy electrons with which to reduce NADP+ to
produce NADPH to be used in the Calvin cycle.
ATP synthase - is an enzyme that creates the energy 1 FADH2= 2 ATP molecules; 1 NADH = 3ATP molecules
storage molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Fermentation – Under anaerobic conditions, muscle cells, yeasts and
+
certain bacteria produce small amounts of ATP by glycolysis. NAD is
Cyclic electron flow - uses photosystem I (P700) but not recycled from NADH as pyruvate is converted to lactate (lactic acid
photosystem II (P680); produces ATP fermentation) or alcohol and CO2 (alcohol fermentation); occurs in
Non-cyclic electron flow - the electrons released by P700 are carried the cytoplasm.
by primary acceptor and are finally passed on to NADP for the
generation of NADPH

Carbon reactions/Calvin Cycle – takes place in the stroma of the

chloroplast;it needs ATP and NADPH produced from light reactions
and CO2 in order to synthesize a molecule of sugar glyceraldehyde-
3-phosphate (G3P)
3 reactions involved:
1.Carbon fixation - the enzyme RuBisCO incorporates carbon dioxide
into an organic molecule
2.Reduction - the organic molecule is reduced
3.Regeneration of CO2 acceptor – RuBP( ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate),
the molecule that starts the cycle, is regenerated so that
the cycle can continue