CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM Optical rotation plane of polarized light

- both synthesis (anabolism) and transmitted by pure solution of these mirror

degradation or breakdown compounds will either rotate to the left
(catabolism) of carbohydrates in (levorotatory or levorotary) or to the right
plants (dextrorotatory or dextrorotary)

Carbohydrate – general ratio of C, H, and b) Pentoses – five-carbon

O is 1:2:1. They are polyhydroxy aldehydes sugar; e.g. D-xylose and
and polyhydroxy ketones. L-arabinose which occur in
plants as constituents of
xylans and arabans are large
polysaccharides with a
structural function in the cell
wall.
• Aldopentoses - have
3 chiral centers

• Ketopentoses - have
Importance: 2 chiral centers
1. Means for the storage of the
energy trapped from light in the 2. Oligosaccharide – made up of 2 or more
process of photosynthesis monosaccharide held together by glycosidic
2. Forms supporting tissues of the linkages.
plant • Sucrose – disaccharide,
3. Provides carbon skeletons for condensation product of glucose and
most, if not all of the organic fructose; principal form in which
compounds that make up the plant CH2O is transported in higher
plants.
Type of sugars:
1. Reducing sugars – e.g. fructose, • Maltose – disaccharide that results
glucose, mannose from partial degradation of starch α
2. Non-reducing sugars – e.g. (1-4); 2 glucose of glycosidic bond
sucrose, raffinose, stachyose,
verbascose • Cellobiose – disaccharide that
results from partial degradation of
Classification of carbohydrates based on cellulose, made up of β (1,4) glucose
complexity in structure:
1. Monosaccharide – least complex • Raffinose – trisaccharide (glucose,
a) Hexoses – 6 carbon atoms; fructose, galactose)
identical in all physical
properties except optical
rotation.
3. Polysaccharide – complex molecules of b. Pectin - like pectic acid, the
high molecular weight composed of a large difference is that it only undergoes
number of monosaccharide joined through esterification of carboxyl groups with
glycosidic bonds; insoluble in water and methyl groups. Important in
lack sweetness manufacture of jellies as it can form
• Starch (C6H10O5) – storage product of gel.
plant
Components: c. Protopectin – insoluble pectic
a. Polysaccharide amylose - a substances, accumulates in large
straight chain polymer of glucose quantities in fruits like apple and
units linked, produces blue- black pear, converted to pectin and pectic
color with iodine acid during ripening of fruit.

b. Amylopectin – branched 2. Pentosans – polymers of five-carbon

polysaccharide made up of sugars, e.g. xylan and araban which are
α-glucose units linked(gives red to constituents of cell wall matrix, composed of
purple color with iodine). D-xylose unit

• Cellulose – structural polysaccharide that Transformation of CH2O

yields glucose upon complete - results in the production of
hydrolysis, C-skeleton which is important in the
- Functional component of cell construction of proteins, lipids, etc.
wall thus the most abundant 1. Phosphorylation – essential feature of
organic compound in the transformation of CH2O. First step in
world. It comprises 20% of practically all metabolic reactions involving
new cell wall and 43% of 2o sugars. Inorganic phosphate was necessary
wall. for the fermentation of sugar in cell-free
- Important material as it can yeast juice.
only be degraded under most
strenuous chemical 2. Synthesis and degradation of sucrose
treatment This “fixed” carbon (sucrose and starch) can
- No nutrition value because of be used for:
lack of chemical reactivity a. Building new plant parts by using
their C skeletons:
• Other CH2O - Amino acids (protein)
1. Pectic compounds – most abundant in - Cell wall (polysaccharides)
middle lamella in the form of Ca or - Fatty acids/triglycerides
Mg salts of pectic acids. - Secondary metabolites for
a. Pure pectic acid - an unbranched defense (terpenes, alkaloids)
molecule consisting of about 100 α- - Nucleic acids (purines,
galacturonic acid, yields galacturonic pyrimidines)
acid molecules on complete b. ATP synthesis via respiration
hydrolysis. (glycolysis, the TCA cycle and
oxidative phosphorylation)
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
General equation: B. Dark reaction stage (stroma)
6𝐶𝑂2 + 12𝐻2𝑂 → 𝐶6𝐻12𝑂6 + 6𝑂2 + 6𝐻2𝑂 - Expenditure of energy of ATP and
the reducing power of 𝑁𝐴𝐷𝑃𝐻2 to fix
Chloroplast 𝐶𝑂2 in phosphoglyceric acid (PGA)
- Discoid or ellipsoidal structure and reduce it into
- Length: 4-6 μm Phosphoglyceraldehyde, then
- Thickness: 1-2 μm convert it into glucose.
- Bounded by double membrane - Occurs in different ways in different
called chloroplast envelope types of plants
It contains: - C3: Calvin-Benson Cycle
- Stroma (fluid) (tree species)
- Grana (stack of thylakoid) - C4: Hatch-Slack (agricultural
- Thylakoids (contains chlorophyll) species)
- Photosystem occurs in - CAM: Crassulacean Acid
thylakoids Metabolism (Crassulaceae)

Photosynthesis has two stages a. Calvin-Benson Cycle (C3 pathway)

a. Light reaction stage: light dependent - Cycle performed by plants to fix
b. Dark reaction stage: light- carbon from C02 into 3-carbon sugar
independent - Reactions three main stages:
Carbon fixation, reduction, and
A. Light reaction stage (grana) regeneration
1. Trapping light energy (Chloroplast) - Sometime referred to as
2. Splitting of water (photolysis) and light-independent reactions since it
release of high energy electrons is not powered by photons of the sun
3. Electron transfer = generation of instead by ATP and NADPH which
ATP and reducing power as 𝑁𝐴𝐷𝑃𝐻2 are recreated in the light dependent
- Photosystem I: Chlorophyll A stage
(P700) - Enzyme responsible for fixing
- Photosystem II: Chlorophyll A carbon is Rubisco (Ribulose
(P680) bisphosphate carboxylase)
- Photosystem I (PSI) and
Photosystem II (PSII): contain b. C4: dicarboxylic acid pathway or
chlorophyll; moving electrons from hatch-slack pathway for CO2 fixation
water to NADP+ to form NADPH - Phosphoenol pyruvic acid (C3):
- Electron transport chain: store of CO2 acceptor
potential energy in the form of a - Phosphoenol pyruvic acid
hydrogen ion gradient in the carboxylase (PEP carboxylase):
thylakoid space carboxylating enzyme. High affinity
- ATP synthase: uses the energy for CO2 and is not inhibited by O2
generated by the hydrogen ion - C4 plants are often characterized by
gradient to produce ATP having a leaf anatomy in which
 bundle cells are surrounded by
layers of mesophyll cells.
- photosynthetically more efficient Plant factors
than C3 plants Capacity of enzymatic steps of carbon
fixation and metabolism, Capacity for
Comparison of C3, C4, and CAM photosynthetic electron transport and
phosphorylation, Conductance to CO2
diffusion from outside the plant to the
C3 C4 CAM
chloroplasts, Leaf age
Product Glycer Malate Malate
aldehy Different methods of measuring
de Day and Night photosynthesis
3-phos night 1. Measuring the uptake of CO2
phate
a. Using immobilized algae: in
(G3P)
hydrogen carbonate indicator
Day solution - known as the 'algal
and balls' technique
Night b. Using an IRGA (Infra-red
Gas analyzer): compares the
Anatomy No Bundle No
CO2 concentration in gas
bundle sheet Bundle
sheet sheet passing into a chamber
cell surrounding a leaf/plant and
the CO2 leaving the
# of 2000 - 10000- 100-800 chamber.
stomata 31000 16000 c. Using CO2 Monitor: putting
Photores Up to Not Not the plant in a plastic bag and
piration 40% detectable detecta monitor the CO2
ble concentration in the bag
using a CO2 monitor.
Species Wheat, Sugarcane, Pineapp
rice, corn, le,
2. Measuring the production of O2
cassav sorghum vanilla,
a, trees cacti, a. Bubble counting: oxygen
orchids, measured by counting
bromeli bubbles evolved from
ads pondweed submerged in
dilute sodium or potassium
Factors affecting photosynthesis bicarbonate solution in a
constant temperature bath,
Environmental factors or by using the Audus
Light intensity, Temperature, CO2, Water apparatus
supply, Flooding, Humidity, Soil fertility/ b. Manometric method: Walburg
Mineral nutrients, salinity, Pollution, applied apparatus measures
chemicals changes in gas in a closed
system indicated by a rise or
 fall of liquid (Brodie’s 2. Anaerobic respiration: without
solution) in the graduated oxygen; process uses a
manometer tube. This rise or respiratory
fall is due to change in gas electron transport chain but does not
pressure as a consequence
use oxygen as the electron acceptors; ↓
of gas exchange by the
amount of energy; cytoplasm only;
tissue or organism involved.
Glycolysis and fermentation; Products:
3. Measuring the production of lactic acid, ethyl alcohol, ATP and CO2
carbohydrates
- A disc is cut out of one side Release of energy
of a leaf (using a cork borer 1. Oxidation: removal of electrons
against a rubber bung) and accompanied by the removal of
weighed after drying. Weeks hydrogen
later, a disk is cut out of the 2. Reduction: Addition of electrons
other half of the leaf, dried
accompanied by the addition of
and weighed. Increase in
hydrogen
mass of the disc is an
indication of the extra mass
that has been stored in the Three stages of aerobic respiration
leaf. 1. Glycolysis: breaks glucose into
4. Measuring the increase in dry pyruvic acid, occurs in the
mass cytoplasm (cytosol)
- Dry mass is often monitored - Glucose into the cell's
by the technique of 'serial plasma membrane as the
harvests' where several first step in catabolism.
plants are harvested, dried to - Cleaved into two,
constant weight and weighed
Glycolysis (glyco=
glucose, lysis= cleave)
RESPIRATION
- Glucose is converted into
specific substrates are oxidized with a
two molecules of pyruvate
subsequent release of CO2.
- 2 ATP
General equation:
2. Krebs Cycle: Citric acid cycle of
6𝐻2𝑂 + 𝐶6𝐻12𝑂6 → 6𝐶𝑂2 + 12𝐻2𝑂
Tricarboxylic acid (TCA);
completely breaks the remaining
Two pathways or types carbon-carbon bond of glucose
1. Aerobic respiration: uses molecules, mitochondria
oxygen, ↑ amount of respiration, - Formation of pyruvic acid
cytoplasm and mitochondria, 3 ends up in a glycolytic
process: Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, pathway. But if sufficient
and electron transport system, oxygen is present,
Products: CO2, H20, ATP oxidative decarboxylation
 pyruvic acid takes place to
form acetyl coenzyme A
- 2 ATP

3. Electron transport
system/chain: energy from
reduced co-factors of glycolysis
and Krebs cycle converted ATP.
36 to 38 ATP
- 34 ATP

* Energy stored in glucose and not

consumed during cellular respiration is
lost as heat

ATP Synthase: Enzyme that makes

ATP
- located on the inner membrane of
the mitochondria
- Process of making ATP is called
oxidative phosphorylation
- Entire process of using proton
motive force to make ATP is
called chemiosmosis

Factors affecting respiration

1. Internal factors: Age and
physiological conditions of tissue,
amount of oxidative substrate,
tissue hydration
2. Environmental factors: Soil and
air temperature, gaseous
composition of the soil, available
soil moisture, light, injury and
mechanical disturbances; and
chemicals such as herbicides,
fungicides, insecticides,
fertilizers, and environmental
pollutants