Circuit Breaker Ratings –

A Primer for Protection Engineers

Bogdan Kasztenny, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.
Joe Rostron, Southern States, LLC

Abstract—This paper explains the asymmetrical short-circuit In contrast to their focus on instrument transformers, relay
interrupting current rating for high-voltage circuit breakers. The practitioners pay less attention to the other component of the
paper teaches how the decaying dc component in the asymmetrical protection system – the circuit breaker. This paper aims at
fault current affects the breaker, and it explains how the X/R ratio
and the relay operating time affect the asymmetrical current closing this gap and introducing protection practitioners to the
breaker rating. The paper briefly introduces, and illustrates with basics of breaker rating.
field cases, several ultra-high-speed protection principles that can Manufacturers specify the fault current interrupting capacity
operate in just a few milliseconds. The paper then explains how to
of their breakers for a set of reference conditions including,
derate a breaker for the relay operating time that is shorter than
the standard reference value of 0.5 cycle. The paper calculates the among other factors, voltage, frequency, decaying dc offset in
“rating loss” due to fast tripping and suggests that applying the fault current, relay operating time, temperature, and altitude.
customary margins when selecting breakers may be sufficient to This paper teaches the basics of how breakers are specified and
mitigate the effect of ultra-high-speed relays without the need to explains rules for derating breakers for operating conditions
replace breakers. that differ from the standard reference values. Special attention
is given to the decaying dc offset in the short-circuit current and
I. INTRODUCTION the relay operating time.
The four major components of any protection system are As per current standards, the fault current interrupting rating
instrument transformers, protective relays, circuit breakers of a breaker accounts for the asymmetrical fault current
(CBs), and control power circuits. Current and voltage interruption; i.e., it accounts for the decaying dc offset in the
instrument transformers supply input signals to protective fault current. The decaying dc component is time varying. It
relays. Protective relays provide a wide range of protection subsides and makes the current interruption an easier task with
functions, including but not limited to short-circuit protection. the passing of time. The key standards for CBs, ANSI/IEEE
When tripped by protective relays, breakers interrupt the fault C37.04 [1] and the IEC counterpart IEC 62271-100 [2], use the
current to isolate the affected zone from the rest of the power X/R ratio of 17 (60 Hz system) and the 0.5-cycle relay operating
system. time to establish a reference condition for the decaying dc
In high-voltage applications, the differential and directional component. With these assumptions, the standards ask breaker
comparison schemes, as well as the underreaching distance and manufacturers to specify the nameplate interrupting rating for
overcurrent elements, provide instantaneous protection against an asymmetrical current. As a result, breaker applications are
short circuits. With security as the paramount performance simplified because the users can directly apply the nameplate
factor, the faster and more dependable the protection system, rating without extra calculations if their relays are not faster
the better. With all other factors equal, a faster relay is always than 0.5 cycle and their system X/R ratio is at or below 17.
preferred over a slower one. How does one derate a breaker for relay operating times that
Instrument transformers create well-recognized challenges are faster than 0.5 cycle or a system X/R ratio higher than 17?
for protective relays. Designed for the fundamental frequency Breaker practitioners routinely derate breakers for systems with
component, instrument transformers may introduce transient higher X/R ratios. Historically, however, the 0.5-cycle relay
errors. Capacitively coupled voltage transformers (CCVTs) operating time was rarely questioned, and today, users normally
generate slowly-decaying components in their output voltages do not derate breakers to account for specific relay operating
that challenge both speed and security of distance protection times.
elements, especially in weak systems. Current transformers Today, new types of relays have emerged that operate faster
(CTs) may saturate due to high currents or long-lasting than 0.5 cycle [3]. Application of these relays calls for
decaying direct current component (dc) offset in the primary evaluating breaker ratings. This paper is a primer for protection
current. Protective relay designers and practitioners have a engineers, and it teaches how the breaker rating depends on the
good grasp of these instrument transformer transients, X/R ratio and the relay operating time (Sections II and III). It
limitations, and failure modes. For example, we know how to briefly discusses relay operating times and the new principles
derate a CT to account for the actual CT burden, dc offset (X/R that allow reducing operating times to just a few milliseconds
ratio), residual flux, or low-frequency operation. (Section IV). The paper then introduces, explains, and
illustrates the breaker derating formula for ultra-fast tripping
times (Section V). The paper analyzes the impact of the relay 5) Rated Dielectric Strength
operating time (faster and slower than the reference value of This group of ratings is specified by a series of tests, each
0.5 cycle) for a few breaker interrupting times. The paper shows relating to typical power system overvoltage transients, that a
that the changes in the breaker ratings due to ultra-fast relay breaker needs to pass. These tests include conditions such as
operation are within typical margins applied by breaker low-frequency overvoltage (nominal frequency, wet and dry
practitioners. conditions), lightning impulse (basic impulse level), chopped
wave, bias test, and switching impulse.
II. CIRCUIT BREAKER SPECIFICATION CONVENTION
6) Rated Transient Recovery Voltage
Requirements and specifications for power circuit breakers Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV) relates to the ability of
and circuit switchers have been established in various standards the breaker insulating medium to recover its insulating
over the years. These standards are principally the ANSI/IEEE properties after current interruption. A breaker needs to recover
standards, C37.04, C37.06, and C37.09, and the IEC its insulation for the specified TRV waveform across its
counterpart, IEC 62271-100. The standard for circuit switchers terminals. The standards consider this waveform a function of
is ANSI/IEEE C37.016. the system alone and neglect any interaction between the
We briefly summarize several key specifications and explain system and the breaker. TRV is a complex requirement that
their purpose and application [1] [2] [4]. depends on the system conditions such as fault type. The
standards specify several TRV waveforms (conditions)
1) Normal Operating Conditions assuming different fault and system scenarios such as terminal
These specifications refer to environmental conditions, faults or short line faults.
primarily the ambient temperature and the altitude. The ANSI
standards specify a WHPSHUDWXUHUDQJHEHWZHHQ௅qC (௅22°F) 7) Rated Continuous Current
and +40qC (104°F) and an altitude below 1,000 m (3,300 ft). This value relates to the breaker’s thermal design and the
allowable temperature rise from the losses dissipated across the
2) Rated Power Frequency primary contact and connection resistances. This rating needs
System frequency has a significant impact on the to be considered in relation to the ambient temperature.
interrupting capability of a breaker because it dictates the rate
of change of the current near the current zero crossing. The 8) Rated Short-Circuit Current
breakers are specified at either 60 Hz or 50 Hz, and they need This value refers to the maximum rms symmetrical short-
to be derated for operation at different frequencies. circuit current (the current without any decaying dc component)
that can be safely interrupted by the breaker. Historically, this
3) Maximum Operating Voltage specification was used to convey the breaker’s total interrupting
This rating specifies the maximum line-to-line rms voltage capacity, neglecting the impact of the decaying dc component
for a breaker. The ANSI and IEC standards differ slightly on and leaving to the user the derating for asymmetrical short-
the nominal values they recommend. For example, the IEC may circuit current. The symmetrical short-circuit current rating was
list 525 kV while ANSI may list 550 kV. These differences often considered with the MVA rating, allowing derating for
result from the rated network voltage practices in various parts operation at lower voltages (constant MVA rating means higher
of the world. current capability at lower operating voltage). New breaker
4) Rated Voltage Range K-Factor technologies (SF6) do not allow higher current ratings at lower
This rating originated with older breaker technologies (such operating voltages. In addition, today the standards account for
as oil and air magnetic breakers) in which the interrupting decaying dc offset in the short-circuit current, specifying the
capability is inversely proportional to the operating voltage. asymmetrical current rating.
The K-factor is the ratio of the rated maximum voltage to the 9) Asymmetrical Currents
lowest operating voltage for which the inverse relationship These specifications relate to asymmetry in the short-circuit
between the operating voltage and the interrupting current holds current, including the following: a decaying dc offset in the
true. The K-factor is a limit for derating the interrupting current short-circuit current during faults with a breaker closed (we
for a varying operating voltage. Older breaker technologies had describe asymmetrical short-circuit current rating in
significantly higher current interrupting capability at lower Section III); close and latch current (peak making current or
voltage; hence, breakers were essentially constant MVA-rated peak asymmetrical closing current), which refers to a condition
fault clearing devices. At the time they were most common, the of closing onto a fault; and short time current, which relates to
standards used the concept of the rated (symmetrical) short- the thermal current carry capabilities for external faults, i.e.,
circuit current and allowed derating based on the operating without opening the breaker.
voltage. Today’s breaker technology (SF6) does not have this
same characteristic: the increase in the current interruption 10) Duty Cycles
capability at lower operating voltages is usually rather small These specifications relate to multiple breaker operations in
and as such is frequently ignored. The K-factor, therefore, does various sequences, such as Open – Close-Open (O-CO) and
not apply to modern breakers. further duties of O-CO-CO. Breaker duty cycles, especially
with the older breaker technologies, have significant residual
effects after interruption such that they reduce the fault clearing
capability with repetitive breaking and closing in a rapid trip current in the breaker trip coil to the moment the
succession. Significant derating needs to take place for primary contacts start to arc.
extended duty cycles, such as when using multiple-shot x The contact parting time is an interval between the
autoreclosing. fault inception and the primary contacts starting to arc.
11) Capacitive Switching According to the breaker standards, the short-circuit
An additional set of requirements relates to switching current at this specific point in time (including both the
capacitive loads, such as capacitor banks, back-to-back ac and dc components) is the primary factor
capacitor banks, and long cables or lines. controlling the asymmetrical current rating of the
breaker.
III. CURRENT INTERRUPTING RATING x The arcing time is a time of arcing; i.e., a time
A. Current Interrupting Rating Convention between parting of the primary contacts until the
As we briefly explained in Section II, the following factors following current zero crossing (0.5 – 0.75 cycles) at
impact the breaker short-circuit interrupting capability: which time the current is normally interrupted.

x Historically, the symmetrical current rating was x The clearing time is measured from the fault inception
specified following the “constant MVA” rating until the last pole of the breaker interrupts the current.
principle of the oil and magnetic air breakers. The x The breaker interrupting time is a fraction of the
symmetrical short-circuit rating could be derated for clearing time between the breaker actuation and the
the actual operating voltage (Current Rating = MVA / end of the clearing process. This time is the “breaker
Operating Voltage) within the limits of the K-factor. operating time.”
Also, the users had to derate the symmetrical rating for Fault Breaker Primary Contacts Final Arc
any specific asymmetrical current condition. Initiation Actuation Parting Extinction

x Asymmetrical current rating is now used as a standard

rating, assuming the reference X/R ratio of 17 and the
Time
relay operating time of 0.5 cycle.
Relay Operating Time CB Interrupting Time
x Peak closing current rating and duty cycles also impact (Release Time)
the overall applicability of a given breaker in any Opening Time Arcing Time

given location in the grid. (Mechanical Time)

Contact Parting Time

To understand the impact of asymmetrical currents on
breaker operation, we need to understand the timing diagram Fault Clearing Time
for the short-circuit current interruption. Referring to Fig. 1, we
recognize the following time instances and time intervals: Fig. 1. Fault clearing sequence.
x The fault initiation time starts the diagram. The fault The current level when the primary contacts part and start
current begins to rise at that moment, and if it contains drawing an arc is the key factor for breaker interrupting ratings.
a decaying dc offset, the current waveform will have This current includes the ac short-circuit current component and
the maximum possible dc offset at that time. The a decaying dc component value.
worst-case scenario is the fully offset waveform with
the dc offset initially matching the peak value of the B. Impact of DC Offset on Interrupting Rating
symmetrical ac component. When the breaker contacts move apart, an electric arc
(composed of highly ionized plasma) bridges the space between
x The relay operating time (or a release delay) is the contacts. The breaker must remove the arc plasma energy
time interval it takes for a relay protecting the before a successful interruption can occur at the following
apparatus to operate and issue a trip command to the current zero crossing. For a given ac short-circuit current
breaker. This trip command is in the form of the trip component, the level of decaying dc component increases the
coil current, and therefore, it includes trip-rated relay fault current peak values. This in turn results in an increase in
outputs or interposing relays as required. Historically, the degree of plasma ionization in the arc just prior to the
1-cycle relay operation was considered typical. The current zero where the interruption can take place (see Fig. 2).
standards assume 0.5-cycle relay operating times for The level of the peak current for the last peak before the
specifying the asymmetrical breaker rating. In interruption is the single most significant variable controlling
Section VI, we discuss the relay operating time in the breaker’s ability to clear faults. A fault with a dc component
more detail. is more difficult to clear than a symmetrical current. Such a
x The breaker opening time (or mechanical time) is the fault requires derating the breaker symmetrical capability so
time it takes for the breaker to open the contacts that the peak current is maintained within the breaker design
enough to start drawing an arc across the primary limits to assure a successful interruption.
contacts. This time is measured from the start of the
 current. In other words, the breaker can claim 100%/1.51 = 66%
Assume DC at the parting Peak
time offsets the peak that Current of its symmetrical rating as its asymmetrical rating.
Current

follows
Fig. 3 plots the asymmetry factor S and the percentage
Short Circuit reciprocal of S. The percentage reciprocal tells us the fraction
AC Current
Component
of the symmetrical rating that may be claimed as the
Zero
DC Crossing
asymmetrical rating for a given dc component content.
Component
1.8

Asymmetrical Rating / Symmetrical Rating

1.7 100
DC
Time 1.6 90

1.5 80

S-Factor
1.4 70

1.3 60

1.2 50
Contact Parting Time Arcing Time
1.1

Fig. 2. DC component increases the peak current prior to zero crossing. 1

0 20 40 60 80 100
DC Level, %
For example, if the dc component is 80 percent of the ac
value, the peak value of the fault current with both the ac and Fig. 3. Asymmetry factor S (blue) and asymmetrical rating to symmetrical
rating ratio (red) as functions of the dc level in the fault current.
dc components is 1.8 times the ac peak value, or the ac rms
value is 1.80 ή ξ2 = 2.55. The rms value of the current with The standards assume the worst-case scenario, in which the
both ac and dc components in this example is the geometrical initial dc offset is the highest possible value, i.e., 100 percent of
sum of the ac rms value and the dc rms value. The dc rms value the ac value (fully offset case). Further, the standards assume a
is the same as the dc value itself, i.e., 0.8 ή ξ2 times the ac rms single exponentially decaying dc offset. Therefore, the initial
value. Therefore: dc value decays with time (t) as follows:
୲
ି (3)
మ ଶ
(1) DC%(t) = 100% ή e ୘ీి
Iୖ୑ୗ = ට1ଶ + ൫0.8 ή ξ2൯ = 1.51 pu
Where TDC is the decaying time constant.
Both the ANSI [1] and IEC [2] standards recommend
For any given power system frequency (f), the time constant
calculating the rms value of the combined ac and dc
depends on the system X/R ratio:
components and using it for derating breakers for the decaying
dc offset. The standards define an “asymmetry factor” S as L 1 X 1 cycle X
Tୈେ = = ή = ή (4)
follows: R ʹɎf R ʹɎ R

మ DC% ଶ (2)
The standards [1] and [2] specify an X/R of 17 as the
S = ඨ1 + 2 ൬ ൰ reference value for the asymmetrical rating, which results in a
100
decaying time constant of 2.71 cycles. In other words, the
standards assume a condition when the dc component
Consider three sample data points for illustration.
completely decays in about 8.5 cycles (three time constants).
With no dc component present (DC% = 0), the asymmetry
When using (3) we must consider time (t) to be the contact
factor is 1. This means, the symmetrical and asymmetrical
parting time. This time is the sum of the relay operating time
ratings are the same, as one would expect if the fault current
and the breaker opening (mechanical) time (see Fig. 1). The
does not contain any dc component.
latter is a breaker parameter and therefore can be left out of the
With the dc component being half of the ac component standards. The former is an independent factor. Standards [1]
(DC% = 50%), the asymmetry factor is 1.22. This means the and [2] specify the relay operating time of 0.5 cycle as the
symmetrical rating needs to be 22 percent higher than the ac reference condition for the asymmetrical rating.
component in the asymmetrical current to maintain breaker
Fig. 4 plots the S-factor as a function of the contact parting
margins for interrupting this asymmetrical current. In other
time assuming the standard TDC time constant for the X/R is 17.
words, the breaker can claim 100%/1.22 = 82% of its
The standards allow breaker manufacturers to neglect the
symmetrical rating as its asymmetrical rating.
asymmetry and test with symmetrical currents for S < 1.1.
With a dc component of 0.8 (DC% = 80%), the asymmetry
factor is 1.51. This means, the symmetrical rating needs to be
51 percent higher than the ac component in the asymmetrical
 relays were specified with 0.5-cycle operating times, but their
1.8
security was sometimes problematic.
1.7 Interposing and lockout relays also play a role in the
discussion on the relay operating time. Historically, protective
1.6 Reference Relay Time
(0.5 Cycle) relays in high-voltage applications did not trip breakers
1.5 directly, but they actuated interposing or lockout relays. Some
S-Factor

older breakers required trip currents as high as 20 A and these

1.4
higher currents called for more robust contacts than were
1.3 commonly available in protective relays. These interposing
2 Parting Time (Cycles)
relays typically operated in 2 to 6 ms or in about 0.25 cycle.
1.2
Mechanical
Therefore, even if the protective relay operated in a few
Time 3 milliseconds, the breaker actuation time was not shorter than
1.1
4 about 0.5 cycle.
1
0 20 40 60 80 100 Because of the specified relay operating times, actual in-
Contact Parting Time, ms service operating time records, and the “slowing-down” role of
Fig. 4. Asymmetry factor S as a function of contact parting time for an X/R the interposing relays, the industry settled on an assumption that
of 17. breakers will not be tripped faster than in about 0.5 cycle for a
C. Current Interrupting Rating Margins short circuit. Hence, the reference point of 0.5 cycle for the
relay operating time in the breaker standards [1] [2].
Circuit breakers are expensive pieces of equipment. If a
breaker is pushed beyond its design limits, it could not only fail Today, we need to revisit this assumption.
and need to be replaced but its failure to clear a fault would A. Elimination of Interposing and Lockout Relays
trigger breaker failure protection and tripping of potentially
Many microprocessor-based relays incorporate trip-rated
large numbers of breakers. This would result in de-energizing
outputs. These outputs have the current make and carry ratings,
many loads and generators.
as well as the voltage ratings, that allow them to be directly
Power systems slowly evolve as equipment is added or connected to breaker trip coils, assuming the 52a breaker
replaced. This changes the short-circuit levels and X/R ratios. contacts take care of interrupting the current. Today’s breakers
In addition, a typical short-circuit calculation would have require trip currents at the level of about 5 A, making the
accuracy of 5 percent if not worse (due to the limited accuracy application of tripping directly from the protective relay outputs
of models and parameters). As a result, breaker practitioners even more practical. Some of these outputs allow mechanical
apply hefty margins in breaker ratings. It is not uncommon to position retention even upon the loss of power to the relay, thus
have a 20-percent margin in the asymmetrical current rating. permitting elimination of stand-alone lockout relays. Some
This margin allows for system growth and may be reduced over applications provide lockout via an interlocking logic rather
time. than mechanical position retention. Yet other applications rely
on the operator’s procedures and timers to prevent reclosing
IV. RELAY OPERATING TIME rather than relying on lockout relays. As a result, an increasing
Typically, protective relays provide short-circuit protection number of new installations (and retrofits) eliminate the
based on the fundamental frequency components in voltages interposing and mechanical lockout relays to improve the
and currents associated with the protected apparatus. The overall reliability of the protection system and to lower the
electromechanical relay technology brought in unavoidable material and labor costs [6].
“filtering through mechanical inertia” to protective relaying. Some of these trip-rated outputs use semiconductors and can
Solid-state (static) relays allowed relay designers a choice of close in a short fraction of a millisecond. This creates another
how much filtering to apply, but these relays did not gain a benefit – faster tripping.
wide-spread adoption because of the success of the relay
technology that followed – the microprocessor-based relay. Because of this trend of tripping directly from the trip-rated
outputs of microprocessor-based relays, the relay operating
Early microprocessor-based relay designers were forced to times are shortened by several milliseconds, or by about
use phasors to afford lower sampling rates and to provide a 0.25 cycle. The assumption that a breaker will never be actuated
wide range of functions with the limited processing power faster than in 0.5 cycle becomes questionable.
available at the time. This phasor-based approach continues
today. As a result, it is a common expectation that high- B. High-Performance Relays Using Naturally Secure
performance protective relays operate in about one power Protection Principles
system cycle [5]. “High-speed” elements available in some A few protection principles are inherently secure and
relays use less filtering for faster operation, and typically therefore can be very fast. These principles, when implemented
specify operating times between 0.5 cycle and 1 cycle. But on a low-latency relay platform with semiconductor-based trip-
these elements are less dependable, and they operate as rated outputs, can issue a trip signal to a breaker in about
“accelerators” for the phasor-based elements. Many static 0.25 cycle for high-current internal faults when breaker
interrupting ratings are challenged. These principles are as delay may be needed to account for CT saturation during
follows: external faults.
1) Bus Differential Protection Switch-onto-fault (SOTF) protection detects faults on a line
High-impedance bus differential schemes are inherently being energized, both genuine faults as well as switching errors
very secure. When combined with a low-latency overcurrent or such as closing the breaker on safety grounds. It is
overvoltage element specifically designed to work with signals accomplished by enabling a low-set overcurrent element for a
expected in these schemes, the high-impedance bus differential short time after the breaker closes, if the breaker was open for
scheme may operate well below 0.5 cycle. some time and the line-side voltage was not present confirming
the line was not already energized from the opposite terminal.
Modern low-impedance differential schemes incorporate
fast and dependable external fault detectors [7] that provide Both these protection schemes may work with extremely
excellent security for CT saturation during external faults. In high multiples of pickup (the operating current may be many
applications to bus protection, these differential schemes can times higher than the pickup setting). The SOTF pickup setting
therefore operate very fast, especially when implemented on may be especially low for short lines that do not draw large
low-latency relay hardware with semiconductor-based trip- charging currents when energized.
rated outputs. Therefore, the stub-bus and SOTF protection schemes may
2) High-Set Unrestrained Transformer Differential operate very fast. We are aware of field cases of SOTF schemes
Protection that have operated as fast as 2 ms.
Unlike bus differential schemes, transformer differential C. New Line Protection Principles
schemes need to rule out magnetizing inrush as a cause of the
Recently, new line protection principles [5] found their way
differential signal before they can operate. Harmonic-based
into products [3]. These principles are based on incremental
inrush detection is typically used. This method of dealing with
quantities (time-domain (TD) elements) and traveling waves
inrush requires about 1 cycle to release the transformer
(TWs). This subsection briefly reviews these new protection
differential relay to operate on an internal fault. Today,
elements: directional elements (TD32 and TW32), a distance
waveshape-based inrush detection methods [8] are adopted, and
element (TD21), and a differential scheme (TW87); it also
they need only about 0.5 cycle to rule out inrush during heavy
illustrates their operating times with field cases.
internal faults.
High-set unrestrained transformer differential elements 1) TD32 Directional Element
differentiate between faults and inrush based on the differential To realize the TD32 directional element, a time-domain
current level alone. Recently, improved versions of the relay calculates an incremental replica current ('iZ) as a voltage
unrestrained transformer differential logic have been drop resulting from the incremental current ('i) at the relay
introduced, such as the method described in [8]. This logic location through an RL circuit with unity impedance (1 :) [5].
compares the unipolar (inrush) vs. bipolar (many internal As Fig. 5 shows, the incremental replica current is directly
faults) nature of the differential current and allows tripping in proportional to the incremental voltage ('v) at the relay
about 0.5 cycle. Some relays allow instantaneous (sample- location. For forward faults, the incremental replica current and
based with minimum or no filtering) high-set unrestrained the incremental voltage are of opposite polarities (Fig. 5a).
differential operation or even operation based on the rate of They are of matching polarities for reverse faults (Fig. 5b).
change of the differential current. As a result, transformer (a) 'iRELAY 'iF
differential relay operating times shorter than 0.5 cycle are
becoming possible. This is especially true for high-current in-
'iZ
zone faults that are not limited by the impedance of the 'vRELAY 'vF
transformer.
3) Stub-Bus and Switch-Onto-Fault Protection (b) 'iF 'iRELAY
Stub-bus protection detects faults on a piece of buswork
between one or two closed breakers and the opened line
'vF 'iZ
disconnect switch in a temporary bus configuration. A typical 'vRELAY
case is two breakers that are closed to maintain the ring-bus or
the breaker-and-a-half configuration while the line or other Fig. 5. TD32 directional element operating principle for forward (a) and
connected apparatus is out of service. In dual-breaker reverse (b) faults [9].
applications stub-bus protection is best accomplished by
When implementing the TD32 element, the relay [3] uses six
enabling a low-set differential overcurrent element when the
measurement loops (three ground loops and three phase loops)
disconnect switch is open. With security inherent in the
to cover all fault types; calculates and integrates an operating
differential principle, differential-based stub-bus protection is
torque; and applies adaptive thresholds for enhanced
very fast. If a simple overcurrent element operating on the
sensitivity, speed, and security [5].
summed currents is used (unrestrained differential), a short time
 The time-domain relay [3] uses the TD32 element in the (a)

POTT scheme, to supervise the TD21 element, and in some Actual Voltage Calculated
Change Voltage
applications, to supervise the TW87 scheme. Change

Fig. 6 shows a fault record for a single-line-to-ground fault 'v

on a 500 kV, 69.9 mi series-compensated line in a 60 Hz 'i

system. The fault was 16.984 mi from the local terminal. The m1
Remote
Local Bus
local and remote TD32 elements asserted in 1.5 ms and 2.2 ms, Bus
respectively. This application uses a direct fiber channel for the
POTT scheme with a communications latency as short as about (b)
Calculated
0.6 ms including processing the transmitted and received Voltage Change
Actual
Voltage
packets by the two relays. Because of the extremely fast Change
assertion of the directional elements, the low-latency POTT 'v 'i
channel, and the relatively low POTT overcurrent trip m1
Remote
supervision settings, the POTT scheme operated in 2.8 ms and Local Bus
Bus
2.2 ms, at the local and remote terminals respectively. This
Fig. 7. TD21 element operating principle for in-zone (a) and out-of-zone (b)
relay [3] has semiconductor-based trip-rated outputs that closed faults [9].
is less than 10 Ps. If connected directly to the breakers, this
When implementing the TD21 element, the time-domain
relay would have actuated the breakers as early as 2.2 ms into
relay [3] uses six measurement loops to cover all fault types,
the fault (this installation is in a monitoring mode and does not
and it applies an instantaneous prefault voltage at the reach
trip breakers at this time).
point as a restraining signal for sensitivity and speed.
To appreciate the TD21 operating time, refer to Fig. 6. The
fault is within the local terminal TD21 reach. The TD21
element operated in 3.9 ms. Therefore, even if the POTT
channel were not available for this case, the relay would still
have operated in 3.9 ms using the communications-independent
TD21 element.
Fig. 8 shows another field case of TD21 operation for a
single-line-to-ground fault on a 110 kV, 56.31 km line in a
50 Hz system. The fault was within the TD21 reach. The TD21
element operated in 1.8 ms for this fault. The operating time is
partially credited to the magnetic voltage transformers, which
responded quickly to the voltage change.

Fig. 6. Field case example showing the operation of the ultra-high-speed

incremental-quantity and TW elements and the POTT scheme. The local and
remote terminals are labeled 1 and 2, respectively.

2) TD21 Distance Element

To realize the TD21 distance element, a time-domain relay
calculates as its operating signal, the change in the
instantaneous voltage at the intended reach point using the
incremental replica current, incremental voltage, and line RL
parameters. The element operating condition is derived from
the observation that the prefault voltage is the highest possible
value of the voltage change at the fault point. With reference to
Fig. 7, if the calculated voltage change at the reach point is
higher than the prefault voltage at the reach point, the fault must
be closer than the set reach, m1. If this is true and the TD32
element asserts forward, the TD21 element operates [5]. Fig. 8. Field case example for the TD21 element.
 3) TW32 Directional Element line terminals with a time separation that is less than the
The TW32 directional element compares the relative TWLPT (see Fig. 10b). To realize the TW87 scheme, the time-
polarity of the current TWs and the voltage TWs. For a forward domain relay [3] extracts TWs from the local and remote
event, the two TWs are of opposite polarities; for a reverse currents and identifies the first TW for each. It then searches for
event, they are of matching polarities [5]. To realize the TW32 the exiting TW from the local and remote currents arriving at
element, the time-domain relay [3] filters the TW signals, the opposite line terminal after the TWLPT. The relay then
integrates a torque calculated from the current and voltage calculates the operating and restraining signals from the first
TWs, and checks the integrated value a few tens of TW and the exiting TW [5]. The TW87 logic applies a factory-
microseconds into the fault (see Fig. 9). As a result, the relay selected magnitude pickup level and security slope and
responds to the TW activity during the few tens of provides an overcurrent trip supervision threshold for the user.
microseconds following the first TW. Once asserted, the TW32
element latches for a short period of time to act as an accelerator (a)

for the dependable TD32 element for permissive keying in the +

POTT scheme. Local TW

t

When applied with CCVTs, the TW32 element benefits

from the parasitic capacitances across the CCVT tuning reactor
TWLPT
and step-down transformer, which otherwise block the high-
frequency TW signals. These capacitances create a path for t
Remote TW
these signal components, allowing some voltage TW signals to
appear at the secondary CCVT terminals. The element only –
needs accurate polarity and timing of the first voltage TW, and
therefore, the element is suitable for CCVTs despite their poor
reproduction of voltage TWs, especially for the second and (b)

subsequent TWs. The relay in [3] uses the TW32 element to +

accelerate the permissive key signal in the POTT scheme. Local TW

t

(a) (b) 't < TWLPT

+ + +

t t t
Voltage TW Voltage TW Remote TW

Fig. 10. Current TW timing and polarities for external (a) and internal (b)
faults [9].
+

t t
Fig. 11 shows a fault record for a single-line-to-ground fault
Current TW Current TW
on a 115 kV, 20.65 mi line in a 60 Hz system (TWLPT is
– 113.5 Ps). The fault was 9.242 mi from the local terminal. The
TW87 scheme requires a direct fiber channel, which brings the
A Few
Tens of Ps extra benefit of low communications latency. Additionally, in
this case, it used relatively low overcurrent supervision settings
Integrated
Torque
Integrated (fast release from the overcurrent elements). As a result, it
Torque
–³VTW ‡,TW t –³VTW ‡,TW t operated in 0.9 ms at both the local and remote terminals.
Fig. 12 shows the first current TWs for the local and remote
terminal of the line (compare with Fig. 10b).
The relay in [3] that uses these new line protection principles
TW32
t
TW32
t has a field track record of operating times in the range of
2 – 5 ms, considerably below the 0.5-cycle reference relay
Fig. 9. Voltage and current TWs for a forward (a) and reverse (b) fault [9].
operating time in the breaker standards [1] and [2].
To appreciate the TW32 speed, refer to Fig. 6 and observe
that the TW32 elements asserted in 0.1 ms at the remote
terminal (2:TW32F).
4) TW87 Differential Scheme
The TW87 differential scheme compares time-aligned
current TWs at both ends of the protected line. For an external
fault, a TW that entered one terminal with a given polarity
leaves the other terminal with the opposite polarity exactly after
the known TW line propagation time (TWLPT) (see Fig. 10a).
For an internal fault, TWs of matching polarities arrive at both
 may argue that a misoperation is more probable during a fault
condition than during normal steady-state conditions.
Therefore, an extremely low, yet not zero, probability exists
that a breaker may be tripped a fraction of a millisecond into a
fault if a relay misoperates.
Any misoperation normally triggers an investigation and a
corrective action. However, an important question is this: Shall
a relay misoperation be allowed to push a breaker beyond its
rating, risking breaker failure and resulting in a beaker failure
trip and a larger outage, not to mention the cost, labor, and
operational inconvenience of losing a breaker? In this respect,
we strongly advocate having enough margin in the breaker
ratings to cover the low-probability case of a relay misoperation
at the very beginning of a heavy fault with a fully offset
(asymmetrical) current.

V. RATING A CIRCUIT BREAKER FOR THE

RELAY OPERATING TIME
A. Derating Formulas for Relay Operating Time
To derive a derating formula accounting for an arbitrary
relay operating time, we follow the S-factor (2) regarding the
Fig. 11. Field case example for the TW87 operation. Labels 1 and 2 asymmetrical current rating for a breaker:
correspond to the local terminal, and label 3 corresponds to the remote
terminal.
୲ౌఽ౎౐ ଶ
ି (5)
Iୖ୅୘୉ୈ = S ή Iୗଢ଼୑ = Iୗଢ଼୑ ඨ1 + 2 ൬e ୘ీి ൰

where:
IRATED is the rated breaker asymmetrical interrupting
current,
ISYM is the rated breaker symmetrical interrupting current,
tPART is the breaker contact parting time,
TDC is the dc offset time constant (depends on the X/R
ratio).
Equation (5) effectively specifies an extra margin that is
required for the asymmetrical rating as compared with the
symmetrical rating for any given contact parting time and dc
offset time constant. Note that the value in the square root is
higher than one, making IRATED higher than ISYM. This means
that to safely interrupt the ac component of ISYM under the
presence of a fully offset dc component with a time constant
TDC, the breaker needs to be rated such that IRATED > ISYM. Or
conversely, one can claim that a breaker with the symmetrical
rating of ISYM has the rating of ISYM / S for asymmetrical
conditions.
Fig. 12. Local and remote currents (top) and traveling waves (bottom) for
the case of Fig. 11. We divide the contact parting time into two components: the
relay operating time (tREL) and the breaker mechanical time
D. Protection Misoperations and Breaker Ratings
(tMECH), and rewrite (5) as follows:
Finally, we need to consider the case of relay misoperations.
Modern microprocessor-based relays incorporate extensive ୲ ା୲ ଶ
ି ౎ుై ౉ుిౄ (6)
self-monitoring to detect any internal failures in both hardware Iୖ୅୘୉ୈ = Iୗଢ଼୑ ඨ1 + 2 ൬e ୘ీి ൰
and data integrity, and – upon a failure – they fall back
gracefully without misoperation while setting an alarm to
ensure proper maintenance attention. Still, there is a non-zero IEEE Standard C37.04 [1] asks the breaker manufacturers to
probability, even if very low, that a relay may misoperate due use 0.5 cycle for the relay operating time (tREL = 0.5 cycle) and
to an internal problem or because of a setting or logic error. We 45 ms (corresponding to X/R = 17 for 60 Hz systems) for the
dc offset time constant (TDC = 45 ms or 2.71 cycles). Knowing of its rating. A breaker with a 13 ms mechanical time (two-
their symmetrical capability (ISYM) and the mechanical time cycle breaker) tripped in 2 ms and lost about 6.5 percent of its
(tMECH), the manufacturers specify and test the asymmetrical rating (a very extreme case for both the relay and the breaker).
rating (IRATED) that accounts for the reference relay operating A five-cycle breaker with a 63 ms mechanical time tripped in
time and the reference X/R ratio. 2 ms and lost about 1 percent of its rating.
We can use (6) and calculate a derating factor: a ratio of the B. Estimating the Breaker Mechanical Time
breaker interrupting rating at an arbitrary relay operating time, To apply the derating formula (9), one needs to know the
tREL, and the nameplate rating applicable to relays that operate mechanical time in (9). You can calculate the mechanical time
in 0.5 cycle (t0.5 = 0.5 cycle). from the breaker interrupting time by subtracting the arcing
୲బ.ఱ ା୲౉ుిౄ ଶ time with margin. You can approximate the arcing time by
ି (7)
Iୖ୅୘୉ୈ(଴.ହୡ୷ୡ୪ୣ) = Iୗଢ଼୑ ඨ1 + 2 ൬e ୘ీి ൰ adding the time between consecutive zero-crossings of
0.5 cycle (8.3 ms), accounting for the scatter of zero-crossings
between all three phases during a three-phase fault (4.2 ms),
୲ ା୲
ି ౎ుై ౉ుిౄ
ଶ and adding an extra margin. In practice, at maximum fault
Iୖ୅୘୉ୈ(୲౎ుై) = Iୗଢ଼୑ ඨ1 + 2 ൬e ୘ీి ൰ (8) currents, a breaker needs to part its contacts 12 – 15 ms before
its rated interrupting time to develop sufficient interrupter
pressure to interrupt the highest current faults. Often, a 20 ms
The ratio of the interrupting current for an arbitrary relay arcing interval is used for safety. In other words, a two-cycle
operating time to the interrupting current for the reference breaker has a mechanical time of approximately
0.5-cycle relay operating time is as follows: 33 ms – 20 ms = 13 ms, and a five-cycle breaker has a
ଶ
mechanical time of about 63 ms.
୲ ା୲
ି ౎ుై ౉ుిౄ
Iୖ୅୘୉ୈ(୲౎ుై) 1 + 2 ൬e ୘ీి ൰ Another way to approximate the breaker mechanical time is
R= =ඪ ଶ
(9) to use the symmetrical rating, if known. We can use (6) and
Iୖ୅୘୉ୈ(଴.ହୡ୷ୡ୪ୣ) ୲ ା୲
ି బ.ఱ ౉ుిౄ
1 + 2 ൬e ୘ీి ൰ solve it for the mechanical time as follows:

Tୈେ Iୖ୅୘୉ୈ ଶ
t ୑୉େୌ = െ ή ln ቌ0.5 ቆ൬ ൰ െ 1ቇቍ െ 0.5 cyc (10)
Fig. 13 plots the R-factor for relay operating times between 2 Iୗଢ଼୑
2 ms and 8 ms, and for three typical breaker mechanical times
of 13 ms (two-cycle breaker), 30 ms (three-cycle breaker) and where ln is the natural (base e) logarithm.
63 ms (five-cycle breaker). The figure assumes the reference
For example, for the asymmetrical rating requirement of
X/R ratio of 17 (TDC = 45 ms in 60 Hz systems). Section V,
1.25 times the symmetrical rating in a 60 Hz system with an
Subsection B explains the method for estimating the breaker
X/R of 17, the mechanical time is about 20 ms; for the
mechanical time.
asymmetrical rating requirement of 1.3 times the symmetrical
We obtain R below 1 for the relay operating times shorter rating, the mechanical time is about 16 ms; for the
than 0.5 cycle. R < 1 means the breaker lost some capability asymmetrical rating requirement of 1.1 times the symmetrical
because of “fast” tripping. The 1 – R value is the “penalty” for rating, the mechanical time is about 42 ms.
the relay operating in less than 0.5 cycle.
You can also contact your breaker manufacturer to obtain a
more precise estimate of the mechanical time.
101
Asymm. Rating Relative to 0.5 cyc Relay Time, %

Note that slow breakers do not need or have much of an

100 tMECH
oversizing factor for the dc component because the arc appears
63 ms
99
(5-cycle CB) when the dc offset already decayed to a large degree.
98
C. Impact of the X/R Ratio and Mechanical Time
97
The derating factor R (9) includes three variables:
30 ms
96 (3-cycle CB) x Relay operating time, tREL.
95 x DC offset time constant that depends on the X/R
94 13 ms
ratio, TDC.
93
(2-cycle CB)
x Breaker mechanical time, tMECH.
92 The impact of the relay operating time on the breaker rating
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Relay Operating Time, ms varies depending on the two other factors. Fig. 13 plots the
derating curves for the reference X/R ratio of 17 and three
Fig. 13. Derating curves accounting for fast relay operation for an X/R of 17
in a 60 Hz system. breaker mechanical times. Fig. 14 and Fig. 15 plot the derating
curves for time constant values of 100 ms (X/R of 37.7 in a
For example, a breaker with a 30 ms mechanical time (a 60 Hz system) and 25 ms (X/R of 9.4 in a 60 Hz system),
three-cycle breaker) tripped in 3 ms and lost about 3.5 percent respectively. The three plots show derating factors for the relay
operating time, assuming that the X/R ratios of 17, 37.7, and D. “Fast” Relays and “Slow” Relays
9.4, respectively, do not change. Should the X/R ratio change, So far, we have considered relay operating times faster than
the breaker shall be further derated. the reference 0.5-cycle value. Fig. 16 plots the derating curves
for relay operating times both faster and slower than 0.5 cycle
for three sample breaker mechanical times.
Asymm. Rating Relative to 0.5 cyc Relay Time, %

101

100.5

Asymm. Rating Relative to 0.5 cyc Relay Time, %

100 120

99.5
tMECH
115
99 13 ms
(2-cycle CB)
98.5 tMECH 110
30 ms
98 63 ms (3-cycle CB)
(5-cycle CB)
97.5 105
63 ms
30 ms
97 (5-cycle CB)
(3-cycle CB)
100
96.5 13 ms
(2-cycle CB)
96 95
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Relay Operating Time, ms

Fig. 14. Derating curves accounting for fast relay operation for an X/R of 90
5 10 15 20 25 30
37.7 (100 ms time constant) in a 60 Hz system. Relay Operating Time, ms

Fig. 16. Derating curves accounting for relay operation time faster and
Asymm. Rating Relative to 0.5 cyc Relay Time, %

101 slower than the reference 0.5 cycle for an X/R of 17 (45 ms time constant) in
tMECH
100 63 ms
a 60 Hz system.
(5-cycle CB)
99 For example, when the breaker mechanical time is 30 ms (a
three-cycle breaker), a 2 ms relay operating time “penalizes”
98
30 ms the breaker rating by about 4 percent compared with the
97 (3-cycle CB)
nameplate. A “slow” relay operating in 20 ms “rewards” the
96 breaker with the extra 7 percent compared with the nameplate.
95
As we can see, the impact of the relay operating time in both
directions – below and above the assumed 0.5 cycle – is not that
94
dramatic. Also, it should be noted that this apparently higher-
93
13 ms
rated capability when using slow relays only applies to the fully
92
(2-cycle CB) asymmetrical bus or terminal fault. Other test duties, such as
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Relay Operating Time, ms the short line fault test, are not affected by this change in dc
asymmetry. This higher capability from a slow relay operation
Fig. 15. Derating curves accounting for fast relay operation for an X/R of
9.4 (25 ms time constant) in a 60 Hz system. becomes an additional margin rather than a true increase in the
rated capability.
The plots in Fig. 14 and Fig. 15 may seem counterintuitive
at first: the impact of fast tripping for systems with long time However, if one intentionally (or unknowingly) benefits
constants is smaller than for systems with short time constants. from the slow protection time premium, one may see some
issues during occasional fast tripping or after retrofitting
The long time constant case in Fig. 14 (large X/R) is less protective relays. For example, assume a breaker with a 30 ms
“punishing” for breakers tripped from fast relays, because the mechanical time is marginal when operated from a 20 ms relay.
long decay of the dc component is the dominating factor in the When one retrofits the 20 ms relay with a 2 ms relay, one would
rating, and the relay operating time becomes a secondary factor. lose +7% – (–4%) = 11% of the asymmetrical rating in this
In other words, the dc component is approximately as high example. The 11 percent is still within the 20 percent margin
when the relay operates very fast (such as in 2 ms) as when it recommended for breakers. However, if this breaker does not
operates at the reference time of 0.5 cycle. have at least an 11 percent margin, it may have issues when it
The short time constant case in Fig. 15 seems to be more is tripped in 2 ms as compared to 20 ms.
“punishing” for very fast relays, but the derating does not
E. Is Derating for Relays Faster Than 0.5 Cycle Needed?
matter that much. Breakers are rated for the standard time
constant. When operated in a system with a short time constant, An ac breaker can interrupt only at the natural current zero
these breakers gain some extra margin in rating due to the fast crossing. For a fully offset current, the first current zero
dc decay, and that margin is removed by relay operation faster crossing occurs just before one full cycle (see Fig. 17). Assume
than 0.5 cycle. that the shortest breaker mechanical time is 0.5 cycle. If we
assume the relay operating time to be zero, we may conclude
that this breaker can interrupt at the first zero crossing and the
interruption will be concerned with the level of the first current If the interruption takes place at the next (third) zero
peak. This constitutes the absolute worst-case scenario. crossing, the preceding peak occurs at 1.25 cycles and is
1.63 times the symmetrical component.
2.5 With the above examples, we want to bring the following
1st Peak = 1.91 pu aspects to our discussion:
2 S = 1.63
S = 1.34 x The decaying dc offset in the asymmetrical current
S = 1.24 elevates the ac current peak only at every other peak.
Current, pu of ac peak

1.5
The odd peaks (first, third, fifth, and so on) are
1 elevated while the even peaks (second, fourth, sixth,
and so on) are reduced compared with the peaks of the
0.5
symmetrical component.
0 x A breaker can interrupt only at a current zero crossing.
As a result, the derating calculations may need to be
–0.5 2nd Peak = 0.24 pu rounded to a discreet time of odd current peaks (first,
third, fifth, and so on).
–1
0 10 20 30
Time, ms
40 50 60 x If arcing did not start before the first zero crossing (in
the first cycle), the most intense arcing will occur at
Fig. 17. Illustration of why the third current peak is critical for the the third (not the second) current peak. The dc
asymmetrical breaker rating.
component elevates the third peak because the dc and
The first current peak occurs 0.25 – 0.5 cycle into the fault ac components are of the same polarity and they add
(0.25 cycle for symmetrical current and 0.5 cycle for a fully up. The dc value at the time of the third peak is lower
offset current; assume a more stringent case of 0.25 cycle in this than at the time of the second peak.
analysis). At the time, assuming the standard X/R ratio (a dc
x The third current peak (assuming the standard X/R
time constant of 2.71 cycles), the dc component of a fully offset
ratio) has the S-factor of 1.34, while the first peak has
current is:
the S-factor of 1.63. The fifth peak occurs at
଴.ଶହ 1.75 cycles and has an S-factor of 1.24.
DC% = 100% ή eିଶ.଻ଵ = 91%
x If the relay operating time is such that arcing starts
and the corresponding S-factor is: before the first zero crossing, the application calls for
an S-factor of 1.63. If relay operating time is such that
మ
S = ඥ1 + 2 ή (0.91)ଶ = 1.63 arcing starts after the first zero crossing but
sufficiently before the second zero crossing, the
The above S-factor of 1.63 would ensure the absolute worst- application calls for an S-factor of 1.34. If relay
case rating for an “instant relay” (0 ms operating time) and an operating time is such that arcing starts after the
“instant breaker” (mechanical time below 0.5 cycle). second zero crossing but sufficiently before the third
zero crossing, the application calls for an S-factor of
If the breaker starts arcing later, it may interrupt at the
1.24.
second zero crossing, past the second current peak. The second
current peak, however, is very small for a fully offset current. This discussion may explain why we do not have field cases
For the standard X/R of 17, the first peak occurs at 0.25 cycle of breaker failures for breakers properly rated for 0.5-cycle
and is 1.91 times the symmetrical component. The second peak relay operation when actuated from SOTF relays, fast bus
occurs at 0.75 cycle and is only 0.24 times the symmetrical differential relays, or during relay misoperations. We are aware
component (DC% is negative 76 percent at t = 0.75 cycle). of breaker problems after faster relays have been installed.
Theoretically, a breaker that interrupts at the second zero However, those problems have roots in insufficient breaker
crossing deals with a much smaller peak current because the dc ratings with respect to the 0.5-cycle standard relay operating
and ac components have opposite polarities and they partially time and not in the actual relay operating times being faster than
cancel. However, to interrupt at the second zero crossing, the 0.5 cycle.
contacts need to part considerably earlier, before the first zero
crossing in this case, at the time the current is still large and VI. CONCLUSIONS
falling from the previous peak. This large current in the early This paper explains the impact of the fault current dc
stage of arcing creates heat and plasma and will make it less component on the breaker asymmetrical current interrupting
likely to interrupt past the second peak at the second zero rating. The asymmetrical rating is driven by the current dc
crossing. Also, arcing at the time of the second lower peak component level at the time of contact parting. The longer the
generates lower energy, and this may create problems for dc time constant, the higher the dc value at the time of contact
breakers that depend on arc-generated energy for interruption. parting, and the harder it will be for the breaker to interrupt the
current. Similarly, the faster the relay, the higher the dc value
at the time of contact parting, and the harder it will be for the [3] SEL-T400L Time-Domain Line Protection Instruction Manual.
Available: https://selinc.com.
breaker. At the same time, the slower the breaker, the smaller
[4] R. D. Garzon, High Voltage Circuit Breakers. Design and Application,
the dc value at the time of contact parting, the easier the current
Marcel Dekker, New York, NY, 1997.
interrupting process, and the smaller the impact of the relay [5] E. O. Schweitzer, III, B. Kasztenny, A. Guzmán, V. Skendzic, and M. V.
operating time on this process. Mynam, “Speed of Line Protection – Can We Break Free of Phasor
Limitations?” proceedings of the 41st Annual Western Protective Relay
We developed a simple breaker derating formula that
Conference, Spokane, WA, October 2014.
accounts for the relay operating time and the dc time constant [6] M. Thompson, “The Power of Modern Relays Enables Fundamental
being different from the commonly used reference values of Changes in Protection and Control System Design,” proceedings of the
0.5 cycle and 45 ms, respectively. 60th Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers, College Station,
TX, March 2007.
To apply the derating formula, you need to estimate or find
[7] A. Guzmán, C. Labuschagne, B.-L. Qin, “Reliable Busbar and Breaker
the breaker mechanical time. We included information on how Failure Protection With Advanced Zone Selection,” proceedings of the
to approximate the mechanical time based on other breaker data 31st Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA,
available. October 2004.
[8] M. Thompson, B. Kasztenny, D. Taylor, “Time-Domain Elements
The 0.5 cycle “worst-case” relay operating time that the Optimize the Security and Performance of Transformer Protection,”
breaker standards use as a reference for specifying the proceedings of the 71st Annual Conference for Protective Relay
asymmetrical breaker rating is an arbitrary value. We described Engineers, College Station, TX, March 2018.
several protection schemes, as well as new line protection [9] B. Kasztenny, A. Guzmán, N. Fischer, M. V. Mynam, and D. Taylor,
“Practical Setting Considerations for Protective Relays That Use
principles (based on incremental quantities and traveling
Incremental Quantities and Traveling Waves,” proceedings of the 43rd
waves) that provide operating times considerably smaller than Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October
0.5 cycle. Breaker practitioners know how to derate a breaker 2016.
for operating conditions that are different than the IEEE
Standard C37.04 reference. Today, with ultra-high-speed VIII. BIOGRAPHIES
relays, these derating calculations may include the relay Bogdan Kasztenny has specialized and worked in power system protection and
operating time. control since 1989. In his decade-long academic career, Dr. Kasztenny taught
power system and signal processing courses at several universities and
If we follow the IEEE Standard C37.04 language literarily, conducted applied research for several relay manufacturers. Since 1999,
we conclude that there is some small “loss” of the asymmetrical Bogdan has designed, applied, and supported protection, control, and fault
locating products with their global installed base counted in thousands of
breaker rating due to relay operation faster than 0.5 cycle. A installations. Since 2009, Bogdan has been with Schweitzer Engineering
2 ms operating time in a 60 Hz system with an X/R of 17 lowers Laboratories, Inc. where he works on product research and development.
the asymmetrical breaker rating by only 3 percent (for slow Bogdan is an IEEE Fellow, a Senior Fulbright Fellow, a Canadian
representative of the CIGRE Study Committee B5, and a registered
breakers) and 7 percent (for very fast breakers). These numbers
professional engineer in the province of Ontario. Bogdan has served on the
are below half the recommended 20 percent breaker margin. In Western Protective Relay Conference Program Committee since 2011 and on
systems with a large X/R ratio, the loss of rating is very small the Developments in Power System Protection Conference Program Committee
as the breaker is exposed to large dc offset regardless of how since 2015. Bogdan has authored over 200 technical papers and holds over 30
patents.
“fast” or “slowly” it is tripped.
Joe Rostron, P.E., Senior Member, Life Member, IEEE, has 48 years of
Given the mechanical inertia of a breaker, a typical breaker experience with advanced high-voltage technology and holds 48 patents. He is
is concerned only with the third current peak from the point of currently the Sr. V.P. of Technology Development at Southern States LLC,
view of the worst-case scenario for the asymmetrical rating. A Hampton, Georgia, U.S.A. Joe was recognized as Outstanding Inventor in 2008
by Southern States. He has previously worked at Westinghouse, ABB, and
typical breaker will part its contacts for third current peak if Siemens in various engineering and development related positions. Joe is also
actuated from a 0.5-cycle relay or from a much faster relay. a member of ASME. Joe is the Past Vice Chairman of the Quality and
Therefore, we suspect that derating of the asymmetrical breaker Reliability IEEE Switchgear Subcommittee. He graduated with a BSME from
Washington State University and an MBA from the University of Pittsburgh.
ratings for relay operating times below 0.5 cycle is not He is a registered professional engineer in the state of Pennsylvania.
necessary, unless a breaker is extremely fast. A very fast
breaker when tripped by an ultra-high-speed relay may start
contact arcing when the current is just past the first peak. We
advocate that the future revisions of the breaker standards
provide clarifications in this respect.
Still, we strongly recommend following the 20 percent
margin in breaker ratings. Breakers are expensive assets and
their failures have serious power system consequences.

VII. REFERENCES
[1] C37.04-1999 (R2006) IEEE Standard Rating Structure for AC High-
Voltage Circuit Breakers.
[2] IEC 62271-100, Ed. 2.0 International Standard on High-Voltage
Switchgear and Controlgear. Part 100: Alternating-current circuit- 20180302 ‡736849
breakers.