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Module 1
MEANING AND
NATURE OF RESEARCH AND
RESEARCH PROCESSES

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

The learners are expected to:

1. combine different viewpoints, descriptions
and definitions of research and be able to
form synthesis.
2. show how a research is developed through
the processes involved and
3. demonstrate in-depth knowledge and
understanding of the nature and processes,
and characteristics research and researchers
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OVERVIEW

Research has always been considered as a significant endeavor in the

existence of man. Activities like nomadic searching for food of the primitive men,
innovating various devices and medicine, managing information and other related
facts require a research process. With this, our practice in sustaining better lives
necessitates the clear understanding of the nature and processes of research so as to
embrace the challenges and changes is that the fast-paced society might provide us.

DISCUSSION

There are several definitions of research, proposed by famous authors and

scholars of their time. You will find out what the basic meaning in the context of these
definitions are saying. The difference between this definition supplies only in the way
the author has undertaken researching in his discipline.

WHAT IS RESEARCH?
1. Research is a creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to
increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of men, culture and
society, and the use of the stock of knowledge to devise new applications
(OECD).
2. Research is a systematic way of gathering data, harnessing of curiosity. It
provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature
and the properties of the world (Armstrong and Sperry).
3. Research includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the
advancement of knowledge (Shuttleworth).
4. Research is a careful, systematic and objective investigation conducted to
obtain valid facts, draw conclusions and establish principles regarding
identifiable problems in some field of knowledge (Clarke).
5. Research is a systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled
observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles,
theories and concepts, resulting in prediction for seeing and possibly ultimate
control of events (Best).
6. Research is a careful inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles, a
diligent investigation to ascertain something (Woody).
7. Research is the process of arriving at dependable solutions to the problems
through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of
data (Mouley).
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8. Research is a scientific process of critical selection of data, investigation and

analysis of such to gain new knowledge or to complement an existing one
(Martinez).
9. Research must answer new questions and add new knowledge to the fund of
already existing knowledge using the present and the past (Dempsey).
10. Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of
hypothetical positions about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena (Kerlinger).

GENERAL TYPES OF RESEARCH

Research can be classified into three general categories: descriptive research,
correlation or association research and experimental or intervention research.

Descriptive Research
The descriptive type of study finds answer to the questions who, what, when,
where and how. This type of research describes a situation or a given state of affairs
in terms of specified aspects or factors. What may be described are characteristics of
individuals or groups (farmers, students, administrators, entrepreneurs, patients,
etc.) or physical environments (schools, business establishments, hospitals,
cooperatives, etc.), or conditions (epidemic, calamities, leadership styles, anxiety
level, sales and profit, productivity, etc.).

Examples of Descriptive Researches

The Management Style of School Administrators in Lucena City
Tardiness and Absenteeism among High School Students
The Medicinal Components of Five Kinds of Philippine Backyard Plants
Smoking Habits of Health Service Providers in Government and Private Hospitals
Marketing Practices of the Loom Weaving Industry in Region IV-A
A Typical Office Day of a Government Employee: A Time Allocation Study
The Insecticidal Properties of Pepper

Explanatory or Correlation Research

An explanatory study goes beyond description of the problem or situation. It
attempts to explain the possible factors related to a problem which have been
observed in a descriptive study. This type of study answers the questions why and
how? The factors related to the problem, however, need not be viewed as real “causes”
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of the problem, but factors which are associated with or may contribute to the
occurrence of the problem.
The explanatory type of study is also called correlation research, in which the
research investigates relationships between factors or variables. Certain factors are
“assumed” to explain or contribute to the existence of a problem or a certain condition
or the variation in a given situation.
The researcher usually uses a theory or a hypothesis to account for or explain
the forces that are “assumed to have caused” the problem.
For example, relationships between the following pairs of variables can be
studied:

1. Local Government Employees’

Knowledge about the Local Work Performance
Government Code
2. Gender Grades
3. Knowledge about Cancer Compliance with Medical Regimen
Financial Performance of Business
4. Source of Business Capital
Firms
Repayment Status of Cooperative
5. Educational Attainment
Members

The following examples of research topics fall under the explanatory or

correlation category:

Examples of Explanatory/Correlation Researches

Knowledge about Cancer and Compliance with Diet, Exercise and Medical
Regimen among Cancer Patients
Relationship between Socio-economic Factors and Absenteeism among High
School Students in Lucena City Division
Attitudes towards Health and Smoking Habits of Health Service Providers in
Government and Private Hospitals in Lucena City
Marketing Strategies and Sales Performance of Garment Industries in the
Province of Quezon
Employment and Income as Determinants of Loan Repayment Status of
Borrowers of Credit Cooperatives in Lucena City
Factors Associated with Extent of Involvement in Local Governance among
Barangay Officials in Region IV-A
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Intervention or Experimental Research

The intervention or experimental type of research evaluates the effect or
outcome of a particular intervention or treatment. It studies the “cause and effect”
relationship between certain factors on a certain phenomenon under controlled
conditions. The subjects of the study are randomly assigned to the experimental
group and to the control group and both groups are exposed to similar conditions
except for the interventions/treatment.
For example, one can assess or compare the effect or outcome of two or more
methods of teaching math on the mathematical ability of students, two or more health
management practices on the recovery of patients, or two or more management
styles on employees’ productivity.

Examples of Intervention/Experimental Researches

The Effect of Cooperative Learning Approach on the Performance in Mathematics
of Junior High School Students of Southern Luzon State University
The Effect of Verbal Suggestion on Overt Pain Reaction of Selected Post-operative
Patients
Advertising: Its Effect on Sales and Profit of Auto Parts Business Establishment in
Laguna
The Effect of In-House Training on Human Relations on the Productivity and
Efficiency of Office Employees in Private Banks in Lucena City
The Effect of Different Levels of Applied Nitrogen on the Growth and Yield of Rice
The Impact of the ADB-assisted Microfinance Projects on the Living Condition of
the Beneficiaries

Other Dichotomies of Research

There are other classifications of research. Research may also be classified as
either pure or applied, either exploratory or explanatory, and either quantitative or
qualitative.
1. Pure Basic vs. Applied Research
Pure Basic Research. This type of research attempts to describe an existing
situation and/or explain certain patterns of behavior using either or both
qualitative and quantitative research techniques. The goal of pure research is
to offer better descriptions and better explanation of human behavior. The
intention is to accumulate knowledge about a certain phenomenon.

Applied Research. While the primary aim of pure research is the formulation
or the refinement of theory, applied research aims to see an immediate
solution to a problem. This type of research focuses on variables or factors
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which can be changed by intervention in order to achieve a desired goal, like

improvement of health, school achievement, or performance or increase in
revenue. An experimental study comparing the effectiveness of two methods
of improving health practices of mothers or two management styles of bank
managers can yield results that recommend a better practice or style.

Examples of Pure Basic Researches

Factors Associated with Tardiness and Absenteeism among High School
Students
Attitudes towards Health and Smoking Habits of Health Service Providers
Examples of Applied Researches
The Effect of Gender Sensitivity Training on Men’s Involvement in Child
Care
Remedial Teaching: Its Effect on the Performance of Slow Learners

2. Exploratory vs. Explanatory Research

Exploratory Research. Exploratory studies are designed to describe an
existing problem situation and examine the underlying factors that contribute
to the emergence of the problem, the nature of which is not yet well known.

Explanatory Research. The primary goal of an explanatory study is to

understand or explain a prevailing situation or explain a relationship between
factors which may have already been identified in exploratory studies, and
why the relationship exists. Explanatory studies seek more specific answers to
“why” and “how” questions.

Examples of Exploratory Researches

Domestic Violence: Ideas, Experiences, and Needs of Married Working Men
in the City of Tayabas
Menopause: Working Women’s Perceptions, Experiences and Coping
Strategies
Examples of Explanatory Researches
Relationship between Alcohol Intake and Domestic Violence among
Married Men in the Municipality of Pagbilao
Extent of Exposure to Advertising Materials and Expenditure Patterns of
young Professionals in Southern Luzon
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3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research. This type of research seeks to quantify or reflect in
numbers the observations on the characteristics of the population being
studied. It measures the number of respondents or objects possessing a
particular characteristic. It emphasizes precise measurement and often times
requires statistical analysis of data or the testing of hypotheses based on a
sample of observations.

Qualitative Research. This type of research emphasizes verbal descriptions

and explanations of human behavior and practices in an attempt to
understand how the units or members of the study population experience or
explain their own world. To gather information, the researcher makes use of
one or a combination of the following techniques: participant observation, key
informant interview, focus group discussion, direct observation, and in-depth
analysis of a single case.

Examples of Quantitative Researches

The Socio-economic Profile of Households in Upland Communities in the
Province of Quezon
Health Seeking Behavior and Health Status of Retired School Teachers in
Zamboanga
Examples of Qualitative Researches
Experiences and Needs of Victims of Child Abuse among Elementary School
Pupils in Lucena City
Menopause: Women’s Perceptions and Experiences
Underground Economy: A Survival Strategy of Public School Employees

4. Case Study Research. It generally refers to two distinct research approaches.

The first consists of an in-depth study of a particular student, classroom, or
school with the aim of producing a nuanced description of the pervading
cultural setting that affects education, and an account of the interactions that
take place between students and other relevant persons. For example, an in-
depth exploration of the patterns of friendship between students ina a single
class. The second approach to Case Study Research involves the application of
the quantitative research methods to non-probabilitty samples which provide
results tha are not necessarily designed to be generalizable to wider
populations. For example, a survey of the reading achievements of the
students in one rural region of a particular country.
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5. Historical Research. This generates descriptions, and sometimes attempted

explanations, of conditions, situations, and events that have occurred in the
past. For example, a study that documents the evolution of teacher training
programs since the turn of the century, with the aim of explaining the
historical origins of the content and processes of current programs. Another
example of this research is to trace the development of basic education
curricula and analyze the salient features of each curricula.

6. Ethnographic Research usually cosists of a description of events that occur

within the life of a group – with particular reference to the interaction of
individuals in the context of the socio-cultural norms, rituals, and beliefs
shared by the group. The researcher generally participates in some part of the
normal life of the group and uses what he or she learns from this participation
to understand the interactions between group members. For example, a
detailed account of the daily tasks and interactions encountered by a school
principal using observations gathered by a research who is placed in the
position of ‘Principal’s Assistant’ in order to become fully involved in the daily
life of the school.

7. Developmental Research differs from the above types of research in that,

rather than bringing new information to light, it focuses on the interaction
between research and the production and evaluation of a new product. This
type of research can be formative (by collecting evaluative information about
the product while it is being developed with the aim of using such information
to modify and improve the development process). For example, the
development of an IoT-based Monitoring System for Tilapia Farming.

8. Action Research is inquiry process conducted by teachers, administrators or

other stakeholders in the teaching-learning environment to address a felt need
or solve everyday problems. The primary pupose of action research is not to
contribute to science but only to contribute to the solution of a given problem.
Major Purpose: to solve a problem in a limited setting

9. Creative Research is the process of determining teaching-learning needs and

consequently developing products like instructional materials, innovative
teaching methods, curriculum enhancement proposals, sets of exit
competencies of graduates and educational management systems.
Major Purpose: to develop products for teaching and learning

A single research paper can be classified to different types of researches.

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RESEARCH AS A SCIENTIFIC PROCESS

Research, as a broad field of study, follows logical patterns of procedures. A
research problem can be resolved through a process which requires critical and
empirical investigation of data. Thus, any research problem can be undertaken
through scientific methodologies.

The extent to which researchers decipher good results in their investigation

lies in their ability to examine details by following rigid and predetermined
procedures such as:

1. Develop a research question

2. gather data about the problem
3. construct a research hypothesis
4. test the null hypothesis
5. presentation, analysis and interpretation of data
6. draw a conclusion
7. communicate results

Step 1. Develop a Research Question

Observation is a potent tool to validate the existence of a problem in any
research locale. It is through keen observation that researchers can finally identify
the problem. Likewise, it can also be helpful for the researcher to quantify the
behavior patterns they observed so as to support the authenticity of the problem.

Step 2. Gather Information about the Problem

After a research question has been critically identified, gathering of pertinent
literature and studies comes next. There are varieties of printed or computer-based
resources that can be reviewed in order for the researchers to build strong conceptual
understanding of the problem at hand. Salient findings on previously conducted
studies and other equally important facts and documents can lead researchers in
coming up with their own set of variables, setting up their own research designs and
methodologies and even tailoring their own hypothesis of their academic papers. At
the end, this research process facilitates the procedure of supporting, refuting or even
suggesting ways of testing the research question.

Step 3. Construct a Research Hypothesis

Why are hypotheses considered as educated guesses? How do researchers
make and state their hypotheses? How significant the hypotheses are in the conduct
of the entire study?
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Hypothesis formulation is prerequisite in the realization of the research study,

particularly those whose nature is quantitative. Hypothesis are the tentative
solutions or answers to the general query of the investigation.

In a quantitative research, there are two commonly known hypotheses and

they are stated as follows:

 Alternative Hypotheses (Ha) state the hypotheses in the affirmative form.

 Null Hypotheses (Ho) state the hypotheses in negative form.

Example:
 There is a relationship between A and B. (Ha)
 There is no relationship between A and B. (Ho)

Then in which way do researchers state the hypotheses? It is more of Ho!

Generally, hypothesis formulation facilitates a clearer view of any investigation. It is
the hypothesis that the researchers will test and at the same time base the conclusion
of the study. Therefore, it is imperative that researchers should have a clear and
concise statement of hypothesis to ensure better outcomes.

Step 4. Test the Null Hypothesis

To test the hypothesis, researchers use a significance test. The italicized
lowercase you often see, followed by > or < sign and a decimal (p≤ .05) indicate
significance. In most cases, the researcher tests the null hypothesis, A = B, because it
is easier to show there is some sort of effect of A on B, than to have to determine a
positive or negative effect prior to conducting the research. This way, you leave
yourself room without having the burden of proof on your study from the beginning.

Testing the hypothesis of the study requires experimentation. It is in this

process that researchers undergo experiments to gather pertinent data in the light of
the research problem.

Step 5. Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data

In the conduct of experimentation, the gathered data should be presented,
analyzed and interpreted. In the data presentation, tables, charts and graphs can be
utilized to clearly and vividly display the information. Analysis of data should further
be conducted so that the results can be made critically. Lastly, the interpretation of
data should be grounded in the light of the conditions and background of the study.
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Step 6. Draw a Conclusion

After a thorough presentation, analysis and interpretation of data, drawing of
conclusion should be made accurately. Decisions must be made as objectively and
reliably to come up with the goal of the study.

In general, testing the null leaves two possibilities:

1. reject the null hypothesis
2. accept the null hypothesis

Step 7. Communicate Results

The research should not end with making decisions. It should be understood
that the findings of any research does not only add up to the pool of knowledge but
can also bring benefits to the targets. Hence, the findings of the study should be
communicated effectively. This can be done through the conduct of paper
presentation and publication of the same to refereed journals.

From the above stages, one can conclude that the research process should
have the following features:
1. It should be undertaken in a scientific manner, biases and subjectivity should
be avoided
2. The process should follow valid and verifiable tools, techniques and
procedures
3. The process follows the logical and sequential procedures that are established
by the academic discipline in which you are conducting research

The process to be followed in the conduct of research might be different from

one discipline to another. The amount of rigor and controls that needs to be applied
also varies. In physical and natural sciences, the researcher has to apply as much
control as possible in conducting the research. In social sciences, the researcher
cannot have a similar control in the research process. In social sciences, the
researcher observes behavior, subjectivity cannot be controlled completely. The
sensitivity should not be confused with bias, there is no place for bias in the research
process.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
1. Empirical. Research is based on direct experience or observation by the
researcher.
2. Logical. Research is based on valid procedures and principles.
3. Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and
ends with a problem.
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4. Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the

data, whether historical, descriptive, experimental, and case study.
5. Critical. Research exhibits careful and precise judgement.
6. Methodical. Research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias using
systematic method and procedures.
7. Replicability. The research design and procedures are replicated or repeated
to enable the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCHER

1. Research-oriented
2. Efficient
3. Scientific
4. effective
5. Active
6. Resourceful
7. Creative
8. Honest
9. Economical
10. Religious

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESEARCHER

1. Intellectual Curiosity. A researcher undertakes auntie thinking and inquiry
of the things and situations around him.
2. Prudence. The researcher is careful to conduct his research study at the right
time and at the right place wisely, efficiently, and economically.
3. Healthy Criticism. The researcher is always doubtful as to the truthfulness of
the results.
4. Intellectual Honesty. An intelligent researcher is honest to collect and gather
data or facts in order to arrive at honest results.
5. Intellectual Creativity. A productive and resourceful investigator always
creates new research.

VALUES OF RESEARCH TO MAN

1. research improves the quality of life
2. research improves instruction
3. research improves students’ achievement
4. research improves teachers’ competence
5. research satisfies man's needs
6. research reduces the burden of work
7. research has deep seated psychological aspects
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8. research improves the exportation of food products

9. research response to the economic recovery and austerity measure of the
country
10. research trains graduates to become responsive to the economic development
of the country and to compete globally

APPLY

1. With the viewpoints of research pioneered by some authorities in the field of

research, reexamine their statements and create your own synthesis of what
research is.
Clarke and Clarke
Armstrong et al.

Shuttle worth

Kerlinger
Dempsey
Martinez
Woody

Mouly
OECD

Best

(My Synthesis)
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2. Listed below are research questions. What type of research can best answer
each?
1. What do students think are the least popular courses in the high school
curriculum and why?
________________________________________________________________________________
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2. What is sexual harassment to high school boys and girls?

________________________________________________________________________________
3. What are the problems that the elderly confined in a nursing home
experience and how do they cope with their problems?
________________________________________________________________________________
4. Can gender sensitivity training improve men’s views about the family
and their behavior at home in relation to their spouses and children?
________________________________________________________________________________
5. Does gender of a counselor affect the counselees’ response to
counseling?
________________________________________________________________________________
6. Does exposure to commercial advertisement contribute to the buying
patterns of college students?
________________________________________________________________________________

3. Examine a quantitative research on education and be able to deduce from the

study the following research processes:

Reference: ____________________________________________________________________________
Author(s): ____________________________________________________________________________
Research Title: _______________________________________________________________________
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Source: ________________________________________________________________________________
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Step 1: Develop a research question.

(indicate the general problem of the study)
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Step 2. Gather information about Step 3. Construct a research

the problem. hypothesis.
(encode some grounded theory) (specify the hypotheses of the study)

Step 4. Test the null hypothesis. Step 5. Presentation, Analysis and

(name various statistical tools to test Interpretation of Data.
the hypotheses) (analyze how the data were
presented, analyzed and interpreted)

Step 6: Draw a conclusion. Step 7: Communicate results.

(stipulate the conclusions of the (Was the study presented and/or
academic paper) published?)
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4. Discuss how the aforementioned study contributed to the pool of knowledge

and values to human kind.
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