RM Mod1
RM Mod1
RM Mod1
TYPES OF RESEARCH
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different
kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. The
main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report
what has happened or what is happening for example frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar
data. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available,
and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or
pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organisation. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a
particular institution/organisation Ex: study to improve customer retention for a company
Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory.
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental
research. Research studies, concerning human behaviour with a view to make generalisations about human
behaviour, are examples of Fundamental research.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
Gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical or computation techniques. Qualitative research, on the
other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or
kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour Ex: Motivational
Research:- This type of research aims at discovering the motives and desires, used in depth interviews.
Attitude or opinion research:- This research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a
particular subject or institution.
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is
generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory.
In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the
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Module-1 An Introduction
probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. Empirical
research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
For instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the people and on
the availability of revenues to meet these needs. The cost of needs has to be equated to probable revenues and
this is a field where research is most needed. Through research we can devise alternative policies and can as
well examine the consequences of each of these alternatives. in the context of government, research as a tool
to economic policy has three distinct phases of operation, viz., (i) investigation of economic structure through
continual compilation of facts; (ii) diagnosis of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces
underlying them; and (iii) the prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future developments.
Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems
of business and industry.
Operations research and market research, along with motivational research, are considered crucial and their
results assist, in more than one way.
Market research is the investigation of the structure and development of a market for the purpose of
formulating efficient policies for purchasing, production and sales
Operations research refers to the application of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the solution
of business problems of cost minimisation or of profit maximisation
Motivational research of determining why people behave as they do is mainly concerned with market
characteristics.
Business budgeting, which ultimately results in a projected profit and loss account, is based mainly on sales
estimates which in turn depends on business research. Once sales forecasting is done, efficient production and
investment programmes can be set up around which are grouped the purchasing and financing plans.
Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems
Research in social sciences is concerned both with knowledge for its own sake and with knowledge for what it
can contribute to practical concerns
The significance of research can also be understood keeping in view the following points:
Research Techniques refer to the behaviour and instruments we use in performing research operations such as
making observations, recording data, processing data.
Research Methods refer to the behaviour and instruments used in selecting and constructing research
technique.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood as a
science of studying how research is done scientifically. Researchers not only need to know how to develop
certain indices or tests, but also must know how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard
deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of
these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not.
For example, an architect, who designs a building, has to consciously evaluate the basis of his decisions.
when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic
behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular
method or technique and why we are not using others.
Figure 1.1
1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to
states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher
must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a
subject-matter that he would like to inquire into, Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way
and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved, then the feasibility of a particular
solution has to be considered before a working
Formulation of the problem can be set up. Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up
to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms. He may review two types of
literature—the conceptual literature concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature
consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the one proposed. The statement of the objective is of
basic importance because it determines the data which are to be collected, the characteristics of the data which
are relevant, relations which are to be explored, the choice of techniques to be used.
2. Extensive literature survey: It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to
write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee, For this purpose, the abstracting and
indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals,
3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear
terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of
research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting
the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It also indicates the type of data required and the type
of methods of data analysis to be used.
How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the following
approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in
seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale
with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical
aspects of the problem.
(i) Deliberate sampling: This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular
units of the universe, When population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of
access, it can be called convenience sampling. In judgement sampling the researcher’s judgement is used for
selecting items which he considers as representative of the population. For example, a judgement sample of
college students might be taken to secure reactions to a new method of teaching
(ii) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling
where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample, For example, if
we have to select a sample of 300 items from a universe of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or
numbers of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery.
(iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select every 15th name
on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this type is known as systematic
sampling. An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by using random
numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.
(iv) Stratified sampling: In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of nonoverlapping
subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the items selected from each
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stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire procedure, first stratification and then simple random
sampling, is known as stratified random sampling.
(v) Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual strata is often so
expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different strata, the actual selection of
items for sample being left to the interviewer’s judgement. This is called quota sampling.
(vi)Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then
selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample. for example
The sample size is to be kept say 450. For cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card holders could be formed
into 100 clusters of 150 card holders each. Three clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly.
Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally
called geographical clusters, then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these
small areas are included in the sample.
(vii)Multi-stage sampling: This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large
geographical area like an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large
primary sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns.
(viii) Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size of the sample
is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of information
yielded as survey progresses.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts an
experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the
truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the
following ways:
(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s own
observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to what is currently
7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the
execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable.
If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed.
In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded, If the data are to be collected
through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers. The
training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which explain clearly the job of the interviewers at
each step. Occasional field checks should be made, make a list of non-respondents and take a small sub
sample of them.
8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them. The
analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the
application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.
Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into
symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for
coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein
the classified data are put in the form of tables.
Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc.,
by applying various well defined statistical formulae. we need to check for the validity of the data if the
relationships are supporting/conflicting with the original/new hypothesis. the technique of analysis of variance
can help us in analysing whether three or more varieties of seeds grown on certain fields yield significantly
different results or not.
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9. Hypothesis-testing: Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual
question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-
test, have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of
one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will
result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with,
generalisations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses.
10. Generalisations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible
for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of
research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with,
he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of
interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been
done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and (iii) the end
matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword.
Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given
in the report.
The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of the
methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various limitations
should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and recommendations
in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarised.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken-down into
readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results of his research
clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography, i.e., list
of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also be given
specially in a published research report.
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2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague
expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information
more clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced
in conducting research operations may as well be stated.