Units, Physical Quantities, Measurement, Errors and Uncertainties, Graphical Presentation, and Linear Fitting of Data
Units, Physical Quantities, Measurement, Errors and Uncertainties, Graphical Presentation, and Linear Fitting of Data
Units, Physical Quantities, Measurement, Errors and Uncertainties, Graphical Presentation, and Linear Fitting of Data
General Physics 1
Units, Physical Quantities, Measurement, Errors and
Uncertainties, Graphical Presentation, and Linear Fitting
of Data
Content Standards 7. Estimate intercepts and slopes—and their uncertainties—in
The learners demonstrate an understanding of: experimental data with linear dependence using the “eyeball
• the effect of instruments on measurements; method” and/or linear regression formula
• uncertainties and deviations in measurement;
Specific Learning Objectives:
• sources and types of error; accuracy versus precision;
The learners will be able to solve measurement problems involving
• uncertainty of derived quantities;
• error bars; and, graphical analysis: linear fitting and conversion of units, expression of measurements in scientific
transformation of functional dependence to linear form. notation; differentiate accuracy from precision; differentiate random
errors from systematic errors; use the least count concept to
Performance Standards
estimate errors associated with single measurements; estimate
The learners shall be able to solve using experimental and
errors from multiple measurements of a physical quantity using
theoretical approaches, multi-concept and rich-context problems
involving measurement. variance; estimate the uncertainty of a derived quantity from the
estimated values and uncertainties of directly measured quantities;
Learning Competencies and estimate intercepts and slopes—and their uncertainties—in
At the end of the lesson, the learners:
experimental data with linear dependence using the “eyeball
1. Solve measurement problems involving conversion of units,
method” and/or linear regression formula.
expression of measurements in scientific notation.
2. Differentiate accuracy from precision Materials
3. Differentiate random errors from systematic error Ruler, Meterstick, Tape measure, Weighing scale, Timer (or watch)
4. 4. Use the least count concept to estimate errors associated with
single measurements Resources
5. Estimate errors from multiple measurements of a physical • Resnick, D., Halliday, R., & Krane, K. S. (1991). Physics (4th
quantity using variance ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
6. Estimate the uncertainty of a derived quantity from the • Young, H. D., & Freedman, R. A. (2007). University Physics
estimated values and uncertainties of directly measured with modern Physics (12th ed.). Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley.
quantities
1
INTRODUCTION
1. Definition of Physics:
• Invite learners to give the first idea that come to their minds whenever they hear “Physics”.
• Let some learners explain why they have such impressions of the field.
• Emphasize that just as any other scholarly field, Physics helped in shaping the modern world.
3. Physics is science. Physics is fun. It is an exciting adventure in the quest to find out patterns in nature and find means of understanding
phenomena through careful deductions based on experimental verification. Explain that in order to study Physics, one requires a sense of
discipline. That is, one needs to plan how to study by:
• Understanding how one learns. Explain that everyone is capable of learning Physics especially if one takes advantage of one’s unique way of
learning. (Those who learn by listening are good in sitting down and taking notes during lectures; those who learn more by engaging others
and questioning can take advantage of discussion sessions in class or group study outside classes. )
• Finding time to study. Explain that learning requires time. Easy concepts require less time to learn compared to more difficult ones.
Therefore, one has to invest more time in topics one finds more difficult. (Do learners study Physics every day? Does one need to prepare
before attending a class? What are the difficult topics one finds?)
INSTRUCTION
Units
Explain that Physics is an experimental science. Physicists perform experiments to test hypotheses. Conclusions in experiment are derived from
measurements. And physicists use numbers to describe measurements. Such a number is called a physical quantity. However, a physical
quantity would make sense to everyone when compared to a reference standard. For example, when one says, that his or her height is 1.5 m,
this means that one’s height is 1.5 times a meter stick (or a tape measure that is 1-m long). The meter stick is here considered to be the
reference standard. Thus, stating that one’s height is 1.5 is not as informative.
Since 1960 the system of units used by scientists and engineers is the “metric system”, which is officially known as the “International System” or
SI units (abbreviation for its French term, Système International).
To make sure that scientists from different parts of the world understand the same thing when referring to a measurement, standards have been
defined for measurements of length, time, and mass.
Length – 1 m is defined as the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 second. Based on the definition that the speed of light
is exactly 299,792,458 m/s.
Time – 1 second is defined as 9,192,631,770 cycles of the microwave radiation due to the transition between the two lowest energy states of
the Cesium atom. This is measured from an atomic clock using this transition.
Mass – 1 kg is defined to be the mass of a cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
(Sèvres, France).
Conversion of units
Discuss that a few countries continue to use the British system of units (e.g., the United States). However, the conversion between the British
system of units and SI units have been defined exactly as follows:
Length: 1 in = 2.54 cm
Force: 1 lb = 4.448221615260 newtons
ACTIVITY 1
• The second is exactly the same in both the British and the SI system of units.
• How many inches are there in 3 m?
• How much time would it take for light to travel 10,000 ft?
• How many inches would light travel in 10 fs? (Refer to Table 1 for the unit prefix related to factors of 10).
• How many newtons of force do you need to lift a 34-lb bag? (Intuitively, just assume that you need exactly the same amount of force as the
weight of the bag).
Rounding off numbers
Ask the learners why one needs to round off numbers. Possible answers may include reference to estimating a measurement, simplifying a
report of a measurement, etc.
Discuss the rules of rounding off numbers:
• Know which last digit to keep.
• This last digit remains the same if the next digit is less than 5.
• Increase this last digit if the next digit is 5 or more.
In nuclear physics, atomic nuclei with a magic number of protons or neutrons are very stable. The seven most widely recognized magic numbers
as of 2007 are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126 – round the magic numbers to the nearest 10.
ACTIVITY 2
In the first line, 1.0 cm/20 s was multiplied by the ratio of 1 in to 2.54 cm (which is equal to one). By strategically putting the unit of cm in the
denominator, we are able to remove this unit and retain inches. However, based on the calculator, the conversion involves several digits.
In the second line, we divided 1.0 by 20 and retained two digits and rewrote in terms of a factor 10 - 2. The final answer is then rounded off to
retain two figures.
In performing the conversion, we did two things. We identified the number of significant figures and then rounded off the final answer to retain
this number of figures. For convenience, the final answer is rewritten in scientific notation.
*The number of significant figures refers to all digits to the left of the decimal point (except zeroes after the last non-zero digit) and all digits to
the right of the decimal point (including all zeroes).
*Scientific notation is also called the “powers-of-ten notation”. This allows one to write only the significant figures multiplied to 10 with
the appropriate power. As a shorthand notation, we therefore use only one digit before the decimal point with the rest of the
significant figures written after the decimal point.
1. A jeepney tried to overtake a car. The jeepney moves at 40 km/hour: convert this to the British system (feet per second)?
2. It takes about 8.0 minutes for light to travel from the sun to the earth. How far is the sun from the earth (in meters, in feet)?
3. Let learners perform the calculations in groups (two to four people per group). Let volunteers show their answer on the board.
MOTIVATION
1. Measurement and experimentation is fundamental to Physics. To test whether the recognized patterns are consistent, physicists perform
experiments, leading to new ways of understanding observable phenomena in nature.
2. Thus, measurement is a primary skill for all scientists. To illustrate issues surrounding this skill, the following measurement activities can
be performed by volunteer pairs:
• Body size: weight, height, waistline
• From a volunteer pair, ask one to measure the suggested dimensions of the other person with three trials using a weighing scale and a tape
measure.
• Ask the class to express opinions on what the effect of the measurement tool might have on the true value of a measured physical quantity.
What about the skill of the one measuring?
• Pulse rate (http://www.webmd.com/heart-disease/pulse-measurement)
• Measure the pulse rate five times on a single person. Is the measurement repeatable?
INSTRUCTION
Scientific notation and significant figures
Discuss that in reporting a measurement value, one often performs several trials and calculates the average of the measurements to report a
representative value. The repeated measurements have a range of values due to several possible sources. For instance, with the use of a tape
measure, a length measurement may vary due to the fact that the tape measure is not stretched straight in the same manner in all trials.
So what is the height of a table? A volunteer uses a tape measure to estimate the height of the teacher’s table. Should this be reported in
millimeters? Centimeters? Meters? Kilometers?
The choice of units can be settled by agreement. However, there are times when the unit chosen is considered most applicable when the choice
allows easy access to a mental estimate. Thus, a pencil is measured in centimeters and roads are measured in kilometers.
How high is Mount Apo? How many Filipinos are there in the world? How many children are born every hour in the world?
Side 1 = 5.25 cm
Side 2 = 3.15 cm
Note that since the meterstick gives you a precision down to a single millimeter, there is uncertainty in the measurement within a millimeter. The
side that is a little above 5.2 cm or a little below 5.3 cm is then reported as 5.25 ± 0.05 cm. However, for this example only we will use 5.25 cm.
Since the precision of the meterstick is only down to a millimeter, the uncertainty is assumed to be half a millimeter. The area cannot be
reported with a precision lower than half a millimeter and is then rounded off to the nearest 100th.
Propagation of error
The above indicates that the best estimate of the true value for x is found between x – Δx and x + Δx (the same goes for y).
The central problem in error propagation or uncertainty propagation is best conveyed in the question “How does one report the result when a
derived quantity is dependent on other quantities that can be measured or estimated only with a finite level of precision (i.e. with non-zero
uncertainty)?” It turns out that the rules for error propagation are straightforward when the derived quantity can be expressed as a sum,
difference, quotient or product of other quantitites; or when a derived quantity has a power law dependence on a measured or estimated
quantity.
Addition or subtraction: Suppose we want to calculate the uncertainty or error , Δz, associated with either the sum, z = x+y, or difference, z = x
– y - it is assumed that the quantities x and y have uncertainties Δx and Δy, respectively.
To be more specific, suppose we want to calculate the total mass of two objects. Suppose the mass of Object 1 is x and is estimated to be 79 ±
1 g while the mass of Object 2 is y and estimated to be 65 ± 2 g.
How should the difference in mass, z = x-y, be reported? (Note that the symbol z now denotes the difference instead of the sum of two
measurements )
Answer: The mass difference is approximately 79 g – 65 g = 14 g. But that mass difference can be as low as 78 g – 67 g = 11 g or as high as 80
g – 63 g. The mass difference should therefore be reported as 144 ± 3 g.
Hence, if z = x + y or z = x - y, then the uncertainty of z is just the sum of the uncertainties of x and y: Δz = Δx and Δy.
Multiplication or division
Suppose we want to calculate the uncertainty or error , ∆z, associated with either the sum, z = x+y, or quotient, z = x/ y - it is, again, assumed
that the quantities x and y have uncertainties ∆x and ∆y, respectively. In this case the resulting error is the sum of the fractional errors multiplied
by the original measurement.
If the measured quantities are x ± ∆x, and +∆y, then the if derived quantity is the quotient z = x/y. The uncertainty ∆z can also be calculated
The estimate for the compounded error is conservatively calculated. Hence, the resultant error is taken as the sum of the corresponding errors
or fractional errors.
Example: The length and width of a rectangle are measured to be 19 ± 0.5 cm and 15 ± 0.5 cm. How should the area, A, of the
rectangle be reported?
Answer: The area of the rectangle is approximately A = 19 x 15 cm2=285 cm2. The fractional uncertainty is
Hence The area should therefore be reported as 285 ± 17 cm2
Power law dependence: Suppose the derived quantity z is related to the measure quantity x through the relation z = xn , then the uncertainty
∆z can be calculated as follows:
The above prescriptions for estimating the error or uncertainty provide conservative error estimates, the maximum possible error is assumed.
However, when the calculated or derived quantity is calculated based on a large number of other quantities a less conservative error estimate is
warranted:
(Week 3 and 4)
General Physics 1 LESSON
Vectors
OUTLINE
After the exercise, indicate the vector of displacement (thick, gray arrow) by connecting the first
position with the last position. This vector is the sum of all the drawn vectors by connecting the
endpoint to the starting point of the next.
Figure: Summing vectors by sequential connecting of dots based on the random walk exercise
INSTRUCTION
The magnitude of a vector is represented by either a lightface letter without an arrow on top or the vector symbol with vertical bars on both
3. Illustrate the addition of vectors using perpendicular displacements as shown below (where the thick gray arrow represent the sum
Explain how the magnitude of vector C can be expressed in terms of the magnitude of vector A and the magnitude of vector B by using the
Pythagorean theorem.
4. Explain how the components of vector C in the direction parallel to the vectors A and B can be expressed in terms of the magnitude of
vector C and the cosines or sines of the angles Ø and Ø.
5. Use the parallelogram method to illustrate the sum of two vectors. Give more examples for learners to work with on the board.
Figure: Vector addition using the parallelogram method
6. Illustrate vector subtraction by adding a vector to the negative direction of another vector. Compare the direction of the difference and the
sum of vectors A and B. Indicate that vectors of the same magnitude but opposite directions are anti-parallel vectors.
Figure: Subtraction of vectors. Geometrically, vector subtraction is done by adding the vector minuend to the anti-parallel vector of the
subtrahend. Note: the subtrahend is the quantity subtracted from the minuend.
7. Discuss when vectors are parallel and when they are equal.
1. Explain that the direction of a vector can be represented by a unit vector that is parallel to that vector.
2. Using the algebraic representation of a vector, calculate the components of the unit vector parallel to that vector.
Figure: Unit vector
1. Discuss how to calculate the average velocity using positions on a number line, with recorded arrival time and covered distance (p1, p2, …,
p5). For instance at p1, x1 = 3m, t1 = 2s, etc.
p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
3m 5m 8m 11m 20m
2s 10s 30s 50s 300s
The average velocity is calculated as the ratio between the displacement and the time interval during the displacement. Thus, the average
velocity between p1 and p2 can be calculated as:
What is the average velocity from position p2 to p5?
Note that although the positive direction is often taken to be the rightward, upward, or eastward, we are free to assign any other direction
as a positive direction. However, after the positive direction has been assigned, the opposite direction has to be towards the negative.
2. Emphasize that the average velocity between the given coordinates above vary (e.g., between p1 to p2 and p1 to p4). The displacement
along the coordinate x can be graphed as a function of time t.
Figure: Average velocity.
Discuss that the average velocity from a coordinate x1 to x2 is taken as if the motion is along a straight line between said positions at the given
time duration. Hence, the average velocity is geometrically the slope between these positions.
Is the average velocity the same as the average speed?
3. Now, discuss the notion of instantaneous velocity v as the slope of the tangential line at a given point. Mathematically, this is the derivative
of x with respect to t.
Figure 2: Tangential lines
4. Discuss which time points in Figure 3 (left) correspond to motion with constant or non-constant velocity, negative or positive constant
velocity.
(Answers: The velocity is non-constant in the time intervals from t0 to t1, and from t2 to t3. The velocity is constant in the time intervals from t1
to t2, and from t3 to t4. The velocity is constant and positive in the time interval from t1 to t2. The velocity is constant and negative in the time
interval from t3 to t4 )
Figure 3 (right) shows instantaneous velocities as slopes at specific time points. Discuss how the values of the instantaneous velocity vary as you
move from v1 to v6.
Figure 3: x-t graph
5. Show how one can derive the displacement based on the expression for the average velocity:
Note that when the velocity is constant, so is the average velocity between any two separate time points. Thus, the total displacement
magnitude is the rectangular area under the velocity-versus-time graph (subtended by the change in time).
8. Introduce average acceleration as the change in velocity divided by the elapsed time (in preparation for the next lesson).
ENRICHMENT
Calculation of average velocities given initial and final position and time:
The x-coordinates of an object at time t = 1.00 s and t = 4.00 s are 3.00 m and 5.00 m respectively. Calculate the average velocity of the object
on the time interval t = 1.00 s to 4.00 s.
Calculation of the instantaneous velocity at a specific time, given x as a function of time: The position of an object is x(t) = 1.00 + 2.00 t - 3.00
t2, where x is in meters and t is in seconds. Calculate the instantaneous velocity of the object at time t =3.00 s.
Calculate the total displacement over a time interval, given the velocity as a function of time:
The velocity of an object is v(t) = 1.00 - 3.00 t2, where v is in meters per second and t is in seconds. Calculate the displacement of the object in
the time interval from t = 1.00 s to t =2.00 s.
General Physics 1
Aver
age and Instantaneous Acceleration
Content Standard
The learners shall be able to solve, using experimental and theoretical
approaches, multi-concept and rich-context problems involving the use of
average and instantaneous accelerations.
LESSON OUTLINE
Introduction/ Review the previous lesson on 5
Motivation displacement, average velocity and
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to solve using experimental and theoretical instantaneous velocity
approaches, multi-concept and rich-context problems involving displacement, Instruction Discussion on the aspects of 1D - motion 20
time, average velocity, and instantaneous velocity.
Delivery Series of exercises on the interpretation 20
Learning Competencies and construction of position vs. time,
The learners shall be able to: velocity vs. time, and acceleration vs.
1. Convert a verbal description of a physical situation involving uniform time curves.
acceleration in one dimension into a mathematical description
Enrichment Written exercise involving the 15
2. Recognize whether or not a physical situation involves constant velocity or interpretation of a sinusoidal
constant acceleration displacement versus time graph
3. Interpret velocity and acceleration, respectively, as slopes of position versus
time and velocity versus time curves Materials
Graphing papers, protractor, ruler
4. Construct velocity versus time and acceleration versus time graphs,
respectively, corresponding to a given position versus time-graph and velocity Resources
versus time graph and vice versa 1. Resnick, D., Halliday, R., & Krane, K.S. (1991). Physics
(4th ed.) Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Specific Learning Outcomes
The learners should be able to recognize whether or not a physical situation 2. Young, H.D., & Freedman, R. A. (2007). University
involves constant velocity or constant acceleration; convert a verbal Physics with Modern Physics (12th ed.). Boston, MA:
description of a physical situation involving uniform acceleration in one Addison- Wesley.
dimension into a mathematical description; interpret velocity and acceleration,
respectively, as slopes of position versus time and velocity versus time curves; Construct velocity versus time and acceleration versus time
graphs, respectively, corresponding to a given position versus time-graph and velocity versus time graph and vice versa
INTRODUCTION
Review of the previous lesson on displacement, average velocity and instantaneous velocity.
INSTRUCTION
The acceleration of a moving object is a measure of its change in velocity. Discuss how to calculate the average acceleration from the ratio of
the change in velocity to the time elapsed during this change.
Thus, given the displacement as a function of time, the acceleration can be calculated as a function of time by successive applications of the
time derivative:
Given a constant acceleration, the change in velocity (from an initial velocity) can be calculated from the constant average velocity multiplied by
the time interval.
Figure 3: Velocity as area under the acceleration versus time curve
Discuss that with a time-varying acceleration, the total change in velocity (from an initial velocity) can be calculated as the area under the
acceleration versus time curve (for a given time duration). Given a constant acceleration (Figure 3), the velocity change is defined by the
rectangular area under the acceleration versus time curve subtended by the initial and final time. Thus, with a continuously time-varying
acceleration, the area under the curve is approximated by the sum of the small rectangular areas defined by the product of small time intervals
and the local average acceleration. This summation becomes an integral when the time duration increments become infinitesimally small.
DELIVERY (20 MINS)
Lead the learners through a series of exercises on the interpretation and construction of position vs. time, velocity vs. time, and acceleration vs.
time curves. Review the relations between displacement and velocity, velocity expressed as time derivatives and area under the curve within a
time interval. Next, discuss how one can identify whether a velocity is constant (zero, positive or negative), or time varying (decreasing or
increasing) using Figure 4.
Warning: the non-linear parts of the graph were strategically chosen as sections of a parabola—hence, the corresponding first derivate of these
sections is either a negatively sloping line (for a downward opening parabola) or a positively sloping line (for an upward opening parabola)
Replace the displacement variable with velocity in Figure 4 (which now becomes Figure 5) and discuss what the related acceleration becomes
(constant or time varying).
Warning: the non-linear part of the graph were strategically chosen as sections of a parabola—hence, the corresponding first derivate of these
sections is either a negatively sloping line (for a downward opening parabola) or a positively sloping line (for an upward opening parabola)
1. Given a sinusoidal displacement vs. time graph (displacement = A sin(bt); b = 4π/s, A = 2 cm), ask the class to graph the corresponding
velocity vs. time and acceleration vs. time graphs. (Recall that the velocity is the first derivative of the displacement with respect to time and
that the acceleration is the first derivative with respect to time.)
• At which parts of the displacement vs. time graph is the velocity zero? maximum? minimum?
• At which parts of the displacement vs time graph is the acceleration zero? maximum? minimum?
• What happens to the velocity and acceleration at the positions where the displacement is zero?
a) After taking time derivatives, the resulting expressions for the velocity and acceleration are shown to be v(t) = bAcos(bt) and by a(t) = -
b2Asin(bt). The velocity vs. time graph and acceleration vs. time graph are shown below. (The dashed lines are guides for the eye.)
b. The velocity is zero at points where the displacement is either maximum or minimum:
The velocity is maximum at points where the displacement vs. time graph is steepest and increasing from left to right:
The velocity is minimum at points where the displacement vs. time graph is steepest and decreasing from left to right:
c) The acceleration is zero at points on the displacement vs. time graph where there is no concavity:
The acceleration is maximum at points on the displacement vs. time curve which are concave upward and where the slope is changing most
rapidly:
The acceleration is minimum at points on the displacement vs. time curve which are concave downward and where the slope is changing most
rapidly:
on a
Introduction Review of the principle of superposition. 5
Motivation Describe the kind of waves that form on 5
the strings of a guitar and distinguish it
string
from a travelling wave
Content Standard
The learners shall be able to learn about (1) interference and beats, and (2) Learning cy
standing waves. Competen The learners shall be able to apply the condition
for standing waves on a string Instruction/ Discussion on the following: 30
Delivery
Specific Learning Outcomes -Qualitative description of a standing
wave
-Condition for standing wave
-Nodes and anti-nodes
-Normal modes on a string
At the end of the unit, the learners must be able to:
Practice Plug-and-play problem 5
1. Identify the condition for standing waves to form on a string.
2. Determine the wave function for a standing wave using the principle of Enrichment Actual or video demonstration on how to 5
superposition. form harmonics on a guitar
3. Locate nodes and antinodes in a standing wave. Evaluation Problem solving exercise 10
4. Visualize normal modes on a string. Materials
5. Identify the frequency of the normal modes of a string. Guitar (optional)l slinky toy
Resource
MOTIVATION
Describe a travelling wave in a string. Then describe the kind of wave that happens on a guitar string. Show this either by using a guitar or just
the image below. Ask the class if they could spot the differences between the two. Emphasize that since the guitar string is fixed at both ends,
the wave cannot travel. Instead, it is standing.
INSTRUCTION/DELIVERY
2. Cite the condition for standing waves to occur: A wave must interfere with another wave of equal amplitude but opposite in direction of
propagation. Cite the simplest example of how this condition is satisfied: a string fixed at one end and wiggled at the other end. Incident waves
will travel toward the fixed end. These waves will reflect from the fixed end. The interference of the incident and the reflected waves form a
standing wave. If possible, show an animation.
3. Write down the wave function corresponding to the incident and reflected waves:
y1 (x,t) = A cos(kx + ωt)
y2 (x,t) = -A cos(kx - ωt)
Tell the class that the negative sign comes from the fact that waves invert when they reflect from a fixed end. Write down the wave function of
the resulting interference by principle of superposition. You will need to use a trigonometric identity.
y(x,t) = y1(x,t) + y2(x,t)
y(x,t) = A cos(kx + ωt) - A cos(kx - ωt)
y(x,t) = 2A sin ωt sin kx
Tell the class that this can be interpreted as a sine function in position with an amplitude that oscillates in
time.
4. Distinguish between nodes and antinodes: Nodes are points in the standing wave that do not move and antinodes are points in the standing
wave that moves the greatest. Show the figure below, or if possible, an animation. Derive the positions of the nodes by setting y(x,t) = 2A sin
ωt sin kx = 0 and solving for x:
Emphasize that, from the above equation, it follows that consecutive nodes are half a wavelength apart.
5. Underline that fixed ends must be nodes, which restrict the possible wavelengths that can occur on a string fixed at both its ends (the
previous figure can serve as a visual reinforcement). Draw a string of length L fixed on both ends on the board. Have the class imagine a
standing wave occurring on this string. Tell them that there are many possible answers. Then show the class the figure below. Define these
patterns as normal modes.
6. Call on a student to hold one end of a slinky. Hold the other end and wiggle it to form the first, second, and third normal modes. Mention
that that you need a faster wiggle, and therefore a larger frequency, to get higher frequencies. You can also let the student wiggle his end while
your end stays in place.
7. Have some students count the number of cycles that occur in each normal mode. Argue then that for the first situation to occur,
for the second situation to occur, and so on, which, in general, leads to the expression below:
Using the relation derive the expression for the frequency of the normal mode:
Define the n = 1 frequency as the fundamental frequency, the n = 2 frequency as the second harmonic, the n = 3 frequency as the third
harmonic, and so on.
PRACTICE
Give a specific length of a string, and let students identify the wavelengths of the fourth and fifth
normal mode (n = 4). Give a specific wave speed, and let the students identify the fourth
harmonic.
EVALUATION
1. Let the students answer the following problem: The A-string of a guitar has a fundamental frequency of 110. Hz.
• Which of the following is NOT a frequency of a normal mode of the string?
• 110. Hz
• 930. Hz
• 1210 Hz
• 1430 Hz
ANSWER: 1430 Hz. From the equation for the frequencies, it follows that the higher harmonics are multiples of the fundamental frequency. 930
Hz is not a multiple of 110 Hz, and hence is not a frequency of a normal mode.
• If the wavelength of the third normal mode is 42 cm, what is the length of the string?
ANSWER: for n = 3
60 MINS
Week 9 and 10
General Physics 1
LESSON
Doppler Effect for OUTLINE
Sound
Content Standard
The learners shall be able to learn about (1) sound, and (2) doppler effect. Introduction Review of the kinds of waves. 5
Motivation Emulating what they hear when an 5
Learning Competency ambulance passes by them.
The learners shall be able to relate the frequency (source dependent) and Instruction/ Discussion on the following: 35
wavelength of sound with the motion of the source and the listener Delivery
-Speed of sound in air
-Derivation of the Doppler effect for a
Specific Learning Outcomes moving source
At the end of the unit, the learners must be able to: -Derivation of the Doppler effect for a
1. Describe Doppler effect. moving listener
2. Solve for the frequency of a sound wave from a source as perceived by the Derivation of the Doppler effect for a
moving source and moving listener
listener for the cases when the source is moving, the listener is moving, or
Practice Simple exercise on selecting the correct 5
both the source and listener are moving.
signs in the Doppler effect equation.
Enrichment Describing a sonic boom and explain it 5
using Doppler effect.
Evaluation Problem solving exercise 5
Materials
Identical balls
Resource
MOTIVATION
Ask the students to emulate what they hear when an ambulance passes by them. They should be able to identify the increase then decrease in
volume and pitch.
Recall in class that the intensity of sound waves is larger when the source is closer and cite this as the reason for the change in volume.
Tell the class that the variation in pitch is due to the motion of the ambulance. Ask the students to identify when the pitch increases and
decreases. They should be able to identify that the pitch increases when the ambulance approaches them and decreases when it recedes from
them.
Emphasize that the frequency of the source does not change; only the frequency as perceived by the listener changes. Tell the class that this
also happens when the listener is moving. Define this dependence of the perceived frequency to the motion of the source and/or listener as the
Doppler effect.
INSTRUCTION/DELIVERY (35MINS)
From the previous demonstration, argue that the wavelength perceived by the listener is different from the wavelength of the source by an
amount vsT (speed of the source times the period): λ’ = λ ± vsT where where the plus sign is for when the source moves away from the listener
and the minus sign is for when the source moves towards the listener.
Do a simple check on how the value of changes when the source is moving toward and away from the listener. Reinforce the results with the
observations from the demonstration and/or the ambulance scenario.
Give this simple example: A guitarist plucks a C-note (523 Hz) while moving at a speed of 20.0 m/s towards a fangirl. What frequency does the
fangirl hear?
Ans.
From the previous demonstration, argue that the perceived wave speed of the listener is equal to the relative speed of the wave with respect to
the listener: v’ = v ± vL where the plus sign is for when the listener is moving toward the source and the minus sign is when the listener is
moving away from the source. Argue that since the wavelength is unchanged, using v = λf, the perceived wave speed corresponds to the
perceived frequency
Do a simple check on how the value of f’ changes when the source is moving toward and away from the listener. Reinforce the results with the
observations from the demonstration and/or the water waves analogy.
Give this simple example: A guitarist plucks a C-note (523 Hz) while a fangirl moves at a speed of 20.0 m/s towards him. What frequency does
the fangirl hear?
Ans:
Derivation of the Doppler effect for a moving source and a moving listener
Argue that for the case wherein both the source and the listener are moving, the perceived frequency is given by
Teacher tip
“For example, if both the source and the
listener are moving to the right, then the
Emphasize that the previous equations can be obtained by setting either vL = 0 or vs = 0, or , and source is moving toward the listener, and
hence they only need to remember this single equation for all Doppler effect problems. the listener is moving away from the
source. The former should result to an
increase in frequency, so it must be v - vs
Summarize the sign conventions. Emphasize that to decide for the correct signs, they can just think of in the expression (so that the denominator
decreases and the fraction increases). The
what should happen to the frequency (increase or decrease) in real life, and base the signs from that.
latter should result to a decrease in
One moving toward the other should result to a frequency increase, and one moving away from the frequency, so it must be v - vL in the
other should result to a frequency decrease. expression (so that the numerator
decreases and the fraction decreases).”
PRACTICE (5 MINS)
Give this exercise: The figure indicates the directions of motion of a sound source and a detector for six situations in stationary air. For each
situation, is the detected frequency greater than or less than the emitted frequency, or can’t we tell without more information about the actual
speeds?
Source Detector Source Detector
(c) (f)
ANSWER: (a) increase; (b) decrease; (c) can’t tell; (d) can’t tell; (e) increase; (f) can’t tell. Everything can be figured out from what is observed
in real life, except (c) and (d). For (c) and (d), we must look at the equation for the perceived frequency. For (c), the equation becomes
In both cases, the answer will depend on the source and listener speeds. In fact, if they are equal, then the numerator cancels out the
denominator, and there won’t be a change in the perceived frequency.
ENRICHMENT (5 MINS)
EVALUATION (5MINS)
Give the class this problem: A truck and an ambulance move at the same rate of 13 m/s toward each other but on different lanes. If the
ambulance siren emits sound of frequency 1200 Hz, what is the frequency of the sound that the truck driver hears?
ANSWER:
Since the truck driver and the ambulance are both moving toward each other, then the signs of the numerator and the denominator must be set
in such a way that they increase the frequency heard by the listener. So it should be a plus in the numerator and a minus in the denominator.
60 MINS
1. Travelling waves occur on a certain string. The displacement of a point on the string varies with time
according to the first graph. The second graph shows a snapshot of the string at time t = 0
2. A 20-N weight is attached to the end of a string draped over a pulley; the other end of the string is attached to a mechanical oscillator that
moves up and down at a tunable frequency. The length between the oscillator and the pulley is 1m. You slowly increase the frequency from zero
until a standing wave formed at 60 Hz. What is the linear mass density of the string?
3. A tuning fork that plays a G-note (384-Hz) was detuned due to improper handling. You try to identify its frequency by playing it side by side
with another G tuning fork that is still in tune. After simultaneously striking the forks, you heard a pitch slightly lower than G. You also heard
beats at 0.100-s intervals. What is the frequency of the detuned fork?
4. A French submarine move toward an essentially motionless U.S. submarine in motionless water. The French sub moves at speed vF = 50.00
km/h. The U.S. sub sends out a sonar signal (sound wave in water) at 1.000x103 Hz. Sound waves travel at 5470 km/h in water, hitting the
French sub and reflecting back to the U.S. sub at 1.018x103 Hz. What is the speed of the French sub?
PRESENTATION OF SOLUTIONS
Select a random member from each group and let them present a problem. In case there are more groups than problems, divide the problems
into sections and assign groups to those sections, so that all groups are able to discuss in class.
(Week 13 and 14)
60 MINS
General Physics 1
1
Content Standards Introduction/ Review prerequisite concepts such as mass, 5
The learners shall be able to learn about (1) fluid density, and (2) pressure Review volume, force, area, and acceleration due to
gravity
Performance Standards Motivation Show the regular and diet soft drink demo 10
The learners shall be able to solve multi-concept, rich context problems using
concepts from rotational motion, fluids, oscillations, gravity, and Instruction/ • Discuss density and specific gravity 15
thermodynamics Delivery Discuss the concept of sinking
Learning Competency and floating
The learners shall be able to: • Discuss pressure as force per unit area
Relate density, specific gravity, mass, and volume to each other • Define gauge pressure and absolute
pressure
Relate pressure to area and force Practice Discuss sample problems on density and 10
Relate pressure to fluid density and depth pressure
Solve problems involving fluids Enrichment Conceptual questions 10
Evaluation Conceptual questions on density and 10
pressure
Materials
aquarium or any transparent water container, unopened
Regular coke in can, unopened Coke Light in can, water
Resource
Cassidy, D. C., Holton, G., & Rutherford, F. J. (2002). Understanding
physics. Springer Science & Business Media.
Discuss Fluids
A fluid is a collection of molecules that are randomly arranged and held together by weak cohesive forces and by forces exerted by the walls of
a container. It is any substance that does not have definite shape and exhibits the phenomenon of flow. It includes liquids and gases.
Liquids flow under gravity until they occupy the lowest possible regions of their container. Gasses expand to fill their containers regardless of its
shape.
MOTIVATION
1. Show the class the two cans of soft drink. (Any regular soft drink and its diet counterpart will do)
2. Ask the students to predict what will happen to the two cans if you put it in the aquarium that is filled with water.
3. Have a show of hands on the following choices:
• Both cans will float.
• Regular coke will float; Coke light will sink.
• Regular coke will sink; Coke light will float.
• Both cans will sink.
4. Emphasize the difference of the content of the two cans. They have the same volume but different mass. This difference is due
to the formulation of the fluid inside the can. They have different density.
INSTRUCTION/DELIVERY
1. Discuss density.
Density is mass per unit volume. The Greek letter ρ (rho) is usually used to denote density:
2. Show a table of density of common substances. Emphasize that density is unique for each substance.
When an object’s density is greater than that of water it will sink in water. When its density is less it will float. For floating object, the fraction of
the volume of an object that is submerged in any liquid equals the ratio of the density of the object to that of the liquid.
Example, the density of ice is 0.92 g/cm3. This means 92 percent of the volume of ice is submerged in water.
4. Discuss specific gravity and the standards for liquids and gases.
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a material to a standard density. It is a unitless quantity.
The standard density for liquids is the density of water at 4°C: 1 g/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3. For gases, the standard is the density of oxygen at 0°C
and pressure of 1 atm: 1.43 kg/m3.
PRACTICE
1. Consider two identical blocks.
.
2. Discuss pressure
Pressure is force per unit area. The unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa).
4. Discuss liquid pressure. Emphasize its dependence on the liquid density and that pressure is depth dependent, not volume dependent.
The pressure P at a depth h is greater than the pressure P0 at the surface by an amount pgh. Pressure in a liquid at any location is exerted in
equal amount in all direction. Note that the pressure is the same at any two points at the same level in the fluid. The shape of the container
does not matter. Pressure is also not volume dependent
As expected, P = P0 at the surface, where h = 0.Pressure P0 is often due to the air or other gas above the liquid. P0 = 1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa for
a liquid that is open to the air.
However, P0 can also be the pressure due to a piston or a closed surface pushing down on the top of the liquid.
If the pressure inside a car tire is equal to atmospheric pressure, the tire is flat. The pressure has to be greater than atmospheric to support the
car. When we say that the pressure in a car tire is "32 pounds" (actually 32 Ib/in2, equal to 220 kPa or 2.2x105 Pa), we mean that it is greater
than atmospheric pressure (14.7 Ib/in2 or 1.01x105 Pa) by this amount. The total pressure in the tire is then 47 lb/in2 or 320 kPa. The excess
pressure above atmospheric pressure is called gauge pressure, and the total pressure is called absolute pressure.
ENRICHMENT
1. A nurse administers medication in a saline solution to a patient by infusion into the patient’s arm. The density of the solution is 1 x 103 kg/m3.
And the pressure inside the vein is 2.4 x 103 Pa. How high must the container be hung?
For the solution to enter the vein, the liquid pressure should be equal to the pressure inside the vein
solving for h:
2. Lake Pinatubo is the deepest lake in the Philippines. Find the pressure at a depth of 10 m below the surface of Lake Pinatubo if the pressure
3 3
at the surface is 1 atm. Assume that the water in the lake is pure water with a density of 1.00x10 kg/m .
EVALUATION
1. The sphere on the right has twice the mass and twice the radius of the sphere on the
left. Compared to the sphere on the left, the larger sphere on the right has
A. twice the density
B. the same density
C. 1/2 the density
D. 1/4 the density
E. 1/8 the density
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
E. Pressure is the same at all points
ANSWER: E
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Knight, R. (2007). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: A Strategic Approach with
Modern Physics [and Mastering Physics TM]. Pearson Education.
Tipler, P. A., & Mosca, G. (2007). Physics for scientists and engineers. Macmillan. Young, H. & Freedman, R.(2008). University Physics
with modern physics 12th ed.
(Week 15 and 16)
60 MINS
General Physics 1
2
Content Standards Introduction/ Ask students some preliminary questions to 10
The learners shall be able to learn about (1) Pascal’s principle, Buoyancy, Motivation determine whether they have heard of
and Pascal’s law or Archimedes’ principle or any
(2) Archimedes’ Principle of the physics concepts behind them.
Performance Instruction Discussion Proper 30
Standards
The learners shall be able to solve multi-concept, rich context problems using
concepts from rotational motion, fluids, oscillations, gravity, and Practice Discuss sample problems on Pascal’s Law 20
thermodynamics and buoyancy
Ask students some preliminary questions to determine whether they have heard of Pascal's law or Archimedes' principle or any of the physics
concepts behind them.
a. Who knows why ships float?
b. When you are swimming in a pool, do you feel lighter or heavier than when you are walking on the ground? How much lighter are you?
c. How do hydraulic jacks work?
INSTRUCTION
A common application of Pascal’s Principle is a hydraulic lift used to raise a car off the ground so it can be repaired. A small force applied to
a small-area piston is transformed to a large force at a large-area piston. If a car sits on top of the large piston, it can be lifted by applying a
relatively small force to the smaller piston.
PRACTICE
1. A hydraulic lift was made by fitting a piston attached to a handle into a 3-cm-diameter cylinder, which is connected to a larger cylinder of 24-
cm diameter. If a 50 kg woman puts all her weight on the handle of the smaller piston, how much weight can be lifted by the hydraulic lift?
ANSWER:
INSTRUCTION
When a body is completely or partially immersed in a fluid, the fluid exerts an upward force on the body equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the body.
2. Discuss buoyancy.
The upward force exerted by the fluid is called buoyant force. As stated by Archimedes’ Principle this force is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the body.
If the weight of the submerged object is greater than the buoyant force, it will SINK. If the weight of the submerged object is less than the
buoyant force, it will FLOAT.
A 15.0-kg solid gold statue is being raised from a sunken ship. What is the tension in the hoisting cable when the statue is at rest and
a. completely immersed?
b. out of the water?
We are given the mass of the gold statue m = 15.0 kg, the density of gold Pg = 1.93 x 104 kg/m3),and the density of salt water Pf = 1.03 x 103
kg/m3,
Drawing the free-body diagram for the first case (a),
Since the statue is completely immersed, the volume of displaced fluid is equal to the volume of the statue.
EVALUATION
Answer: A
Fluid LESSON
OUTLINE
Resource
Introduction/ Ask the students to hold one sheet
• Hewitt, P. G. (2007). Conceptual physics (Vol. 8).
Addison- Wesley, Massachusets.
• Knight, R. (2007). Physics for Scientists and Engineers:
A Strategic Approach with Modern Physics [and
Mastering Physics TM]. Pearson Education.
• Tipler, P. A., & Mosca, G. (2007). Physics for scientists
and engineers. Macmillan.
• Young, H. & Freedman, R.(2008). University Physics
with modern physics 12th ed.
• https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/fluid-
pressure- and-flow
• Dynamics of Flight: https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k- 12/
UEET/StudentSite/dynamicsofflight.html
INTRODUCTION/MOTIVATION
1. Ask the students to get 2 sheets of paper and follow the instructions below.
a. Hold one of the sheets of paper close to your bottom lip and blow hard across the
upper surface. What happens?
b. b.Hold the two sheets of paper upright, a few inches apart in front of your face. Again,
blow hard and watch what happens.
2. Ask some students their observation. Tell the students that the same principle can explain
how airplanes fly.
3. Introduce today’s topic which deals with fluid flow.
INSTRUCTION
State the assumption that we are considering IDEAL fluids, i.e. fluids exhibiting the following characteristics:
A. Non-turbulent flows. Turbulent flow is irregular flow characterized by small whirlpool-
like regions.
B. Steady-state flow. In steady (laminar) flow, the velocity of the fluid at each point
remains constant.
C. Non-viscous fluid. Internal friction is neglected. An object moving through the fluid
experiences no viscous force.
D. Incompressible fluids. Density is constant throughout the fluid.
A 1v 1 = A 2v 2
where A is the pipe cross-sectional area and v is the fluid speed.
PRACTICE
A horizontal pipe of 25 cm2 cross-section carries water at a velocity of 3.0 m/s. The pipe feeds into a smaller pipe with a cross section of only
15 cm2. What is the velocity in the smaller pipe?
ANSWER:
v2 = (v1A1)/A2
v2 = (3.0 m/s)(25 cm2)/(15 cm2)
v2 = 5.0 m/s
INSTRUCTION
Discuss how Bernoulli’s Equation relates pressure, flow velocity, and height for flow of an ideal fluid.
Emphasize the similarity of Bernoulli’s equation to the conservation of energy equation so that the students can easily remember it.
Explain how airplanes fly. Lower pressure is caused by the increased speed of the air over the wing. Since the pressure is higher beneath the
wing, the wing is pushed upwards.
Airplane wings are shaped to make air move faster over the top of the wing. When air moves faster, the pressure of the air decreases. So the
pressure on the top of the wing is less than the pressure on the bottom of the wing. The difference in pressure creates a force on the wing that
lifts the wing up into the air.
PRACTICE (10 MINS)
Water enters a house through a pipe with an inside diameter of 2.0 cm at an absolute pressure of 4.0x105 Pa (about 4 atm). A 1.0 cm
diameter pipe leads to the second floor of the bathroom 5.0 m above. When the flow speed at the inlet pipe is 1.5 m/s. Find the flow
speed, pressure and volume flow rate in the bathroom.
We are given the diameter of the inlet (d1 = 2.0cm) and outlet (d2= 1.0cm) pipe. To calculate for the flow speed at the outlet pipe, we first need
to calculate the cross-sectional area of each pipe.
Using the equation the calculated cross-sectional area of the inlet pipe is A1 = 3.14 x 10-4 m2 and that for the outlet pipe is A2 =
7.85 x 10-5 m2.
To calculate the flow speed in the bathroom, we use the continuity equation:
We set the height of the inlet pipe y1 = 0 and the bathroom pipe is at a height y2 = 5.0 m.
ENRICHMENT
Consider a large tank of water which has a small hole a distance h below the water surface.
We apply Bernoulli's equation to points a and b.
Since the diameter of the hole is much smaller than the diameter of the tank, we can neglect the velocity of the water at the top (point a).
EVALUATION (5 MINS)
Concept Tests. This can be given as a graded quiz or a quick assessment (show of hands)
1. An incompressible fluid flows through a pipe of varying radius (shown in cross-section). Compared to the fluid at point P, the fluid at point Q
has
A. greater pressure and greater volume flow rate.
B. greater pressure and the same volume flow rate.
C. the same pressure and greater volume flow rate.
D. lower pressure and the same volume flow rate.
2. An incompressible fluid flows through a pipe of varying radius (shown in cross-section). Compared to the fluid at point P, the fluid at point Q
has
A. 4 times the fluid speed.
B. 2 times the fluid speed.
C. the same fluid speed.
D. 1/2 the fluid speed.
Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics and LESSON
Temperature Measurement; OUTLINE
• Analyze and solve problems in both the theoretical and practical sense. Sears’ and Zemansky’s University Physics by Young and
Freedman (13th Edition) Physics by Cutnell and Johnson (8th
Learning Competencies
Edition)
The learners shall be able to explain the connection between the zeroth law of
thermodynamics, temperature, thermal equilibrium, and temperature scales ; Convert temperatures and temperature differences in the
following scales: Fahrenheit, Celsius, Kelvin ; Define coefficient of thermal expansion and coefficient of volume expansion ; and, Calculate
volume or length changes of solids due to changes in temperature
INTRODUCTION
1. Make sure that students have prerequisite knowledge on volume and density.
2. Make sure that students have the following skills: use of thermometers, handling of glassware with liquids.
3. Ask how temperature is measured by a thermometer (recall what they may have learned from lessons in previous grades):
a. The liquid inside the thermometer expands (rises) when the temperature increases.
b. The thermometer has the same temperature as the object.
MOTIVATION
1. Ask students about their understanding of temperature and how it affects daily life (some examples given below):
a. Hot and cold food
b. Wearing appropriate clothes for the weather
c. Effect of temperature in weather, etc.
INSTRUCTION/DELIVERY
.
1. Have a student place one hand into the warm water and one hand in the cold water.
2. Wait about a minute and ask the student to close their eyes.
3. Have the student lift his hand out of the water and switch the bowl of warm water for the
bowl of room temp water. (Make sure the student doesn’t open his eyes while you do this.)
Ask them if the water is hot or cold.
4. After he has answered, do the same thing for the cold water hand and ask the same question.
DISCUSSION (40 MINS)
1. Discuss the“unreliability”of the senses as a standard for temperature measurement.
2. Place one glass each of hot and cold water on the table and show a thermometer to introduce the concept of thermal equilibrium:
a. Hold the thermometer and ask why the reading is not zero (it’s actually measuring room temperature)
b. Ask students to observe what happens to the “liquid”inside the thermometer as you place the thermometer in the hot water (the
liquid rises) and in the cold water (the liquid sinks)
c. Ask students why the liquid in the thermometer stops rising or sinking (the temperature of the water and the thermometer are now
the same)
d. Define thermal equilibrium: (i) the thermometer and its surroundings now have the same temperature and (ii) no further change
happens to both the thermometer and its surroundings.
e. Ask: What does the thermometer measure? (The thermometer actually shows its own temperature. However, because it rapidly gains
thermal equilibrium with its surroundings, then we can consider its temperature as the temperature of the object it is in contact with.)
3. Discuss the Zeroth Law:
a. Introduce insulators (materials that did not allow interaction between substances) and conductors (materials that allowed
materials to interact) and provide examples
b. Two objects have temperatures A and B and are placed side-by- side. Both A and B are conductors. What will happen to their
temperatures?
If temperatures A and B are the same, nothing changes. If temperature A is higher than B, then A will become cooler and
B will become warmer. If temperature A is lower than B, then A will become warmer and B will become cooler.
c. Discuss: If no change occurs to either A or B, then we know that their temperatures are the same. In this condition, if B is placed
beside another object with temperature C and no change happens to both, then we know that B and C have the same temperature.
What would happen if we then place C beside A? (The temperature of A is the same as C.)
d. This is called the Zeroth Law (note that similarity to the transitive property in mathematics): If object A is in thermal equilibrium with
object B and object B is in thermal equilibrium with object C, then objects A and C are in thermal equilibrium: If TA = TB and TB = TC,
then TA = TC
4. Discuss temperature scales
a. To ensure that the measurement of temperature is objective, a standard is established. There are several standard temperature
scales, three of which are shown in the diagram below:
b. This is called “thermal stress”and can be related to the nature of the material. Derive the expression:
Discuss a sample problem: A steel wire whose length L is 130 cm and whose diameter is 1.1 mm is heated to an average temperature of 830 oC
and stretched taut between two rigid supports. What tension develops in the wire as it cools to 20oC?
ENRICHMENT/READING ASSIGNMENT
1. Various kinds of thermometers and how they function (special attention to thermal properties)
2. The basis of each temperature scale: (Celsius,Fahrenheit,Kelvin)
EVALUATION (5 MINS)
86