Effects of Technology Advances Upon Public Child Welfare Middle Managers' Work/Life Balance

EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY ADVANCES UPON PUBLIC CHILD WELFARE
MIDDLE MANAGERS’ WORK/LIFE BALANCE
by
Gail P. McWhite Seymour
DAVID OWENS, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair
BETSY MCDOUGALL, PhD, Committee Member
TRACEE WASHINGTON, PhD, Committee Member
Elizabeth Koenig, JD, Dean, School of Public Service Leadership
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Capella University
October 2016
ProQuest Number: 10239883
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Abstract
The environment of public child welfare fosters a sense of vagueness regarding the boundary that
should create a balance between work and life for front line workers and middle management.
The boundary between work and life is further greyed by the requirement of “on-call” duties in
which employees are required to respond to the needs of those served at the time the need arises
even after commitments for normal working hours obligation are met. Technological
advancements, or Information Communication Technology (ICT) such as tablets and smart
phones have been lauded as tools to aid workers and managers in performing tasks more
efficiently. However, such technologies also allow access to employees at any time, regardless
of location and work hours. This practice can lead to work/life imbalance. Imbalance for work
and life can lead to negative consequences for employees and agencies. Therefore, it is
important for agencies to assess work practices that may create significant deficiencies in
work/life balance. Using a descriptive survey design to implement a quantitative non-
experimental methodology, this study examined the impact of technological advances use upon
work/life balance for public child welfare middle managers. A hierarchical multiple regression
was conducted and demonstrated a significant relationship between ICT use and work/life
imbalance for public child welfare middle managers. Furthermore, the data yielded a significant
relationship between work/life balance and stress.

Dedication
Faith, family, and friends, this dissertation is dedicated to those who believed in me,
encourage me, and most of all prayed for me throughout this journey. In loving memory of my
mother, Gracie Belle Lewis McWhite Hanes, I thank you for the many life lessons and
encouragements that have served as the catalyst to help me strive for excellence.
To my sister, Gwendolyn Perneil McWhite Allen, your undying love, and sacrifice have
not gone unnoticed and unappreciated. I will forever remain thankful to you for all that you have
done to ease this journey. To my sons, Roderick Dejuan and Rashad Derell Seymour, I can only
hope that I have served as an example to Helen Keller’s quote “the bend in the road does not
have to be the end of the road, unless you fail to take the turn.” Please sons, never let your past
determine your future; excellence is just one-step away, turn the corner. To my niece, Evelene
Elaine Brown, you have become my mighty prayer warrior during the last leg of this journey.
You have “called it into existence” and refused to accept anything different.
Finally, to my friends who served as my prayer warriors, Sharon Harris, Jarrita Jones, and
Regina Memmingers, through much prayer, fasting, and supplication, the race was run, not
swiftly, but successfully. He hears and answers prayers; thank you for all of your support.
iii
Acknowledgments
I am reminded of a scripture in the New Testament book of 1Thessalonians, the 5th
chapter, and 18th verse that references giving thanks in all things. Therefore, I must thank God
for this journey. I also want to thank a very special friend, Dr. Tamikia Lott, who encouraged
me to embark upon this journey, provided guidance, and support every step of the way. You are
truly a blessing and I am grateful to call you friend.
To my mentor, Dr. David Owens, you have the patience of Job. We have been in this
journey for a while, yet you have provided substantive guidance and support that facilitated the
necessary movement through this journey. My committee members, Dr. Betsy McDougall and
Dr. Tracee Washington, are thanked for their time and support.
To my former colleagues, the “Dream Team”, thank you for all of your encouragement
and support. You pushed me when I wanted to stop and celebrated with me at each benchmark.
I am blessed to have worked with such a wonderful group of people, but even more blessed to
consider you as lifetime friends. To my current colleagues, thank you for your patience as I have
labored with the final portion of this journey. To my good friend, thank you for being a special
cheerleader and encourager, thank you for everything!
To all my family and friends who are too numerous to mention individually, thank you all
for your encouragement, belief, and support. Thank you to all of the child welfare professionals
who participated in this study.
iv
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments.................................................................................................. iv
List of Tables ........................................................................................................ vii
List of Figures ...................................................................................................... viii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem .........................................................................................6
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................8
Significance of the Study .......................................................................................10
Research Questions ................................................................................................11
Definition of Terms................................................................................................13
Research Design.....................................................................................................14
Assumptions and Limitations ................................................................................16
Organization of the Remainder of the Study .........................................................22
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...........................................................................23
Introduction ............................................................................................................23
Methods of Searching ............................................................................................24
Theoretical Orientation for the Study ....................................................................25
Review of the Literature ........................................................................................30
Critique of Previous Research Methods ................................................................39
Summary ................................................................................................................40
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY .....................................................................................42
Research Questions and Hypotheses .....................................................................43
Research Design.....................................................................................................45
v
Target Population and Sample ...............................................................................45
Procedures ..............................................................................................................48
Instruments .............................................................................................................54
Ethical Considerations ...........................................................................................60
Summary ................................................................................................................62
CHAPTER 4. RESULTS ...................................................................................................63
Description of the Sample ......................................................................................65
Hypothesis Testing.................................................................................................73
Summary ................................................................................................................82
CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS ....................84
Summary of the Results .........................................................................................85
Discussion of the Results .......................................................................................88
Conclusions Based on the Results .........................................................................90
Limitations .............................................................................................................93
Implications for Practice ........................................................................................94
Recommendations for Further Research ................................................................95
Conclusion .............................................................................................................96
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................98
STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL WORK ..........................................................................109
vi
List of Tables
Table 1. Research Questions, Independent/Dependent Variables ....................................54
Table 2. Reliability Coefficients .......................................................................................59
Table 3. Manager Generation ...........................................................................................66
Table 4. Years of Overall Work Experience .....................................................................66
Table 5. Years Working in Current Job ...........................................................................67
Table 6. Years of Supervisory Experience in Public Child Welfare ................................68
Table 7. Number of Children and Their Ages ..................................................................68
Table 8. Number of Hours Engaged in Work-Related Activities .....................................69
Table 9. Descriptive Statistics ...........................................................................................70
Table 10. Skewness and Kurtosis Coefficients .................................................................70
Table 11. Regression Coefficients for Work/Life balance ...............................................78
Table 12. Regression Coefficients for Perceived stress .....................................................81
Table 13. Summary of All Hypotheses Tested ..................................................................82
vii
List of Figures
Figure 1. Sample Size Calculation for Proposed Analyses ................................................48
Figure 2. Histogram for Information Communication Technology Demands ...................71
Figure 3. Histogram Work/Life Balance ............................................................................72
Figure 4. Histogram for Perceived Stress ..........................................................................73
Figure 5. Normal Probability Plot of Residuals for Work/Life Balance ............................76
Figure 6. Scatterplot of Standardized Residuals for Work/Life Balance ...........................77
Figure 7. Normal Probability Plot of Residuals for Perceived Stress ................................79
Figure 8. Scatterplot of Standardized Residuals for Perceived Stress ...............................80
viii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Introduction to the Problem
The culture of public child welfare is arduous and demanding often presenting the
professionals with situations of exposure to secondary trauma. Some of the challenges
faced by those in public child welfare in addition to the strict guidelines mandated by
local and federal government are huge caseloads, inadequate compensation, long hours,
and inadequate resources for service to the children and their families (Lizano & Mor
Barak, 2015; McCrae, Scannapieco, Leake, Potter, & Menefee, 2014; Wu, Rusyidi,
Claiborne, & McCarthy, 2013; Yankeelov, Barbee, Sullivan, & Antle, 2009). In addition,
the setting of public child welfare encourages a sense of indistinctness concerning the
boundary that could create an imbalance between work and life for those who serve in the
position of middle managers and front line workers and middle management. The
boundary is vague because for the most part it is compulsory for these individuals to
respond to the needs of families at the time the need arises. This practice, often described
as being on-call, enabled further by advanced technology such as tablets and smart
phones, allows access to employees at any time, regardless of location and work hours.
For public child welfare middle managers, being on-call requires they respond to the need
of their direct reports (front line staff) as well as their superiors (Weaver, Chang, Clark,
& Rhee, 2007).
1
According to Živan, Neđo, and Pere (2009), increase demands in the realm of
work create increase imbalance for employees between the realm of work and personal
life. Society views work/life balance as the way an employee stabilizes their personal
life, the demands of family, as well as the demands of work and the capacity to balance
the employees’ work and personal lives for the well-being of the workforce (Nam,
2014;Wu et al., 2013). Therefore, work/life imbalance exists when employees perceive
conflict between their workforce demands and the demands of family and personal lives.
Work/life imbalance is a factor that causes stress, which in turn can lead to employee
burnout, which can lead to turnover (Auerbacha, McGowan, Ausbergerc, Strolin-
Goltzmana, & Schudricha, 2010; Lee, Forster, & Rehner, 2011; Payne, 2013). The
turnover rate for public child welfare professionals varies between 20 and 40% with the
average stay of employment ranging less than 24 months (Auerbacha et al., 2010; Ellett,
2009). Human services organizations need to grasp perceived imbalance between work
and non-paid work to retain and recruit front line caseworkers as well as middle
managers.
Westbrook, Ellett, and Asberg (2012) noted that when public child welfare
employee retention is increased, the quality of services provided to the families improve
with continuity, stability and efficiency. This is the ultimate goal of public child welfare
agencies, to serve and protect vulnerable children at risk of abuse and neglect.
Maintaining experienced managers within the agency will increase the probability of
provision of quality services to the children and families served through the system.
Research indicates that high staff turnover in public child welfare lead to unfavorable,
sometimes damaging effects on clients as well as staff (Madden, Scannapieco, & Painter,
2
2014). From a fiscal perspective, agencies will benefit from retaining experienced
managers in that the cost to fill a vacancy within public child welfare may range
anywhere from 33 to 70% of the annual salary for the position (Madden, Scannapieco, &
Painter, 2014). As the shift to the use of advance technology becomes more of the norm
for organizations, even human service organizations will need to find a way to maximize
productivity while preserving work/life balance, which is a key factor in recruitment and
retention.
Background of the Study
Retention of employees in human service professions, more specifically, public
child welfare, has been an continuing issue of concern for years. Working conditions for
public child welfare employees presents challenges such as caseloads that are
unmanageable due to the size, compensation that is often lower than others who are in the
field of helping professionals, frequent exposure to negative and traumatic situations and
issues of personal safety (Lee, Forster, & Rehner, 2011;Westbrook, Ellis, & Ellett, 2006).
Westbrook et al. (2006) further added that high rates of staff turnover exacerbate the
challenges for the employees who remain noting that job satisfaction is a factor that
influenced public child welfare workers to remain committed to employment. Job
satisfaction, burnout, turnover, and commitment are noted as residuals of work/life
conflict in addition to mental and physical issues (Lingard, Brown, Bradley, Bailey, &
Townsend, 2007). In a study, authors Westbrook, Ellett, and Asberg (2012) explained
that problems within the public child welfare professionals’ workforce destabilize the
value of the work and services provided to the families and children served. They noted
that the retention rate for public child welfare professionals is lower in southern states
3
than the national average (Westbrook et al., 2012). The outcome of low retention is
inexperienced staff being responsible for making major decisions regarding children’s
safety as it relates to abuse and/or neglect as well as a lack of continuity within cases
(Auerbacha et al., 2010; Westbrook et al, 2012; Westbrook et al, 2006).
Westbrook et al. (2006) suggest burnout for public child welfare workers as a
three dimensional conception that encompasses emotional fatigue, negative feelings
towards service recipients, and decreased sense of individual achievement. In examining
the issue of turnover for human service professionals in Louisiana, Payne (2013) noted
that burnout is a significant factor associated with high turnover rate for professionals
dedicated to provide service to others. It is further noted that burnout can not only be
harmful for the individual employee, but has the potential to be harmful for the
organization as well (Payne, 2013). In exploring the factors that influence public child
welfare workers to remain more committed than private child welfare workers,
Auerbacha et al. (2010) also noted job satisfaction and burnout as key factors that
contribute to turnover.
Burnout is related to stress for public child welfare workers. According to Lizano
and Mor Barak (2015) in response to stress, job burnout can lead to actions that may
decrease job satisfaction. The authors further noted that when an individual becomes too
overwhelmed with stress, they might become detached from work, to include clients and
colleagues (Lizano & Mor Barak, 2015). Lee et al. (2011) contend that stress is a
primary factor public child welfare professionals experience from various sources.
Research findings of studies examining burnout reflect public child welfare workers
4
report greater intensities of stress and burnout than their counterpart in the private arena
(Boyas & Wind, 2010; Kim, 2011; Kim & Ji, 2009).
Human service organizations may offer employees different resources to mitigate
some of the stress experienced in their day-to-day duties. In the case of public child
welfare workers, to enhance productivity, agencies provide tools in the form of
Information Communication Technology (ICT) such as smart phones, laptops, and
tablets. Research findings indicate the use of laptops during home visits to input
screening data yielded significant cost savings for the agency as well as time savings for
the workers (O'Connor, Laszewski, Hammel, & Durkin, 2011). For public child welfare,
ICT devices such as tablets and smart phones have become omnipresent permeating the
workforce because the devices offer such advanced capabilities and multiple functions
(Senarathne Tennakoon, da Silveira, & Taras, 2013). Advance technology has afforded
the workforce to become more flexible, mobile, and agile. However, it has also allowed
easier access to employees regardless of location and time, which has had a direct impact
on work/life balance. Fleck, Robison, and Cox (2014) investigated professionals in the
UK to ascertain how they used their devices to manage the boundaries between work and
non-work spheres of life. Their research noted that employees suffer from work/life
imbalance when they (the employee) do not establish a self-imposed boundary between
work and life (Fleck et al., 2014). Although, Fleck et al.’s (2014) research sample
included general full-time and part-time professionals in the UK, the results from the
research may be relevant to human service professionals in the research state.
Concerning ICT use and age, some researchers have considered the factor age has
on the influence of the use of devices such as smart phones, laptops, and tablets
5
(Kubiatko, 2013; Selwyn, 2009). Public child welfare agencies are comprised of multi-
generational professionals; Baby Boomers (individuals born between the years of 1946-
1964), the Generation Xers (individuals born between the years of 1965-1979), and the
Millennials (individuals born between the years of 1980 and 1994) (Buonocore, Russo, &
Ferrara, 2015). Some researchers predict that individuals who were born around 1980
and after have a greater propensity towards ICT familiarity and use (Beyers, 2009;
Newell, 2015).
Another factor researchers have examined with respect to the generations within
the workforce is how they respond to work/life balance. Individuals who are of age to be
classified as a Millennial are characterized as motivated workers; however, their
motivation for work/life balance outweighs their motivation for money and success
(Twenge, 2010; Parry & Urwin, 2011). Whereas Baby Boomers are reported to have a
higher motivation to live to work (Meriac, Woehr, & Banister, 2010;Yang & Guy, 2006).
The current research study examined the impact of age and work experience as
they relate to the impact of advanced technology (smart phone, laptop, and tablet) on
public child welfare middle managers’ work/life balance.
Statement of the Problem
From Fouche and Martindale (2011) it is known that it is important for social
work practitioners to aim for optimal human functioning, subjective well-being, and
balance of work and life as a counter to stress, fatigue, and threat of burnout. Burnout
encompasses emotional fatigue, negative stances towards service recipients, and
decreased sense of individual achievement (Westbrook et al., 2006). Fouche and
Martindale (2011) further argue that to enable work/life balance for social work
6
practitioners, individuals should engage in conversations regarding the life domains that
define balance for each person. Research findings have shown that when organizations
fail to address the matter of stress for individuals, the organizations usually incur
significant costs related to the stress (Brooks, 2012).
Perrons (2003) researched the effect of technology on work/life balance in
relation to the Internet. This research noted the Internet had weighty effects for
organizations with respect to economic activity and increased productivity. Thus, for
organizations, technological advances resulted in positive returns. Conceivably,
technological advances will result in positive returns for human service organizations.
However, spending more time with work may result in higher cost for the organization as
a result of burnout in that an unfavorable effect of burnout is that it adversely impacts the
physiological and psychological well-being of employees (Lizano & Mor Barak, 2012).
Furthermore, with burnout, organizations also risk an increase in turnover, which in turn
will lead to an increase in cost through the expense to fill the vacancies (Payne, 2013;
Madden et al., 2014).
With advanced technology such as smart phones, tablets, and laptops, work can
flow into non-paid work time (life). Likewise, life (personal matters) can flow into paid
work time in that management of personal matters often occur through the same type of
technological tools that are provided for enhanced work productivity. Research findings
have shown that technological advances permit new opportunities for individuals to
manage the various roles in their lives with increased flexibility and mobility (Fleck,
Robison, & Cox, 2014). However, Fleck et al. (2014) further noted use of said
7
technology for work during times of non-paid work time has been negatively connected
to individuals’ health, happiness, and welfare.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this quantitative study was to examine the effects of technology
advances upon public child welfare middle managers’ work/life balance. More
specifically the study explicated on the relationship between Information Communication
Technology (ICT), age, work experience, and perceived stress for public child welfare
middle managers while expanding the theories of scientific management (Taylor, 1911),
stress process model (Pearlin, Menaghan, Lieberman, & Mullan, 1981), and generational
theory (Strauss & Howe, 1991).
Frederick Winslow Taylor developed the scientific management movement in the
early 1900s. The belief that the best way to increase output was to improve the
techniques, or methods used by workers served as the foundation for scientific
management (Taylor, 1911). Consequentially, others interpret Taylor as considering
people as instruments or machines manipulated by their leaders. Theorist of the scientific
management theory movement proposed that planned and developed organizations create
more efficiency in work methods in order to increase production (Caldari, 2007; Derksen,
2014). Management was to be separate from human affairs and emotions. The result
was the workers had to adjust to management, not management adjusts to the workers.
Taylor initiated time and motion studies to analyze work tasks to improve performance in
every aspect of the organization. Scientific management movement emphasized that
developing and enforcing performance criteria is a core function of the leader required to
8
meet organizational goals. Therefore, the needs of the organization is the focus of a
leader, not on the needs of the individual (Hershey, Blanchard, & Johnson, 2007).
Pearlin et al. (1981) developed the stress process model. This model proposed
that life events lead to negative changes in individuals’ roles (the sources of stress); those
changes causes deterioration of preferred features of self-concept (mediators of stress)
and that through this set of connections stress occurs (the manifestation of stress). The
authors further noted that coping and social supports might intervene at different points
throughout this process reconciling the outcomes (Pearlin et al., 1981).
The works of Pearlin et al. (1981) provided foundational support in the
development of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), which is a generally utilized instrument
used for assessing an individual’s discernment of stress (Cohen, 2015). During recent
research, utilizing the PSS, Baghurst and Kelley (2014) noted stress comes in many
modes. Further, the authors noted stress is a process by which individuals respond to a
demand, or is a transaction between the environment or situation and the individual’s
resources to cope with the demands (Baghurst & Kelley, 2014). The stress process model
(Pearlin et al., 1981) addresses the stress public child welfare middle managers’
experiences because of the work/life imbalance.
William Strauss and Neil Howe (1991) work in the book Generations: The
history of America's future, 1584–2069, conceptualized the generational theory. In their
book, the authors provide a historical perspective of America from the viewpoint of the
tendencies and behavior shared by persons within a certain age at a specific point in time
that generate similarities (Strauss & Howe, 1991). The theory purports it is the history of
the culture and the society during the developmental period of the individual lives that
9
shapes generations (Li, X. Li, X. R. & Hudson, 2013). Generations have been defined as
a series of historical events and related cultural occurrences which impacts have created a
distinct group (Parry & Urwin, Generational Differences in Work Values: A Review of
Theory and Evidence, 2011).
Significance of the Study
For years, researchers, professors, and leaders in the field of human services
have discussed, researched, and written about the history, purpose, and nature of the
social work profession. Ehrenreich (2014) notes that following World War 1, the
profession of Social Work emerged to react to the needs of those in poverty. Whereas
Reisch and Andrews (2014) notes that social work as a profession should engage in
both political and social matters that will assist the needy. Nevertheless, as the task of
the profession became more methodical and professionalized with the expectation of
expertise, many stressed that direct practice consisting of the practical assessment of
the problems of individual clients and families using material assistance should be the
focus (Callicutt & Lecca, 1983; NASW, 2016). Advanced technology enhances
practical assessment through timely access to resources.
Brady, Vodanovich, and Rotunda (2008) indicated that the use of advance
technology might be subsidizing the proliferation in work hours. Technology has created
overwhelming transformations to how individuals approach work, with “boundaryless
organizations, virtual workspaces, and the potential for constant wireless connection to
one’s work” (Kreiner, Hollensbe, & Sheep, 2009, p. 704). What was not known prior to
this study was if technological aides such as smart phones, laptops, and tablets caused an
increase in work/life imbalance for human service professional managers.
10
This study was conducted to determine if advanced technology caused work/life
imbalance to exist for human service public child welfare middle managers as research
has already shown that for professionals such as academia, advanced technology is seen
as both positive and negative in relation to work/life balance (Currie & Eveline, 2011).
The empirical evidence gleaned from this research can champion the need for the
development of supports to create a balance between work and life as it relates to
increase use of advance technology. Such support can come in the form of policies and
procedures around the use of technology during non-paid work hours. According to
Zuppo (2011), organizations with established policies limiting employees’ use of
Information Communication Technology (ICT) during non-paid work hours demonstrate
a positive awareness of the need for a healthy balance between work and life.
Research Questions
Research Question 1
R1: Is there a relationship between Information Communication Technology
(ICT) demands and work/life balance for public child welfare middle managers?
H1: There is a significant relationship between Information Communication
Technology (ICT) demands and work/life balance for public child welfare middle
managers.
H01: There is no significant relationship between Information Communication
managers.
Research Question 2
11
R2: Do age and work experience significantly explain more of the variance in
work/life balance over and beyond Information Communication Technology (ICT)
demands for public child welfare middle managers?
H2: Age and work experience significantly explain more of the variance in
demands for public child welfare middle managers.
H02: Age and work experience do not significantly explain more of the variance in
Research Question 3
R3: Is there a relationship between work/life balance and perceived stress for
public child welfare middle managers?
H3: There is a significant relationship between work/life balance and perceived
stress for public child welfare middle managers.
H03: There is not a significant relationship between work/life balance and
perceived stress for public child welfare middle managers.
Research Question 4
perceived stress over and beyond work/life balance for public child welfare middle
managers?
managers.
12
managers.
Definition of Terms
In explaining the concepts used in this research study, a mutual dialectal is
necessary. Therefore, terminologies are defined to provide clarification.
AWS. Alternative Workplace Solution is the term the public child welfare in the
Southern state from which participants were recruited uses pursuant to the State
Department of Human Resources Policy for Telework. The definition for telework as
stated on the organization’s website is a flexible workplace program that affords
employees the option to work at a place different from their official assigned job station
such as their home or a satellite location.
Burnout. As per the Maslach Burnout Inventory for Human Services
Professionals, this is a syndrome of emotional tiredness, depersonalization, and decreased
individual achievement at work (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1997).
Child Abuse. In general, child abuse means hurt, impended hurt, or harm to the
health or welfare of a child through purposeful physical injury, sexual misuse or
attempted sexual misuse, or sexual mistreatment and/or manipulation or attempted sexual
mistreatment and/or manipulation. Specific to the Southern state from which the
population is sampled, child abuse definition is when a youth under the age of 18 suffers
from, endured, or may be at risk of suffering from or enduring a disability, injury, wound,
or physical or mental condition as a result of neglect, brutality, or other actions or lack of
13
actions of a parent, caregiver, guardian, or relative (US Department of Health and Human
Services, 2016).
Child Maltreatment. Child Maltreatment is a significant issue encompassing
abuse and neglect that can have an ongoing detrimental impact (Crosson-Tower, 2010).
ICT. Information Communication Technology is the group of technologies such
as the Internet, e-mail, and portable communication devices (i.e., smart phones and
tablets) (Senarathne Tennakoon, 2011).
Work/life balance. Attempt at bringing equilibrium to time spent with personal
needs such as family, friends, and spirituality verses the demands of work (Živan, Neđo,
& Pere, 2009).
Public Child Welfare. Government mandated and funded agency established to
provide welfare services for children and their families. Services can range from child
protective services, such as investigations of abuse and neglect to adoption (Downs,
Moore, & McFadden, 2009).
Middle manager. An upper level Case Manager, as stated on the organization’s
website is also known as a front line supervisor. The person in this position is
responsible for the supervision of staff providing case management services. This
position is considered middle management in that there is a level of management
subordinate to them and several levels of management senior to their position.
Research Design
A quantitative non-experimental methodology utilizing a correlation and
descriptive-survey design formed the basis of this investigation. Creswell (2009)
expounded quantitative research design is applied to ascertain the relationship between
14
variables. Correlation is a statistical method used to establish whether a relationship
between variables occurs (Bluman, 2009). Quantitative research methods encompass the
assemblage and examination of numerical data, usually acquired from tests,
questionnaires, checklists, and other formal paper-and-pencil instruments (Treiman,
2009). Quantitative research uses a large enough population to provide statistically
significant data and utilize data analysis that relies on statistical procedures. This
research study established a relationship between the ICT and work/life balance. For the
purpose of this study, the variables measured are ICT, work/life balance, perceived stress,
employee’s age, and employee’s years of work experience.
Variables Alignment with Theory
Scientific management theory proposes that organizations will increase
productivity with improved techniques or methods used by workers (Taylor, 1911). The
independent variable, Information Communication Technology, postulates the same
advantages in that through the use of technology, the output of the work increases while
the barriers of inaccessibility to the workers decreases (Humphrey, 2009). Thus, with
scientific management theory, the focus is increased productivity and less on worker
satisfaction (Taylor, 1911). The dependent variables stress and work/life balance aligns
with the stress process model (Pearlin et al., 1981) in that as work/life imbalance occurs
as a result of ICT use, factors that reflect an increase in stress and worker dissatisfaction
increase. Generational theory conceptualized by William Strauss and Neil Howe (1991)
purports that trends and sets of behaviors shared by persons within a certain age range at
a specific point in time generate similarities. The dependent variables age and work
experience aligns with the generational theory.
15
Assumptions and Limitations
Assumptions
Theoretical Assumptions. Scientific management theory (Taylor, 1911), stress
process model (Pearlin et al., 1981), and generational theory (Strauss & Howe, 1991) are
the key theoretical assumptions associated with this study’s framework. These theories
can best describe how ICT use has increased productivity while causing an increase of
blurring of lines for work/life balance with public child welfare middle managers and
thereby leading to increased levels of stress. Previous research has indicated that
scientific management theory (Taylor, 1911) promotes standardizations that produce
efficiency that leads to increased productivity (Taneja, Pryor, & Toombs, 2011). Day,
Paquet, Scott, and Hambley (2012) noted that ICT affords workers with opportunities to
access information at rates faster than ever, which is critical for public child welfare
middle managers. Therefore, scientific management theory (Taylor, 1911) supports ICT
use to increase public child welfare middle managers productivity.
Assumptions based on the scientific management theory suggest organizations
will promote ICT use to increase productivity regardless of the personal well-being for
employees (Nam, 2014; Senarathne Tennakoon, 2011). The stress process model
(Pearlin et al., 1981) suggests that ICT (smart phones, laptops, and tablets) use will be the
source of stress for publilc child welfare middle managers as it allows greater
opportunities to create work/life imbalance. This model further suggests that ICT use
may result in increased levels of stress as the third phase of the model suggests, the
manifestions of the source of stress (Day et al., 2012).
16
The generational theory (Strauss & Howe, 1991) suggests that individuals of a
particular age at a particular point in time, share similarities such as attitudes and
experiences. Cogin (2012) noted that today’s workforce contains at a minimum Baby
Boomers, Gen Xers, and Millennials, all with different work expectations and motivators.
Parry and Urwin (2011) contend that generational differences within an organization
influence all aspects of the workforce. Assumptions based upon this theory suggest that
age and work experience will explain the more of the variance of work/life balance over
and beyond Information Communication Technology (ICT) demands as well as more of
the variance in perceived stress over and beyond work/life balance for public child
welfare middle managers.
The key theoretical assumptions associated with this study’s framework, scientific
management theory (Taylor, 1911), stress process model (Pearlin et al., 1981), and
generational theory (Strauss & Howe, 1991) support the examination of the effects of
technology advances upon public child welfare middle managers’ work/life balance.
More specifically the three theoretical assumptions provide the framework to examine the
relationship between Information Communication Technology (ICT), age, work
experience, and perceived stress for public child welfare middle managers.
Topical assumptions. The research philosophy aims to show there is a
relationship between advance ICT and the blurring of work/life balance boundaries for
public child welfare middle managers. Ontologically, the question for this research topic
becomes what is the reality of how much advanced technology influences balance for
work and life for public child welfare middle managers. It is important to have the
collective responses from managers to make an inference for all public child welfare
17
managers. This inference will be useful as public child welfare agencies across the
nation wrestle with retention due to worker burnout (Živan et al., 2009). Therefore, if
ICT presented with the intent of decreasing workload causes an increase in work/life
imbalance, agency leadership will need to be cognizant of how this affects their
workforce. Examining the relationship between ICT and work/life balance will garner
prevalent understanding of ways to mitigate the spillover of work into life as well as the
spillover of life into work in regards to the use of ICT. This is important for retention of
managers and in decreasing health issues related to imbalance between work and life.
The assumption the research topic attends to is that increased ICT (smart phones,
laptops, and tablets) use for public child welfare middle managers will cause work/life
imbalance to occur, which can lead to burnout and turnover (Day et al., 2012; Lizano &
Mor Barak, 2015; Payne, 2013; Senarathne Tennakoon, 2011).
Methodological Assumption. Research methods explore, learn, ascertain,
illuminate, and expound upon relationships among variables that will conclusively lead to
universally accepted laws that form the basis to forecast and regulate phenomena
(Ponterotto, 2005, 2010). Analyzing the correlation that ICT has on work/life balance
will lead to widespread comprehension of ways to mitigate the blurring of the boundaries
concerning the use of technological aides (smart phones, laptops, tablets). Furthermore,
an analysis of the correlation that age and work experience has on ICT use and work/life
balance will glean greater conception of the need to mitigate boundary blurring for the
realm of work and life for public child welfare middle managers. This is important for
retaining experienced managers and in reducing issues related to imbalance between
work and life. Research findings indicated that psychological and physical stress has
18
been cited as reasons for employee burnout, which leads to problems with retention for
public child welfare workers (Westbrook et al, 2012; Westbrook et al., 2006).
The methodological assumption represents the manner, processes, and techniques
of the research study (Ponterotto, 2005). The utilization of an online survey accessed
directly by participants eliminated any outside influence from researchers. The use of
online surveys presents researchers with the advantage of collecting data at a faster rate
and in most instances more economically (Cozby & Bates, 2012; Remler & Van Ryzin,
2011).
Epistemological. The relationship between the research participant and the
researcher is according to Ponterotto (2005, 2010) the foundation of epistemology. In
other words, epistemology considers the connection between the one who knows and the
one who will come to know. Individuals who know are the respondents or participants in
the research and the individuals who will come to know are researchers.
Post positivists promote an amended dualism/objectivism. A post positivist
concedes that researchers could possibly sway what is being researched; however,
impartiality, fairness, and neutrality along with researcher–subject independence remain
important guidelines for the research process (Ponterotto, 2005, 2010). In this instance,
the relationship between the research participant and researcher is that researcher was
until retirement (prior to the recruitment of participants and collection of data) in an
upper managerial role and has served in the past as a middle manager for two years with
public child welfare. The epistemological assumption is that researchers will maintain
objectivity and will adhere to the research process guidelines to ensure fidelity of the
study.
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Ontological. The character of authenticity and existence makes up ontology
(Ponterotto, 2005, 2010). In other words, ontology attends to the question, “what is the
form and nature of reality and what can be known about that reality?” (Ponterotto, 2005,
p. 130). Post positivists consent that a true reality can only be collected and calculated
defectively. This thought is referred to as critical realism.
Critical realism is what post positivists consent as actual existence; however, they
deem it can only be depicted and assessed improperly (Ponterotto, 2005). Researchers
who subscribe to the post positivist position may approach topics through the use of
semi-structured, succinct discussions with clients after the cross-cultural phase and may
use numerous individuals to score in an attempt to identify a single proximal reality of
collective client experiences, or through the use of congruent agreement upon
acknowledged topics (Ponterotto, 2005). Ontologically, the question for this topic of
interest becomes what is the reality of how much technology influences balance for work
and life. It is important to have the collective responses from managers to make an
inference for all public child welfare managers. This inference will be useful as public
child welfare agencies across the nation wrestle with retention due to worker burnout
(Živan et al., 2009). Therefore, the ontological assumption is that tools such as smart
phones, laptops, and tablets are presented with the intent of decreasing workload increase
work spillover into family and personal time causing work/life imbalance; agency
executives will need to be cognizant of how this impacts their workforce (Adetayo,
Olaoye, & Awolaja, 2011).
Axiological. The moralities, philosophies and the standards embraced by the
researcher in the scientific process is what Ponterotto (2005) contends is axiology. In
20
other words, Ponterotto (2005) contends that the expectations, values, and feelings of
researchers have no position in scientific inquiry. To ensure such practices are mitigated,
it is recommended use of regimented, methodical exploratory in that this approach
affords researchers the opportunity to eliminate or austerely control any affect, and/or
encouragement she or he might have on the research process or on the participants
(Ponterotto, 2005, 2010).
The post-positivist researcher tries to contain their partialities, but comprehends
partialities are present and furthermore, may surface within the study in one form or
another. Researchers also acknowledge in the discussion summary or conclusion of the
study the manner in which biases may have affected the study (Ponterotto, 2005, 2010).
The axiological assumption for this research study is the fact researcher has served in a
managerial role with public child welfare for many years. While serving in this role,
there have been countless instances of work spillover into family and personal time as
well as family spillover into work. Nevertheless, in accordance with ethical standards,
the summary will contain a discussion of the biases.
Limitations
A limitation of this study was that the data was in the form of a self-report. The
accuracy and truthfulness of study participants present potential limitations to research
(Feeney & Bozeman, 2009). Another limitation was the sample population only consists
of public child welfare middle managers in the research state. Therefore, the findings
may not be generalized for all public child welfare agencies.
A third limitation of this study was the use of the web-based survey. According
to Remler and Van Ryzin (2011), web-based surveys present the challenge of possible
21
lower response rates due to participants’ lack of feeling compelled to comply with
request. In addition, web base surveys presents the challenge of technological issues
related to users’ computer systems, different web browsers, as well as the Internet
connections (Remler & Van Ryzin, 2011).
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
The current research study strived to expand the scientific management, stress
process model, and generational theory. Chapter 2 contains the review of literature. In
this chapter, the focus is on topics related to these theories and the research questions.
To aggrandize the literature on the scientific management, stress process model, and
generational theory as well as the relationship between ICT and work/life balance, this
research project is identified. Chapter 3 reviews the methodology used in this study.
This chapter encompasses the research design, data collection, and the statistical
approach used to analyze the data. The goal was to examine the overarching question
of the impact of advance technology on work/life balance for public child welfare
middle managers. Chapter 4 presents the findings of study supported by tables and
charts. Chapter 5 synthesizes the study and poses recommendations for the
development of supports to create a balance between work and life as it relates to
increase use of advance technology.
22
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of technology advances
upon public child welfare middle managers’ work/life balance. Furthermore, the study
assessed how age and work experience factored into public child welfare middle
managers’ work/life balance as it relates to technology use. This literature review
represents the theoretical framework of scientific management theory (Taylor, 1911),
the stress process model (Pearlin et al., 1981), generational theory (Strauss & Howe,
1991), as well as research pertaining to Information Communication Technology,
work/life balance, public child welfare, and generations within the workforce. The
aforementioned topics represent the theoretical foundation for the research as well as the
independent and dependent variables, respectively.
Public child welfare agencies instituted based upon local and federal government
statutes define the obligations, duties, and liabilities for providing well-being services
for children and their families (United States Department of Health and Human
Services, 2012; Weaver, Chang, Clark, & Rhee, 2007). Public child welfare agents
respond to the needs of children at risk of abuse, neglect, and/or maltreatment while
preserving families (Pecora, Whittaker, Maluccio, & Barth, 2012; United States
Department of Health and Human Services, 2012). For the public child welfare worker,
responding to the need of a child at risk would involve investigating physical, sexual,
23
and/or emotional abuse when the agency learns of the abuse regardless of the time of
day or night. Most child welfare agencies do not operate on twenty-four hour shifts;
however, they do require certain employees and managers to be on-call to handle
emergencies during non-office hours.
National statistics reflect that the rate of responses to investigations of
maltreatment have increased over seven percent within a five year period of time between
2010 and 2014 (Administration for Children and Families, 2016). Public child welfare
practitioners responded to victims of neglect, physical abuse, sexual abuse, and child
deaths. According to the Child Maltreatment 2014 Report published by the
Administration for Children and Families (2016), in 2014, public child welfare agencies
received an approximate three million referrals involving around six million children.
With the increasing need for services to families, public child welfare agencies are in
search of ways to help practitioners become more efficient in completing tasks while
maintaining the integrity of the overarching goal, to provide for the welfare of the
children and families in need. In addition, public child welfare agencies must increase
efficiency while mitigating work situations that factor into work/life imbalance.
Methods of Searching
The search strategy for conducting this research included the following electronic
databases: Academic Search Premier, Capella Dissertations, EBSCOhost, ERIC, Google
Scholar, ProQuest, ProQuest Dissertation & Thesis Global, PsycINFO, SAGE Journals
Online, and SocINDEX with Full Text. The search terms included work/life balance,
technology, Information Communication Technology, ICT use, perceived stress, scientific
management, public child welfare, burnout, stress in the keyword search fields. A
24
combination of the keywords in the search fields reduced the results yielding available
usable literature.
Theoretical Orientation for the Study
This section encompasses a discussion of the theoretical orientation of the effects
of technology advances upon public child welfare middle managers’ work/life balance is
discussed. The study structure builds on scientific management theory (Taylor, 1911)
and the stress process model (Pearlin et al., 1981) as it relates to the variables of
Information Communication Technology (ICT) as the basis to enhance work productivity
for public child welfare middle managers and work/life balance. The foundation of the
scientific management theory (Taylor, 1911) is for the organization to have maximum
efficiency of work (Heorhiadi, Conbere, & Hazelbaker, 2014). Scientific Management
Movement give emphasis that one key function of the manager is to establish and
implement performance measures to meet organizational goals. The basis for the stress
process theory (Pearlin et al., 1981) is that individuals’ experience events in their life that
will cause stress which result in deterioration of their self-concept and possible
manifestations of stress such as health concerns (Frishman, 2012).
Scientific Management Theory
Frederick Winslow Taylor, originally from a family of means in Philadelphia
opted for employment as a “working class” instead of attending Harvard and studying
engineering. As an “average” employee, Taylor moved through the ranks to management
at Midvale Steel (Derksen, 2014). This experience served as the catalyst later known as
the scientific management theory. While in management, Taylor recognizing the issues
plaguing business regarding labor such as poor productivity and working conditions.
25
Taylor presented his solution to the problem to the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers in an essay presented as a “solution to the problem” (Derksen, 2014).
However, several years later Taylor authored the book, Principles of Scientific
Management (1911) which, elaborated on the theory.
According to Wagner-Tsukamoto (2008), scientific management theory assesses
how to construct job functions for workers and managers. The goal of Taylor’s theory
was to use scientific principles to enhance management (Chung, 2013). Keeping in mind
the labor issues plaguing the industries during the period of the late 1800’s, essentially
the aim of the theory was to develop a resolve for increase productivity and reduction of
conflict in interfaces between managers and employees (Wagner-Tsukamoto, 2008).
Even though Taylor garnered positive following from his theory, scientific
management also received criticism. Caldari (2007) noted Dennis Robertson was very
critical reflecting that scientific management reduces workers to actions void of thought.
Taylor’s scientific management was noted as turning men into machines to increase
effeciency.
Given that Taylor developed the scientific management theory in the late 1800’s
with the focus of managing factory work, Jeacle and Parker (2013) noted that Taylor’s
drive for effeciency continues to be a major factor in the business world today, even with
government. Even though scientific management theory faced criticism, organizations
continue to strive towards performing tasks more efficiently. This study adds to the
scientific management theory through the exploration of the impact of technology usage
on performance goals during times identified as non-work hours for human service
professionals, more specially, public child welfare middle managers.
26
Stress Process Model
Using longitudinal data ranging over a period from 1972 until 1977, Pearlin et al.
(1981) examined how life actions, persistent life struggles, managing, how one sees them
self, and communal supports come together in forming a process of stress. The authors
noted that a lot of empirical evidence existed to show the connection of life actions and
persistent life struggles relationship to stress, however, the research did not show the link
between the three conceptual domains: the source, the mediator, and the manifestation of
stress (Pearlin et al., 1981).
Pearlin and his associates interviewed over 1000 adults between the ages of
eighteen and sixty-five years in the Chicago area during the five-year period. The
interviews occurred in two waves with a period of four years between each. The results
allowed the authors to conceptualize the stress process model (Pearlin et al., 1981). The
first domain is the source of stress. They determined the sources of stress to be tracked to
the peripheries of societies or cultures of the individuals (Pearlin et al., 1981). Sources of
stress can be a life event. Please note not all life events are sources of stress. Change is
inevitable, thus, one should expect life events to occur. Nevertheless, life events lead to
stress by “adversely altering the meaning of persistent life strains” (Pearlin et al., 1981, p.
339). Life events may develop new instances or exaggerate existing issues thereby
resulting in stress. Source of stress can also be how one views oneself and how much one
feels he or she is in control of things that significantly influences their life (Pearlin et al.,
1981). The second domain is the mediator of stress. The actions, discernments, and
understandings that people manage to tackle the stress eliciting occurances tend to
mediate the effect of the stressor. Pearlin and his associates (1981) noted two types of
27
mediators of significance, social supports and coping. The third domain is the
manifestation of stress. The general definition of stress that is observed in the research is
a reaction of the system to circumstances, environments, and/or situations that, either
intentionally or unintentionally, are experienced as harmful (Pearlin et al., 1981). In
summary, the stress process model (Pearlin et al., 1981) combines three major conceptual
domains: the source of stress, the mediators of stress, and the manifestations of stress.
Researchers have continued to examine the stress process model (Pearlin et al.,
1981) and build upon the work of Pearlin. Susan Folkman (1997) used Pearlin’s model
(Pearlin et al., 1981) as a foundation for her work in examining what many perceive as
one of life’s most stressful events, caring for a loved one who is dying. Folkman’s work
eventuated with the process model (Pearlin et al., 1981) to include a deeper
understanding for mediators or coping mechanisms individuals use during extreme
stressful events (Folkman, 1997).
Jane McLeod (2012) noted that although Perlin’s model continues to be
examined, sociologist have not given equal representation in analyses to the meaning of
stress. With her research, the limitation of the origin of social perspective for the
respondent’s meaning of the stressors were addressed (McLeod, 2012). The author noted
that social structural events effect how people experience potentially stressful life events
(McLeod, 2012). Furthermore, McLeod (2012) contends expanding Pearlin’s model to
integrate a more distinguished perception of each of its major domains: the social context,
stressors, resources, and outcomes.
With the stress process model (Pearlin et al., 1981), researchers have concentrated
efforts on the first two domains, the sources of stress, and the mediators of stress. How
28
an individual defines, stress is a key factor in determining the source of stress for that
individual. Regardless of what causes an individual stress, as noted by Pearlin et al.
(1981) it will likely result in a deterioration of self-concept. The research will expand the
stress process model (Pearlin et al., 1981), as work/life imbalance will influence the
perception of self-concept for the human service’s public child welfare manager.
Generational Theory
William Strauss and Neil Howe (1991) authored the book, Generations: The
history of America's future, 1584–2069, in which the history of America is presented
through the lens of a generational perspective. Strauss and Howe (1991) generational
theory postulates that each generation has its place to one of four types, and that these
types recur successively in a set pattern. The research will add to this theory as age and
work experience will influence work/life balance for public child welfare middle
managers in relation to their use of Information Communication Technology.
29
Review of the Literature
Work/Life Balance
Definition. Parris, Vickers, and Wilkes (2008) remarked the discussion
concerning how individuals can be successful in their careers without forfeiting a
successful satisfactory personal life has been ongoing for years. Such discussions have
birthed terms researchers and sociologist have come familiar with as work-family
conflict, family-work conflict (Netemeyer & Boles, 1996), work/life balance (Živan et
al., 2009), and spillover (Adetayo et al., 2011; Senarathne Tennakoon, 2011). Work/life
balance has been defined as bringing equilibrium between non-work and work schedules
(Kumar & Chakraborty, 2013). Munn, Rocco, Bowman, and van Loo (2011) defined
work/life balance as the choice individuals make to give precedence to their employment,
individual, family, social and community obligations. Nam (2014) contends that
work/life balance is how one perceives the relationship between their private life and
work. Basically, researchers agree that work/life balance equates to how an individual
finds happiness with their state of work and personal time (Chimote & Srivastava, 2013;
Darcy, McCarthy, Hill, & Grady, 2012; Kumar & Chakraborty, 2013; Munn et al., 2011;
Nam, 2014). It is important to note that not all individuals will have to balance “life”
with family, children, or a spouse (Waumsley, Houston, & Marks, 2010). Each person
will have to determine what constitutes the point of equilibrium for them between time
dedicated to performing work tasks and time dedicated to family and leisure.
Relationship between Work/Life Balance and Employee Performance. The
research examining the relationship between work/life balance and employee
performance has yielded both positive and negative effects. Keeton, Fenner, Johnson,
30
and Hayward (2007) surveyed a population of physicians to ascertain their assessment of
work/life balance. Their research indicated that physicians grapple with balancing
matters of work with time for life while remaining very pleased with their career and
maintain control over their work schedules to mitigate burnout (Keeton et al., 2007).
Townsend, Lingard, Bradley, and Brown (2012) noted the idea of flexible work
schedules have been offered up to alleviate some of the barriers presented to achieving
work/life balance. Unfortunately, the adjustment to a flexible work schedule to achieve
some semblance of a balance between work and life is not easily achievable when the
work schedules typically do not lend itself to flexible working hours (Townsend et al.,
2012). Although Townsend et al. (2012) study’s population was the Australian
construction industry, the same issue exists for public child welfare middle managers.
Public child welfare requires that workers respond to the needs of the children and
families served at the time the need arises (United States Department of Health and
Human Services, 2012).
When employees have positive feelings about the ability to manage family and
work, organizations will see an increase in attendance and performance outcomes
(Chimote & Srivastava, 2013; Smith, B. 2005; Townsend et al., 2012). In the case of the
Australian construction workers who opted for a longer work week for fiscal reasons,
work outcomes increased as did customer relations (Townsend et al., 2012). Researchers
also suggests that work/life balance and support from managers aids workers in increased
performance outcomes (Smith, B. 2005; Yankeelov et al., 2009).
31
Relationship between Work/Life Balance and Employee Retention/Turnover.
The pursuit for work/life balance gives way to the thought that individuals are seeking a
happy medium between time devoted to work and time allotted to spend with family
and/or leisure. When work/life imbalance occurs, the scales generally tip towards more
time applied to work and less time for life. Cegarra-Leiva, Sánchez-Vidal, and Cegarra-
Navarro (2012) examination of the relationship between work/life balance and retention
with the population Spanish industries managers yielded work/life balance increases
retention. Chimote and Srivastava (2013) research on the benefits of work/life balance
from the perspectives of both employees and organizations in India revealed work/life
balance reduces employee turnover. Deery and Jago (2015) research on the relationship
between work/life balance and employee retention sampled a different population, the
hotel hospitality industry in the UK. Nevertheless, the findings of their study support
previous research indicating that work/life imbalance leads to high turnover rates.
Achieving a healthy work/life balance on one’s own may not be an easy feat and
it may not be easy for the manager alone to devise a plan for which an employee can
reach some facet of balance between work and life. Many organizations may have
recognized that employer sponsored arrangements and practices created and supported to
enrich the lives of the employees tend to aid in the maintenance of work/life balance. For
example, some organizations offer job sharing, alternative workplace solution,
telecommuting, and flexible schedules (Darcy et al., 2012). In order for the work/life
balance programs to be successful organizations should have human resource policies in
place to sustain their existence. Organizations should consider an approach that would
32
tailor work/life balance protocols to meet the need of the entire workforce and not just
working parents or younger generations (Darcy et al., 2012; Waumsley et al., 2010).
Munn (2013) acknowledged the importance of work/life balance connection to
human resource professionals approach to the topic in a model referenced as the work-
life system. The work-life system encompasses work/life balance of the employee, the
initiative offered by the employer to address the balance, and the policies enacted by the
government, i.e., the Family Leave Medical Act (Munn, 2013). With regard to the
establishment of policies for work/life balance, Munn (2013) resolved, human resource
professionals’ involvement with work/life balance policies becomes an asset to the
agency because it sends a positive message to the employee. Furthermore, organizations
can show concern for its employees by ensuring policies, practices, and protocols
established to enhance work/life balance are commonplace within the culture of the
organization (Cegarra-Leiva et al., 2012; Munn, 2013). Singh (2013) remarked that
organizations could entice employees by presenting employees with packages that
encompass work/life balance policies, thereby increasing potential recruitment and
retention.
Information Communication Technology (ICT)
Definition. Information Communication Technology (ICT) is a term given to
describe electrical or technical devices that are capable of collecting, transmitting, storing
information that allows vast access and connectivity at all times (Day et al., 2012; Nam,
2014; Senarathne Tennakoon, 2011; Senarathne Tennakoon, da Silveira, & Taras, 2013).
ICTs have become so engrained into individuals’ daily lives, one researcher refers to the
devices as moving from tools to assist with daily living to becoming the master of one’s
33
life (Falzon, 2012). ICT devices such as smart phones, laptops, and tablets allow
employees the freedom to work anywhere and flexibility to work any time (Currie &
Eveline, 2011; Humphrey, 2009).
ICT Uses at Work. Information communication technology (ICT) use has
afforded the workforce many options of staying connected and increased flexibility in
completing tasks. Organizations embraced advanced technology use as it has allowed
concepts such as telework and flexible work schedules. Flexiblity is a major asset for
organizations because it allows employees opportunities to adjust their schedules around
other tasks. The flexibility garnered from ICT use for organizations many times result in
work during non-work time (Fleck et al., 2014). Zuppo (2011) noted that organizations
are users of human capital through ICT use agreeing that flexible work schedules may aid
productivity but it comes at a cost of muddled delineation between work time and
personal time. Zuppo (2011) further noted that with ICT use, organizations provide
employees with devices needed to stay linked to the organization outside of a required
official workweek in the name of improved production.
Organizations use ICT to allow employees flexible work schedules and
telecommuting opportunities (Leung & Zhang, 2016). As a result of the flexible working
conditions afforded by ICT use, organizations have embraced telecommuting. ICT use
supports the skill set of multi-tasking in that it allows employees the capability to manage
multiple tasks while enhancing performance outcomes (Cardona, Kretschmer, & Strobel,
2013; Leung & Zhang, 2016).
Senarathne Tennakoon (2011) as other researchers have found that although ICT
use affords users flexibility, the down side is that it has the potential to lead to increase
34
work hours, decrease private hours, and increase stress. In addition, some employees are
resistant to accepting ICT use in that it changes the way they are accustomed to doing
their work (Humphrey, 2009).
ICT Use in Public Child Welfare Agencies. Postive relationships with peers,
feeling supported by supervisors, open flow of communication, and trust are factors that
have been reported as important in mitigating job burnout for public child welfare
workers; however, they are also factors noted as lacking as a result of infusing ICT use
with public child welfare (Smith & Eaton, 2014). Information and communication
technology (ICT) usage in public child welfare practice reflects prevailing interest of
managers rather than those of the workers (Tregeagle & Darcy, 2008). Smith and Eaton
(2014) stated that even though the intent was to increase outcomes, the merging of ICT
use and public child welfare was met with resistence because some felt the reliance on
ICT use decrease the human aspect of the human service profession. They further
reported that ICT was seen as a tool to measure performance, thus decreasing the gap
between subordinate and supervisor (Smith & Eaton, 2014). West and Heath (2011)
reported that concerning public child welfare, ICT use allows users to communicate more
quickly and efficiently. Smith and Eaton (2014) examined secondary data in a case study
research to evaluate the impact of the computer software, CWS/CMS, that was designed
for the employees to enter information on their cases. The authors found that for public
child welfare, integrating ICT is a process that requires honoring the uniqueness of the
organization (Smith & Eaton, 2014).
Information Communication Technology (ICT) and Work/Life Balance
35
Senarathne Tennakoon (2011) noted that ICT is now fundamental on a global
level as devices such as smart phones and tablets have merged into the day-to-day lives
of people. According to Senarathne Tennakoon (2011), little research was conducted
concerning the implications of ICT use on work/non-work interactions with managers.
Therefore, she researched the use of the ICT devices and their impact on work/life
balance of managers and professionals on a global level from the countries of Sri Lanka
and Canada. The study yielded ICT use is connected to work/non-work interfaces, which
impact work/life balance (Senarathne Tennakoon, 2011). Researchers also noted that
ICT impacted work/life balance for South-Western Nigerian private universities staff
(Adetayo et al., 2011). The authors explored the relationship of ICT’s use contribution to
the expansion of work during non-work hours and discovered that rather than increase the
stress of work on the respondents, ICT use meaningfully help sustain balance (Adetayo et
al., 2011). Furthermore, Adetayo et al. (2011) concluded that usage of ICT by private
university staff should rather be encouraged and expanded upon for the purpose of
work/life balance. In considering the female workforce of the Netherlands, the
researchers posed that the use of ICTs may enhance work/life balance by enabling the
women to improve their ability to multitask (Hubers, Schwanen, & Dijst, 2011).
Wajcman, Rose, Brown, and Bittman (2010) also examined the impact of ICT on work
life balance with the focus on Australian families’ use of the Internet impact on their
work/life balance. Based upon the results of their research, they determined the Internet
does not seem to interpose on the penetrability of work/life balance (Wajcman et al.,
2010). Recognizing the mounting research to support how ICT allows work to flow into
life and life to flow into work, Senarathne Tennakoon, et al. (2013) continued the
36
research to ascertain the precursors of ICT use in and amidst work and non-work domains
in the exploration of dissipating work/life boundaries. The authors reported that an
individuals’ discernment concerning ICT is a predictor of both ICT use for work and non-
work (Senarathne Tennakoon et al., 2013).
Nam (2014) used pre-existing data from the Pew Internet and American Life
Project’s Networked Workers Survey of 2008 to examine the impact of ICT of the
Internet and mobile technology on work/life balance. For the purpose of his research,
Nam (2014) explained work/life balance as two dimensional, flexibility and permeability.
The dimension of flexibility further explained as how easily an individual will allow
boundaries to inflate or decrease to accommodate role of work over life or life over work
(Nam, 2014). Permeability is more of the behavior associated with the boundary crossing
such as an individual who may be busy in the office stop to take a personal phone call
(Nam, 2014). Based upon his establishment of two dimensions, Nam (2014)
conceptualized work/life balance as four levels: Integration (high flexibility, high
permeability), Interference (low flexibility, high permeability), Autonomy (high
flexibility, low permeability), and Segmentation (low flexibility, low permeability). The
findings of the study revealed that the use of the Internet and mobile technologies indeed
influences work/life balance dimensions of permeability and flexibility (Nam, 2014). In
addition, Internet and mobile technologies were successful in determining work/life
balance types and they definitely lead to job stress (Nam, 2014). In other words, it was
determined that the use of ICT meaningfully effects work/life balance in terms of
flexibility and permeability as well as the consequences such as stress (Nam, 2014).
37
Age and Work/Life Balance. Research indicates that generational confrere
cultivates likenesses in their thoughts, feelings, and beliefs centered on common
experiences in life (Meriac, Woehr, & Banister, 2010). Buonocore et al. (2015) explored
if workers’ perceptions of work/life balance differed depending upon their generations.
Research suggests employees of different generations hold different perspectives of
work/life balance with implications that employees of the younger generations, unlike the
older generations, have different approaches to life in general and participate in diverse
behaviors in early stages of their careers (Li X. et al., 2013; Buonocore et al., 2015).
Buonocore et al. (2015) reported that work/life balance is important for Millenials,
eventhough their approach to obtaining a balance is different than Baby Boomers and
Generation Xers. In explaining the difference in the approaches to work/life balance for
the generations, Yang and Guy (2006) suggests that individuals of the Generation X seek
career rewards and tend to switch jobs more frequently than Baby Boomers. Meriac et al.
(2010) contend that most Baby Boomers established their approach to work and life
during a period of where success lead to immense affluence, whereas those of the
Generation X culture were exposed to a much different setting that may have cultivated
dissimilar outlooks concerning their work efforts. For this reason, Buonocore et al.
(2015) contend that organizations should invest in developing and implementing
work/life balance initiatives with benefits for a multi-generational workforce.
38
Experience and Work/Life Balance. Achieving a balance between work and
life for employees can result in organizations retaining experienced employees
(Yankeelov et al., 2009). Evans, Carney, and Wilkinson (2013) noted that men who
reported having increased levels of work/life balance also report satisfaction with their
careers and remain in their organizations. However, when work/life imbalance is
heightened, employees suffer emotionally which in turn effects work experience (Darcy
et al., 2012). Organizations with clear strategies to developing work/life balance policies
and protocal will benefit from maintaining experienced satisfied workers. Workers who
experience work/life imbalance will have higher rates of job turnover which in turn leads
to fragmented work experience. A public child welfare employee may change their job
between one and three years leading to a less experienced workforce (Auerbach et al.,
2010).
Critique of Previous Research Methods
The review of the literature for work/life balance and ICT use yielded a plethora
of studies conducted in various fields from different countries including but not limited to
Asia, Australia, Canada, Netherlands, Nigeria, Sri Lanka, and America. Using the
statistical approach of multiple regression, Adetayo et al. (2011) and Hubers et al. (2011)
using ANOVA, conducted quantitative research utilizing surveys to collect data which
yielded results contrary to the trends in ICT use. The results of their research indicate
that ICT use is more of a benefit than a hindrance. It is important to note that the results
of their studies supported each other even though conducted in countries on two different
continents (Africa and Europe) with very distinct cultures.
39
Senarathne Tennakoon (2011) used a mixed method approach, some structured
in-depth interviews and a large scale web based survery, to ascertain the impact of ICT
use on work/life balance for professionals in Canada and Sri Lanka. It was noted that the
population of the two countries was comparably different in that one country, Sri Lanka,
was considered to be less developed than the other, Canada (Senarathne Tennakoon,
2011). The author’s approach to collect data allowed for higher reliability than a single
method. The findings of her study indicate that ICT use negatively impacts work/life
boundaries (Senarathne Tennakoon, 2011).
One consistent theme noted for the reviewed quantitative research studies is the
limitation factor of surveys provide data in the form of a self-report. The challenge with
self-report is that the data may be over or under reported (Feeney & Bozeman, 2009).
However, the use of surveys for the collection of data for quantitative research has
benefits as it allows access to a larger population (Cozby & Bates, 2012; Remler & Van
Ryzin, 2011). For this quantitative study to examine the effect of advance technology of
public child welfare middle managers’ work/life balance, the use of a survey best served
as the method to collect data.
Summary
This literature review represents the theoretical framework of scientific
management theory (Taylor, 1911), the stress process model (Pearlin et al., 1981), and
the generational theory (Strauss & Howe, 1991), as well as research pertaining to
Information Communication Technology, work/life balance, and public child welfare
middle managers. The foundation of the scientific management theory (Taylor, 1911) is
for the organization to have maximum efficiency of work (Heorhiadi, Conbere, &
40
Hazelbaker, 2014). Scientific Management Movement (Taylor, 1911) emphasized that a
key function of the manager was to establish and implement performance measures to
meet organizational goals. The basis for the stress process theory is that individuals’
experiences events in their life that will cause stress which result in deterioration of their
self-concept and possible manifestations of stress such as health concerns (Frishman,
2012). The foundation of the generational theory (Strauss & Howe, 1991) rests on a
historical perspective of America through the lens of behaviors and actions that allows
them to group people into one of four types, and said types repeat sequentially in a fixed
pattern. The concept of research on information communication technology is not new,
nor is its relationship to work/life balance. In addition, the review of the literature
reflects a plethora of research in the area of work/life balance. However, there remains
limited research on the impact of technology on work/life balance for human service
professionals. This chapter has identified research studies that examined work/life
balance, ICT use, scientific management theory, stress process model, and generational
theory. The proceeding chapters will present the methodology, research findings, and
discussion for the study.
41
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of technology advances upon
public child welfare middle managers’ work/life balance. In addition, the study measured
how age and work experience influence public child welfare middle managers’ work/life
balance as it relates to technology use.
Work/life balance is not a novel concept for social science research. Researchers
have noted that struggles and stresses between the demands of home and work have an
overwhelming effect on employees and increase their risk of health problems (Abendroth,
2011). The use of technology in the workplace also is not a new concept, yet ever
changing. In examining manager’s attitudes towards the use of mobile technology in the
office, Wood (2012) noted assessments relating to the use of technology in the workplace
evidenced back to the 1960’s with mainframe computer technology. However, with the
advent of technological work aides, such as the personal laptop computer, personal digital
assistant (PDA), cell phones, and electronic messaging, one would expect a decrease in
work demands, thus creating a greater work/life balance. Zuppo (2011) contends that
with advanced technology, people serve as capital for organizations. In his research,
Zuppo (2011) used the term Information Communication Technology (ICT) to define the
technology used by organizations to maintain mobile connection with employees.
42
In examining the relationship of technology and the workplace, Senarathne
Tennakoon (2011) likened the relationship to enslavement in that study participants
yielded imbalance of work/life because of disproportionate work related technology use
during non-paid work hours. Although researchers have begun to study the impact of
technology on work/life balance, there remains limited research on the impact of
technology on work/life balance for human service professionals.
This chapter focuses on addressing the methodology in the study by examining
the effects of technology advances upon public child welfare middle managers’ work/life
balance. This chapter will also provide information regarding the target population,
sample size, data collection, data analysis, and procedures employed in conducting this
research.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
There were four research questions and four related hypotheses framed for
investigation. They are as follows.
R1: Is there a relationship between Information Communication Technology (ICT)
demands and the work/life balance for public child welfare middle managers?
Technology (ICT) demands and the work/life balance for public child welfare middle
managers.
managers.
43
R2: Do age and work experience significantly explain more of the variance in work/life
balance over and beyond Information Communication Technology (ICT) demands for
R3: Is there a relationship between work/life balance and perceived stress for public child
welfare middle managers?
R4: Do age and work experience significantly explain more of the variance in perceived
stress over and beyond work/life balance for public child welfare middle managers?
managers.
managers.
44
Research Design
The research design for this study was a quantitative non-experimental
methodology utilizing a correlation and descriptive-survey design. Quantitative research
uses a population that is substantial in size, which will provide data that is statistically
meaningful and relies on statistical procedures. The statistical test required was
hierarchical multiple regression. Multiple regression is an advanced correlational
technique.
Alpha Level
The alpha level is the level at which the null hypothesis will be rejected assuming
that the null hypothesis is true. In social sciences, the alpha level is p < .05 (Brace,
Kemp, & Snelgar, 2009).
Target Population and Sample
Population
The research state’s public child welfare agency is a public child welfare
organization that investigates allegations of child maltreatment such as abuse and neglect.
In addition, as stated on the organization’s website, the agency provides services to help
families reach and maintain a sense of permanency as well as resolve issues that may
threaten the safety or well-being of children. The website further noted the agency
strives to offer quality practice and case management to ensure the safety of children in
their homes. The public child welfare organization in the southern region of the United
States provided the sample extraction.
Most current data reports as stated on the organizations website, the body of
employees for the Southern state public child welfare agency from which the population
45
was sampled total more than 4000 serving in roles of health-care workers, teachers,
attorneys, accountants, researchers, quality-control experts, information technology
specialists, case managers, and a broad range of various other positions. Within the
agency’s case manager series are four levels: Case Managers 1 through 4. Case Manager
1 (less than 12 months of experience) and 2 (more than 12 months of experience) perform
the front line tasks associated with the services to the children and families served. The
position of Case Manager 3 presents the first line of supervision/management.
Individuals who serve in this role may have limited field responsibilities and they report
directly to individuals who serve in the position of Case Manager 4. Individuals who
serve in the role of Case Manager 4 are responsible for the supervision/management of
employees who are in the role of Case Manager 1, 2, and/or 3. According to the
organization’s fiscal year 2014-2015 quarter four report, the total number of Case
Manager 4 employed by public child welfare agency in the Southern state from which the
population is sampled is 378.
Sample
Public child welfare middle managers (Case Manager 4) from a Southern state
comprised the sample for the research. Eligible criteria for this sample encompassed
individuals who supervise front line staff and individuals serving in the role of the first
line of supervision (Case Manager 1 – 3). In addition, the managers must have more than
one year experience in the role as supervisor in public child welfare. Of the 378
supervisors/managers, 108 responses were received, 5 were rejected, leaving 103 used for
all statistical analysis for this study.
46
Power Analysis
A power analysis was conducted using G*Power 3.1 (Faul, Erfelder, Lang, &
Buchner, 2007). G*Power uses an analysis-by-design approach for computing the
required sample size based on certain input parameters. For hierarchical multiple
regression, five input parameters are required. The first parameter is effect size. Effect
size is a way of quantifying the magnitude of the relationship between variables. Effect
sizes are classified as small, medium or large (Cohen, J. 1969). A medium effect size (f2
= .15) will be used for the proposed study.
The second parameter is the alpha level. As aforementioned, the alpha level for
the study was p < .05. The third required parameter is the power level. The power level
refers to the degree of confidence one can have in the results. In social sciences the
minimum acceptable power level is .80 (Brace, Kemp, & Snelgar, 2009). For this study,
a power level of .95 was sought.
The fourth required parameter is the number of tested predictors. This refers to
the number of steps used in the hierarchical regression models. There will be two steps
for each regression model. The fifth required input parameter is the total number of
predictors. There are three predictors for each regression model. Based on the preceding
parameters, a sample size of 107 was recommended. Figure 1 provides an illustration of
how power increases with increasing sample size.
47
Figure 1. Sample Size Calculation for Proposed Analyses
Procedures
1. Approval was garnered from the Institutional Review Board of the attending
university. In order to gain approval from the research site, the appropriate form
was completed and submitted to research state’s Research and Grant Review
Committee (RGRC). The RGRC serves as the Institutional Review Board of the
public child welfare agency to ascertain the capability of approval of the research
proposal based on several requirements, which include but are not limited to
adherence to state laws, ethical standards and there are no risks to involved
participants.
2. A formal request was submitted in writing to the research state’s Human Resources
Executive Director for permission to administer the survey to participants. An
48
explanation of the administration of the survey with the utilization of the web-
based software, SurveyMonkey© was presented to the agency’s Human Resources
Executive Director. Furthermore, for the survey, there was no direct access to
respondents or any manner to identify individual respondents.
3. Following approvals of all IRB, a meeting with the agency’s Services Human
Resources Executive Director, who has no authority over the potential participants,
occurred to discuss the email dissemination plan to include the survey release date.
4. During this meeting, the agency’s Human Resources Executive Director was
presented with copies of the cover letter for the study that explained the purpose of
the study, the Adult Informed Consent Form, the recruitment email, and the IRB
approval letters.
5. Given the initial date of release for the survey was set around an official state holiday,
the agency’s Human Resources Executive Director recommended sending reminders
in two-week intervals.
6. The estimated time presented to take the survey was approximately 45 minutes
(Cohen, Kamarck, & Memelstein, 1983; Day et al., 2012; Netemeyer & Boles, 1996).
The participants had 90 days to complete the survey. Intermittent participation
reminders were sent via e-mail to help augment the rate of return (Bluman, 2009).
7. Directions to complete the research instrument were communicated utilizing a
confidential link to the web-based survey that was integrated in the participation
invitation e-mail. The participant had to fulfill the requirements of the informed
consent section/form prior to advancing to the section with the questions pertaining to
the inclusion standards.
49
8. The web-based program, SurveyMonkey© prohibited participants to proceed in the
survey if the participant did not meet the criteria on the demographic page. After
completion of a demographic section, participants were instructed to proceed to the
next sections of the survey.
9. Participants were able to respond to the web-based survey only when the applicable
criteria (e.g., informed consent and years of service as a manager) were met for
inclusion. The web-based software has features that allow text analysis and the
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software amalgamation, in that
data was examined utilizing SPSS (SurveyMonkey©, 2013; Trochim, 2006).
10. Responses obtained during data collection are maintained via password protection on
a personal computer file with back-up copies kept in a password protected flash drive
to ensure confidentiality.
11. Disclosure of the identity of participants will not be included in any reports of the
research.
Participant Selection
The non-probability sampling design of purposive sampling best served this
research in that selected subjects are preferred for a distinctive purpose (Remler & Van
Ryzin, 2011). The strategy for the sample was a computer generated self-administered
survey. The use of computer generated self-administered survey allowed the respondents
the flexibility of completing the survey at a time most convenient for them. A request
was submitted in writing to the agency’s Human Resources Executive Director, for
permission to administer the web-based survey electronically to participants. It was
requested from the Human Resources Executive Director to disseminate the email
50
invitation to participants to include a cover letter for the study that explained the purpose
of the study, the confidential nature of the survey, the Adult Informed Consent form, and
the instructions for completing the survey.
Protection of Participants
Each participant was required to acknowledge he or she read and understood the
Adult Informed Consent form, which was included in the email invitation from the
Human Resources Executive Director. A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) was
provided in the Adult Informed Consent form that enabled participants to connect to the
link where the questionnaire was hosted. There was no direct access to respondents and
no process to identify individual respondents in that the submission of the questionnaire
utilized the web-based software SurveyMonkey©. The expectation was for the survey
responses to be confidential and voluntary and the respondents have the option to
suspend involvement with the web-based survey at any point. No individual participants
were identified and research findings will be reported only as aggregate data.
Participants will not be contacted following the study.
Data Collection
Data collection for the quantitative study consisted of collecting data obtained
from the web-based tool SurveyMonkey©. Data collection occurred from January 15,
2016 to March 21, 2016. Participants were asked to complete the survey during non-
work hours. User identity was concealed; however, to ensure an individual participant
did not compete the survey multiple times, SurveyMonkey© would not allow a
participant to complete the survey more than one time. Based on the parameters of the
power analysis, a total of 107 respondents were recommended. There were a total of 108
51
responses to the survey. However, only 103 responses were eligible for consideration for
data use. Data was exported directly from SurveyMonkey© to SPSS 23 for Windows to
be analyzed.
Data Analysis
The research questions and hypotheses were answered and tested with
hierarchical multiple regression. Hierarchical multiple regression best fit the research
study in that it allows selection for the order in which the variables are entered as they
test assumptions concerning the influence of several forecast variables in a successive
way (Petrocelli, 2003; Wampold & Freund, 1987).
R1, R2, H1 and H2 were answered with one hierarchical multiple regression model.
In Step 1 of the model, Information Communication Technology (ICT) demands serve as
the independent variable. The dependent variable is work/life balance. This answered
R1, H1. In Step 2 of the model, age and work experience served as independent variables.
Step 2 of the model answered R2, H2. A significant F-change from Step 1 to Step 2
means that at least one or both variables significantly explain more of the variance in
demands.
Similarly, R3, R4, H3 and H4 were answered with one hierarchical multiple
regression model. In Step 1 of the model, work/life balance serves as the independent
variable. Perceived stress serves as the dependent variable. This answered R3, H3. In
Step 2 of the model, age and work experience serves as independent variables. This
answered R4, H4. A significant F-change from Step 1 to Step 2 means that at least one or
52
both variables significantly explain more of the variance in perceived stress over and
beyond work/life balance.
The variables produced ordinal data. Ordinal variables can be organized in some
measurement such as quantity, point system, or value (Bluman, 2009; Treiman, 2009).
For example, responses to a survey question of somewhat likely, likely, not likely, would
produce ordinal data by assigning a code of the number 1 to somewhat likely, the number
two (2) to likely, and the number three (3) to not likely (Bluman, 2009; Treiman, 2009).
Table 1 provides a summary of the research questions, statistical tests,
independent/dependent variables, and scales of measurement.
53
Table 1 Research Questions, Independent/Dependent Variables
Research Question Independent Dependent

Variable/Scale of Variable/Scale of
Measurement Measurement
R1: Is there a relationship between Information Work/Life
Information Communication Technology Communication Balance/ Interval
(ICT) demands and the work/life balance Technology (ICT)
for public child welfare middle managers? demands/Interval
R2: Do Age and work experience Age/Work Experience/ Work/Life

significantly explain more of the variance Interval Balance/ Interval
in work/life balance over and beyond
Information Communication Technology
(ICT) demands for public child welfare
middle managers?
R3: Is there a relationship between Work/life Perceived

work/life balance and perceived stress for balance/Interval Stress/Interval
R4: Do Age and work experience Age/Work Experience/ Perceived

significantly explain more of the variance Interval Stress/Interval
in perceived stress over and beyond
work/life balance for public child welfare
middle managers?
Instruments
The research instrument was comprised of the purpose of study statement,
informed consent form, instructions, and researcher and mentor contact information.
Participants were required to review this information before gaining access to the actual
survey (Creswell, 2009). The electronic survey was generated using web-based software,
SurveyMonkey©. The research utilized a survey as the instrument for data collection.
The construction of the survey combined the ICT Demands Scale (Day et al., 2012) and
54
the Work-Family Conflict/Family-Work Conflict Scale (Netemeyer & Boles, 1996) with
the Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen et al., 1983).
ICT Demands Scale
Validity. Recognizing an increase use of ICT in the workforce with limited
empirical data on the impact of ICT concerning employees’ well-being, Day et al. (2012)
developed the ICT Demands Scale. The purpose of the scale was to measure both ICT
demands as well as supports. ICT demands are identified as annoyances such as device
malfunction, limited information about how to use the device, and how the device may be
used to monitor the employee; whereas support is having qualified IT personnel available
to provide timely assistance to employees to buffer the demands need (Day et al., 2012).
The ICT Demands Scale was developed and validated in 2012 using Exploratory
Structural Equation Modeling. The scale encompasses 27 questions assessing eight
theorized areas pertaining to ICT demands: response expectations; 24/7 availability;
ineffective communication; lack of control over ICT; hassles using ICT; employee
monitoring; ICT learning expectations; and workload. Participants respond to the
questions using a five point Likert scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (almost always) (Day
et al., 2012).
Reliability. Day et al. (2012) computed scores from the 8 scales noted above to
examine their reliability. They reported Cronbach’s alphas for the eight subscales ranged
from .70 to .79, with item-total correlations ranging between r .41 and r .68 (Day et al.,
2012).
Work-Family Conflict/Family-Work Conflict Scales
55
Validity. Netemeyer and Boles (1996) determined that research concerning work
and family conflict was one-dimensional in that it measured work-family conflict (WFC).
They reported that it was important to consider both family-work conflict (FWC) as well
as work-family conflict because family and work are the significant pivotal aspects of
maturity (Netemeyer & Boles, 1996). Netemeyer and Boles (1996) noted that there was
great variance in the existing measures between work-family conflict and family-work
conflict; they therefore developed a tool to assess commonly agreed upon aspects of
WFC as well as FWC. In general, WFC/FWC is defined as the level to which role
obligations from the work and family spheres conflict (Netemeyer & Boles, 1996). For
the purpose of the development of the scale, WFC was defined as a form inter-role
struggle in which the general requirements of time dedicated to, and tension created by
the job impede with implementing family related duties (Netemeyer & Boles, 1996). In
addition, Netemeyer and Boles (1996) for the purpose of the development of the scale,
defined FWC as a form of inter-role conflict in which the general requirements of time
dedicated to, and tension created by the family impeded with implementing work-related
duties. Netemeyer and Boles (1996) developed a five-item scale of WFC and FWC to
provide a consistent measure of these domains. Construct reliability, coefficient alpha,
and average variance extracted estimates provided evidence of internal consistency and
validity (Netemeyer & Boles, 1996). Furthermore, they reported that construct reliability
is a LISREL-generated estimate of internal consistency analogous to coefficient alpha
(Netemeyer & Boles, 1996).
Reliability. To determine reliability, Netemeyer and Boles (1996) examined
various studies that used some type of numerous-item measures of WFC and FWC as
56
discrete constructs and assessed the average correlations reported to the data they
collected. Netemeyer and Boles (1996) used t tests to examine the correlation between
WFC and FWC and measures dealing with variables other than WFC and FWC. The
results of the comparison between their data and the other studies yielded their WFC and
FWC measures consistently presented stronger correlations with job satisfaction,
organizational commitment, job tension, and life satisfaction than did the corresponding
measures of WFC and FWC adding validity to their scales (Netemeyer & Boles, 1996, p.
408).
Perceived Stress Scale
Validity. Cohen et al. (1983) argued that there were limits to both the objective
and subjective measures of stress that were used in the measurement of inclusive and
specific stress levels. Therefore, they presented an article to discuss said limitations. The
article presented a “psychometrically sound global measure of perceived stress” with the
intent of adding to the literature concerning the link between stress and illnesses (Cohen
et al., 1983 p. 385). As mentioned previously, the authors noted limitations to objective
and subjective measures of stress, however, they did point out advantages of objective
measures. For example, measurements are typically simple and the methods reduce the
likelihood of different subjective prejudices in the opinions and conveying of events
(Cohen et al., 1983). The authors aimed to provide a more suitable forecaster of
outcomes than the measurement of objective and subjective stressors such as life event
scales through the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) (Cohen et al., 1983). Cohen et al. (1983)
noted that perceived stress is a measureable outcome of the felt intensity of stress as a
57
result of tangible stressful events, processes for managing, temperament, character,
nature, etc.
The Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen et al., 1983) was used to measure the degree to
which an event in an individual’s life is discerned stressful. The scale encompasses
inquiries about the participant’s current levels of lived through stress and the degree to
which situations are identified as stressful. The scale validated in 1983 is utilized in
numerous scientific research articles in the human services venue. Since it’s validation,
the scale is now available in over 13 different language translations. Dr. Sheldon Cohen
web site for the Study of Stress, Immunity, and Disease (2015) hosts downloadable forms
of the scale as well as a statement of permission to use for research. The site also host
abstracts of research articles relevant to the use of the scale.
The tool has ten questions that are universally applicable to any sub-population.
The responses are measured using a five point Likert scale measurement of occurances
from “never” to “very often”. Therefore, the tool will generate quantitative ordinal data.
Reliability. The PSS sample encompassed males and females with a mean score
of 23, 18, 23.67 from the student population, and 25.0 from the stop-smoking sample
(Cohen et al., 1983). The authors reported the standard deviations were “7.31, 7.79, and
8.00, and ranges were 6 to 50, 5 to 44, and 7 to 47” (Cohen et al., 1983, p. 390). The
coefficient alpha reliability for the PSS was .84, .85, and .86 in college student sample 1,
college student sample 2, and stop-smoking sample (Cohen et al., 1983).
Reliability Analysis for Research Survey
The reliability of the instrument for the sample of managers was tested with
Cronbach’s alpha. The reliability of the subscales initially ranged from .31 for perceived
58
stress to .85 for ICT demands and work/life balance. The minimum acceptable reliability
is .70. By visual inspection of the items measuring perceived stress, survey items #52,
53, 55, and 56 appeared to be reverse-coded. Therefore, an inter-item analysis was
conducted on the data, which confirmed that the items were reverse-coded. After
reverse-scoring the items for perceived stress, α = .89. Thus, the reliability was
acceptable for all the variables of interest. Reliability Coefficients for research are
presented in Table 2.
Table 2 Reliability Coefficients
Variable N of Cronbach’s
Items alpha
Information Communication Technology (ICT) 27 .851
Demands
Work/Life Balance 10 .85
Perceived Stress 10 .89
Operationalization of Variables
The ICT Demands Scale (Day et al., 2012) measured Information Communication
Technology (ICT) demands. To compute the score, an average of the responses to the 27
items on the instrument was obtained. Once a score was computed, the data was on an
interval scale of measurement.
The Work-Family Conflict Scale and the Family-Work Conflict scale (Netemeyer
and Boles, 1996) measured work/life balance. A score was computed by reverse coding
the items and averaging the responses so that the higher the score, the greater work/life
balance. Once a score was computed, the data was on an interval scale of measurement.
59
Age was a derivative variable computed by subtracting the year of birth for each
participant from the year the participants completed the survey. Work experience was a
demographic variable in the data set and was on an interval scale of measurement.
The Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen et al., 1983) measured perceived stress. A score was
computed by averaging the responses. Once a score was computed, the data was on an
interval scale of measurement.
Ethical Considerations
Prior to beginning the study, approval was granted from the Institutional Review
Boards associated with both Capella University and the site in which the data was
collected. Any probable risk or discomfort was stated in writing and participants were
requested to acknowledge this potential risk to their emotional and psychological welfare
and their comprehension of their rights as participants by signing the appropriate form.
Participants gave consent via electronic signatures.
As noted in the Belmont Report (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
1979), respect, beneficence, and justice will remain paramount in the process of informed
consent with the study to examine the effects of ICT on work/life balance for public child
welfare middle managers.
Vulnerable research populations are categorized by age, ill health, minority status
or some other disempowered position in society that can be open to exploitation (Sieber
& Tolich, 2012). Children, elderly people, incarcerated people, pregnant women, and
mentally challenged people are typically categorized as vulnerable. However, vulnerable
adults can also include such people as victims of domestic violence, homeless
60
people, drug addicted, prostitutes, as well as those who may be vulnerable due to their
sexual orientation (Sieber & Tolich, 2012).
The population for this research was middle managers in public child welfare. In
general, the population is not vulnerable. Nevertheless, there are some risks for the study
participants as life into work was measured. Employees who acknowledge instances of
life (family, issues) flowing into work time, risk possible retribution from the employer.
To protect participants from this risk, the researcher must ensure confidentiality of all raw
data. In so doing, researcher ensured exclusion of legal ramifications regarding
confidentiality to minimize risk of employee retribution regarding family spillover into
work issues.
Validity, reliability, credibility, and researcher’s position are four areas that can
challenge research. By adhering to professional ethics, reliability and validity issues of
concern decrease for researchers (Cozby & Bates, 2012). Researcher can engage in a
process of reflecting critically on the self as researcher to address personal bias (Merriam,
2009). Researchers must be very transparent concerning their personal bias, perspective,
and assumptions (Remler & Van Ryzin, 2011). In addition, researchers should be candid
and disclose their personal feelings if there is relevance in their feelings regarding the
matter of the study (Remler & Van Ryzin, 2011). Concerning transparency and personal
bias, researcher’s experience within public child welfare did not challenge the validity of
the research as all professional and ethical standards were adhered. Professional
standards such as IRB approval were garnered and there was no direct contact between
researcher and participants.
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Summary
With this qualitative non-experimental, correlational design research, a
correlational relationship was projected between Information Communication
managers. It was expected that the demographic factor of age would glean a better
understanding of the correlational relationship between Information Communication
managers. Kubiatko (2013) noted that age is a crucial factor that affects how one
responds to ICT. Kubiatko (2013) further explained that the individuals identified as
Millennial (age 18-34) attitudes towards work and ICT were more positive than the
Generation Xers (age 35-46). It was also projected there would be a correlational
relationship between work/life balance and perceived stress for public child welfare
middle managers. The culture of public child welfare cultivates boundaryless
environment. To examine the relationship, a sample size consisted of 103 public child
welfare middle managers. The nature of the work of public child welfare, being
responsible for the safety and well-being of children, is stressful in and of itself.
However, not being able to distinguish clear lines between work and life can lead to
increased levels of stress. Finally, the expectations of this study were to ascertain the
effects of technology advances upon public child welfare middle managers’ work/life
balance. This chapter addressed the methodology of the study, provided information
about the target population, sample size, data collection, data analysis, and procedures.
The remaining chapters will provide the results of the data followed by a discussion.
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CHAPTER 4. RESULTS
Background
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of technology advances upon
public child welfare middle managers’ work/life balance. Moreover, the study assessed
how age and work experience factored into public child welfare middle managers’
work/life balance as it relates to technology use. Research has shown technological
advances as contributing factors that led to increased work hours (Brady et al., 2008).
Furthermore, with technology and the potential for constant wireless connection comes a
significant change in the manner in which people approach work such as with
boundaryless organizations and virtual workspaces (Kreiner et al., 2009). What is not
known is if technological aides have caused an increase in work/life imbalance for human
service professional managers.
It is imperative for those in the profession of social work and other human service
professions to aim for optimal human functioning, subjective well-being, and balance of
work and life as a counter to stress, fatigue, and threat of burnout (Fouche and
Martindale, 2011). Burnout encompasses emotional fatigue, negative stances towards
service recipients, and decreased sense of individual achievement (Westbrook et al.,
2006). Leiter, Bakker, and Maslach (2014) remarked that high demands, insufficient
resources, coupled with work becoming more portable are linked to contemporary
burnout. Conversations are needed concerning the life domains that define balance for
individuals in order for human service professionals to obtain work/life balance (Fouche
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& Martindale, 2011). Brooks (2012) noted that when the employer does not address the
issue of employees’ stress, the employer might incur substantial financial burdens as a
result of the employees’ stress.
A survey was utilized as the instrument for data collection. The survey was
constructed by combining the ICT Demands Scale (Day et al., 2012) and the Work-
Family Conflict/Family-Work Conflict Scale (Netemeyer & Boles, 1996) with the
Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen et al., 1983). The ICT Demands Scale encompasses 27
questions assessing eight theorized areas pertaining to ICT demands: response
expectations; 24/7 availability; ineffective communication; lack of control over ICT;
hassles using ICT; employee monitoring; ICT learning expectations; and workload.
Participants respond to the questions using a five point Likert scale ranging from 0
(never) to 4 (almost always) (Day et al., 2012).
Netemeyer and Boles (1996), developed a tool, which consisted of the Work-
Family Conflict Scale to assess commonly agreed upon aspects of work-family conflict
(WFC) and the Family-Work Conflict Scale to assess family-work conflict (FWC). The
scale encompasses 10 questions and was used in the current study to measure work/life
balance. Participants respond to the questions using a seven point Likert scale ranging
from strongly disagree to strongly agree (Netemeyer & Boles, 1996).
The Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen et al., 1983) was used to measure perception
of stress. The scale encompasses inquiries about the participant’s current levels of stress
and the degree to which situations are identified as stressful. The tool has ten questions
that are universally applicable to any sub-population. The responses are measured using
a five point Likert scale measurement of occurances from never to very often.
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Data collection occurred through SurveyMonkey©, a web-based data collection
tool. Upon approvals of all IRB, a written request was submitted to the research state’s
Human Resources Executive Director, who has no authority over the potential
participants asking that to share the survey. The population for the research was public
child welfare middle managers. Eligible criteria for this population encompass
individuals who supervise front line staff. The organization’s website define the role of
supervisors to fit the criteria of eligible participants. Eligible participants are accountable
for the management of employees who provide case management services for children
under the research site’s supervision, in the custody of the research site, or at risk of the
research site’s custody and their families.
Organization of this chapter encompasses an introduction, discussion of the
sample demographics, reliability analysis, descriptive statistics and data screening,
research questions/hypothesis testing, and conclusions. Data were exported directly from
SurveyMonkey© to SPSS for analysis. Data collection occurred from January 15, 2016
to March 21, 2016. Data were analyzed with SPSS 23 for Windows. The following
provides a discussion of the sample demographics.
Description of the Sample
The sample consisted of 103 managers; 89.3% (n = 92) were females and 10.7%
(n = 11) were males. About half (52.4%, n = 54) were Gen-Xers, 11.7% (n = 12) were
Millennials; 34.9% (n = 36) were Baby Boomers; and 1% (n = 1) was 66 years of age or
older. The generation of the managers is presented in Table 3.
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Table 3 Manager Generation
Generation n % Cumulative %
Millennial (age 18 - 34) 12 11.7 11.7
Generation X (age 35 - 46) 54 52.4 64.1
Younger Baby Boomer (age 47 - 56) 26 25.2 89.3
Older Baby Boomer (age 57 - 65) 10 9.7 99.0
Other (age 66 and over) 1 1.0 100.0
Total 103 100.0
Regarding educational attainment, 57.3% (n = 59) had bachelor’s degrees; 40.8%
(n = 42) had master’s degrees; and 1.9% (n = 2) had PhDs. Approximately half (47.6%,
n = 49) of the respondents had 5-19 years of overall work experience and the remaining
52.4% (n = 54) had 20 or more years of overall work experience. See Table 4.
Table 4 Years of Overall Work Experience
Years of Experience n % Cumulative %

5-9 5 4.9 4.9
10 - 14 16 15.5 20.4
15 - 19 28 27.2 47.6
20 - 24 17 16.5 64.1
25 - 29 20 19.4 83.5
30 and over 17 16.5 100.0
Total 103 100.0
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Nearly a fourth (23.3%, n = 24) of the managers worked on their current jobs 0-4
years; 22.3% (n = 23) worked 5-9 years; and the remaining 54.4% (n = 56) had been
working on their current jobs for more than nine years. Years working in current job are
included in Table 5.
Table 5 Years Working in Current Job
Years in Current Job n % Cumulative %

0-4 24 23.3 23.3
5-9 23 22.3 45.6
10 - 14 28 27.2 72.8
15 - 19 15 14.6 87.4
20 - 24 8 7.8 95.1
25 - 29 4 3.9 99.0
30 and over 1 1.0 100.0
Total 103 100.0
The largest category of the managers (38.8%, n = 40) had 0-4 years of supervisor
experience in public child welfare; 27.2% (n = 28) worked 5-9 years; and the remaining
34% (n = 35) had been working in public child welfare for more than nine years. Years
of supervisory experience in public child welfare are presented in Table 6.
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Table 6 Years of Supervisory Experience in Public Child Welfare
Years of Experience n % Cumulative %

0-4 40 38.8 38.8
5-9 28 27.2 66.0
10 - 14 13 12.6 78.6
15 - 19 13 12.6 91.3
20 - 24 6 5.8 97.1
25 - 29 2 1.9 99.0
30 and over 1 1.0 100.0
Total 103 100.0
The majority of managers (65%, n = 67) were married; 9.7% (n = 10) had
partners; 1% (n = 1) were widowed; and 14.6% (n = 15) were divorced or separated. Ten
respondents (9.7%) did not provide information regarding their family statuses.
Regarding the number of children, 44.7% (n = 46) of managers had one child, 33% (n =
34) had two children, 12.6% (n = 13) had three children, 2.9% (n = 3) had four children,
1% (n = 1) had five or more children, and 90.3% (n = 93) had no children. Thus, 9.7% (n
= 10) of the managers had children (n = 97). Thirty-six (37.1%) children were adults.
Fifty children (51.5%) were ages 5-18. Eleven children (11.3%) were younger than five
years of age. The number of children and their ages are presented in Table 7.
Table 7 Number of Children and Their Ages
1 Child 2 Children 3 Children 4 Children 5 or More None
< 5 Years 8 3 0 0 0 34
Ages 5-18 25 18 5 2 0 27
Adult 13 13 8 1 1 32
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On the average, managers engaged in work-related activities 2-55 hours per week
(M = 39.25, SD = 9.83) at the workplace with a median of 40 hours and a mode of 37.5
hours. On the average, managers engaged in work-related activities 0-48 hours per week
(M = 7.19, SD = 6.65) at home with a median and a mode of 5 hours per week. See Table
8.
Table 8 Number of Hours Engaged in Work-Related Activities
Number of Work-related Activities per Number of Work-related Activities

Week at the Workplace per Week at Home
N Valid 103 100
Missing 0 3
Mean 39.25 7.19
Median 40.00 5.00
Mode 37.50 5.00
SD 9.83 6.65
Minimum 2.00 0
Maximum 55.00 48.00
Descriptive Statistics and Data Screening
For ICT demands, scores can range from 0 (never) to 4 (almost always). For the
sample of managers, scores ranged from 0.93 to 3.19 (M = 2.15, SD = 0.43). A higher
score indicated greater ICT demands. A mean of 2.15 for this variable indicates that on
the average, managers almost never had ICT demands. For work/life balance,
participants responded to the questions using a seven point Likert scale ranging from 0
(strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). For the sample, scores ranged from 0.90 to 6 (M
= 3.44, SD = 0.98). A higher score reflected greater work/life balance. A mean of 3.44
indicates that overall, managers were undecided about work/life balance. For perceived
69
stress, scores can range from 0 (never) to 4 (very often). A higher score indicates greater
perceived stress. For the sample of managers, scores ranged from 0.1 to 3.10 (M = 1.69,
SD = 0.63). A mean of 1.69 indicates that managers sometimes (1.69 can be rounded to 2
which indicates sometimes) perceived stress. Descriptive statistics are presented in Table
9.
Table 9 Descriptive Statistics
Variable N Minimum Maximum M SD

Information Communication Technology (ICT) 103 .93 3.19 2.15 0.43
Demands
Work/Life Balance 103 .90 6.00 3.45 0.98
Perceived Stress 103 .10 3.10 1.69 0.63
The data were screened for normality with skewness and kurtosis statistics and
also with histograms. In SPSS, distributions are considered to be normal when the
absolute values of the skewness and kurtosis coefficients are less than two times their
standard errors. Skewness and kurtosis coefficients indicated that the distributions were
within normal range for all three variables. See Table 10.
Table 10 Skewness and Kurtosis Coefficients
N Skewness Kurtosis
Variable Statistic Statistic SE Statistic SE
Information Communication Technology 103 -.038 .238 .241 .472
(ICT) Demands
Work/Life Balance 103 .062 .238 .160 .472
Perceived Stress 103 -.134 .238 .014 .472
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For ICT demands, skewness = -.038 (SE = 0.24) and kurtosis = .241 (SE = 0.47).
The normal histogram for ICT demands is presented in Figure 2. A normal curve was
superimposed in the figure to underscore the symmetrical shape of the distribution.
Figure 2. Histogram for Information Communication Technology Demands
For work/life balance, skewness = .062 (SE = 0.24) and kurtosis = .16 (SE =
0.47). The normal histogram for work/life balance is presented in Figure 3.
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Figure 3. Histogram Work/Life Balance
For perceived stress, skewness = -.134 (SE = 0.24) and kurtosis = .01 (SE = 0.47).
While the statistics indicated that the distribution was normal for perceived stress, the
histogram suggested that the distribution was multimodal. A multimodal distribution can
indicate differences in subpopulations and in this instance may indicate differences in
perceived stress among subpopulations. The histogram for perceived stress is presented
in Figure 4.
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Figure 4. Histogram for Perceived Stress
Hypothesis Testing
There were four research questions and four related hypotheses formulated for
investigation. They are as follows.
R1: Is there a relationship between Information Communication Technology (ICT)
demands and work/life balance for public child welfare middle managers?
managers.
managers.
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R2: Do age and work experience significantly explain more of the variance in work/life
balance over and beyond Information Communication Technology (ICT) demands for
R3: Is there a relationship between work/life balance and perceived stress for public child
welfare middle managers?
R4: Do age and work experience significantly explain more of the variance in perceived
stress over and beyond work/life balance for public child welfare middle managers?
managers.
managers.
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hierarchical multiple regression. R1, R2, H1 and H2 were answered with one hierarchical
multiple regression model. In Step 1 of the model, Information Communication
Technology (ICT) demand was entered as the independent variable. The dependent
variable was work/life balance. This answered R1, H1. In Step 2 of the model, age and
work experience were entered as independent variables. Step 2 answered R2, H2. A
significant F-change from Step 1 to Step 2 will mean that at least one or both variables
significantly explain more of the variance in work/life balance over and beyond
Information Communication Technology (ICT) demands. Similarly, R3, R4, H3 and H4
were answered with one hierarchical multiple regression model. In Step 1 of the model,
work/life balance was entered as the independent variable. The dependent variable was
perceived stress. This answered R3, H3. In Step 2 of the model, age and work experience
were entered as independent variables. This answered R4, H4. A significant F-change
from Step 1 to Step 2 will mean that at least one or both variables significantly explain
more of the variance in perceived stress over and beyond work/life balance.
Research Questions 1 and 2/Hypotheses 1 and 2
Prior to conducting the multiple regression, the assumptions of multiple
regression were tested. The residuals were analyzed. A residual is the difference
between the observed values and the model-predicted values of the dependent variable.
Standardized residuals were considered to be statistical outliers if they exceeded ± 3.
Residuals ranged from -2.86 to 2.93 and were therefore considered to be within normal
limits. A normal probability plot was generated to illustrate the normality of the
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standardized residuals. Normality is demonstrated by the closeness of the points to the
straight line as illustrated in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Normal Probability Plot of Residuals for Work/Life Balance
A scatterplot of standardized residuals and standardized predicted values was
generated. If the points form a rectangle across the middle of the figure, then it can be
assumed that the data meets the assumptions about normality, linearity, and
homoscedasticity of residuals. See Figure 6.
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Figure 6. Scatterplot of Standardized Residuals for Work/Life Balance
ICT demands explained 16% of the variance in work/life balance and was
statistically significant, F(1, 101) = 19.34, p < .001. The negative regression coefficient
means that the relationship between ICT demands and work/life balance was negative (β
= -0.40, t = -4.40). As ICT demands increased by one standard deviation, work/life
balance decreased by 0.40 standard deviations. In Step 2 of the model, age and overall
work experience were entered. However, there was no significant F-change from Step 1
to Step 2, F(2, 99) = 0.14, p = .869. This means that age and work experience did not
significantly explain more of the variance in work/life balance beyond ICT demands.
Regression coefficients are presented in Table 11.
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Table 11 Regression Coefficients for Work/Life Balance
Variable B SE B β t p
1 (Constant) 5.39 0.45 11.96 .000
Information Communication Technology (ICT) - 0.21 - -4.40 .000
Demands*** 0.90 0.40
R2 .161***
F for change in R2 19.37***
2 (Constant) 5.56 0.56 10.01 .000
Information Communication Technology (ICT) - 0.21 - -4.38 .000
Demands*** 0.91 0.40
Age - 0.16 - -0.17 .862
0.03 0.02
Work experience - 0.09 - -0.20 .840
0.02 0.03
2
R .163
2
F for change in R .141
Note. Dependent variable = Work/Life Balance. ***p < .001
H01 stated that there is no significant relationship between Information
Communication Technology (ICT) demands and work/life balance for public child
welfare middle managers. There was a significant, negative relationship between
Information Communication Technology (ICT) demands and work/life balance for public
child welfare middle managers, (β = -.40, t = -4.40, p < .001). Therefore, the null
hypothesis was rejected.
H02 stated that age and work experience do not significantly explain more of the
variance in work/life balance over and beyond Information Communication Technology
(ICT) demands for public child welfare middle managers. There was no significant F-
change from Step 1 to Step 2, F(2, 99) = 0.14, p = .869. Therefore, the null hypothesis
78
was not rejected. This means that age and work experience did not significantly explain
more of the variance in work/life balance beyond ICT demands.
Research Questions 3 and 4/Hypotheses 3 and 4
Residuals ranged from -2.86 to 2.14 and were therefore considered to be within
normal limits. A normal probability plot was generated to illustrate the normality of the
standardized residuals. The closeness of the points to the straight line supports the
normality of the distribution. See Figure 7.
Figure 7. Normal Probability Plot of Residuals for Perceived Stress
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A scatterplot of standardized residuals and standardized predicted values was
generated. The points formed a general rectangle across the middle of the figure.
Therefore, it can be assumed that the data meets the assumptions about normality,
linearity, and homoscedasticity of residuals. See Figure 8.
Figure 8. Scatterplot of Standardized Residuals for Perceived Stress
Work/life balance explained 25% of the variance in perceived stress and was
statistically significant, F(1, 101) = 34.03, p < .001. The negative regression coefficient
means that the relationship between work/life balance and perceived stress was negative
(β = -0.50, t = -5.83). Work/life balance increased by one standard deviation, perceived
stress decreased by 0.50 standard deviation. In Step 1 of the model, age and overall work
experience were entered. However, there was no significant F-change from Step 1 to
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Step 2, F(2, 99) = 0.52, p = .596. This means that age and work experience did not
significantly explain more of the variance in perceived stress beyond work/life balance.
Regression coefficients are presented in Table 12.
Table 12 Regression Coefficients for Perceived Stress
Variable B SE B β t p
1 (Constant) 2.81 0.20 14.07 .000
Work/Life Balance -0.32 0.06 -0.50 -5.83 .000
2
R .245***
2
F for change in R 34.03***
2 (Constant) 2.87 0.27 10.50 .000
Work/Life Balance -0.33 0.06 -0.50 -5.83 .000
Age 0.09 0.10 0.12 0.91 .367
Work experience -0.06 0.06 -0.13 -0.99 .325
2
R .26
2
F for change in R 0.52
Note. Dependent variable = Perceived Stress. ***p < .001
H03 stated that there is not a significant relationship between work/life balance
and perceived stress for public child welfare middle managers. There was a significant,
negative relationship between work/life balance and perceived stress for public child
welfare middle managers, (β = -.50, t = -5.83, p < .001). Therefore, the null hypothesis
was rejected.
H04 stated that age and work experience do not significantly explain more of the
variance in perceived stress over and beyond work/life balance for public child welfare
middle managers. There was no significant F-change from Step 1 to Step 2, F(2, 99) =
0.52, p = .596. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. This means that age and
work experience did not significantly explain more of the variance in perceived stress
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beyond work/life balance. Table 13 provides a summary of all alternative hypotheses
tested and the outcomes.
Table 13 Summary of All Hypotheses Tested
Hypothesis Significance Outcome
H1: There is a significant relationship between Information p < .001 Supported

Communication Technology (ICT) demands and work/life
balance for public child welfare middle managers.
H2: Age and work experience significantly explain more of p = .869 Not
the variance in work/life balance over and beyond Supported
Information Communication Technology (ICT) demands for
public child welfare middle managers.
H3: There is a significant relationship between work/life p < .001 Supported

balance and perceived stress for public child welfare middle
managers.
H4: Age and work experience significantly explain more of p = .596 Not
the variance in perceived stress over and beyond work/life Supported
Summary
Four research questions and related hypotheses were formulated for investigation.
There was a significant, negative relationship between Information Communication
managers. As ICT demands increased, there was a corresponding decrease in work/life
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balance. Age and work experience did not significantly explain more of the variance in
work/life balance beyond ICT demands. There was a significant, negative relationship
between work/life balance and perceived stress for public child welfare middle managers.
As work/life balance increased, there was a corresponding decrease in perceived stress.
Age and work experience did not significantly explain more of the variance in perceived
stress beyond work/life balance.
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CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
This study investigated the effects of technology advances upon public child
welfare middle managers’ work/life balance. More specifically, the study illuminated on
the relationship between Information Communication Technology (ICT), age, work
experience, and perceived stress for public child welfare middle managers while
expanding the theories of scientific management (Taylor, 1911), stress process model
(Pearlin et al., 1981), and generational theory (Strauss & Howe, 1991). The environment
of public child welfare promotes a culture where the boundary between work and life is
not easily discerned for front line workers and middle management in that the individuals
who serve in these positions are required to respond to the needs of families served at the
time the need arises. Technological aids such as smart phones and tablets exasperate this
custom further by allowing access to employees at any time, regardless of location and
work hours. Research findings indicate that technological advances permit new
opportunities for individuals to manage the various roles in their lives with increased
flexibility and mobility (Fleck et al., 2014). Nevertheless, Fleck et al. (2014) further
noted use of said technology for work during times of non-paid work time has been
negatively connected to individuals’ health, happiness, and welfare. Up until this point,
no studies have examined the impact of advance technology on work/life balance for
public child welfare middle managers. Therefore, this study addressed this gap in the
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literature by assessing the impact of ICT use on work/life balance for public child welfare
middle managers.
Summary of the Results
A quantitative correlational approach was used to understand the impact of
advance technology on public child welfare middle manager’s work/life balance. This
study used hierarchical multiple regression to assess the relationship between ICT and
work/life balance for public child welfare middle managers in a Southern state from
which the population was sampled. The scientific management theory (Taylor, 1911),
stress process model (Pearlin et al., 1981), and the generational theory (Strauss & Howe,
1991) served as the theoretical foundation to the study.
This research utilized a survey as the instrument for data collection. The survey
was constructed by combining the ICT Demands Scale (Day et al., 2012) and the Work-
Family Conflict/Family-Work Conflict Scale (Netemeyer & Boles, 1996) with the
Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen et al., 1983). Data was collected through
SurveyMonkey© from 108 respondents of which 103 were eligible for use.
The results revealed that ICT demands explained 16% of the variance in work/life
balance for middle managers. In other words, as ICT demands increased, work/life
balance decreased. The results support the findings of previous research such as Leung et
al. (2016) examination of telecommuting and ICT use. Leung et al. (2016) research
revealed that ICT use and telecommuting negatively impacts work/life balance.
In Step 2 of the model, age and overall work experience yielded no significant F-
change from Step 1 to Step 2; indicating that age and work experience did not
significantly explain more of the variance in work/life balance beyond ICT demands.
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The results of Step 2 do not align with current research. Kubiatko, Halakova, Nagy, and
Nagyova (2015) examination of attitudes towards ICT use between different age groups
suggests that age significantly impacts not only use, but attitudes towards the use of ICT.
The results further reflected that work/life balance explained 25% of the variance in
perceived stress for middle managers. There again, there was no significant F-change
from Step 1 to Step 2; meaning that age and work experience did not significantly explain
more of the variance in perceived stress beyond work/life balance. The subsequent
research questions and hypotheses directed this study:
Research Question 1
managers.
managers.
Research Question 2
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Research Question 3
Research Question 4
managers?
managers.
H04: Age and work experience do not significantly explain more of the variance
in perceived stress over and beyond work/life balance for public child welfare middle
managers.
87
hierarchical multiple regression.
Discussion of the Results
The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of advance technology on
public child welfare middle manager’s work/life balance. The analysis of the data
demonstrated that there is a significant relationship between ICT use and work/life
imbalance for public child welfare middle managers in a Southern state from which the
population was sampled; age and work experience did not account for the variance in
work/life balance beyond the ICT demands. Furthermore, the data also yielded there is a
significant relationship between work/life balance and stress; however, age and work
experience does not account for the variance in perceived stress beyond work/life
balance.
The findings of this research study afford public child welfare organizations to
grasp the concept that imbalance between work and non-paid work time (life) for middle
managers may lead to stress and ICT use can further exasperate said imbalance. The
research study aimed to respond to the following questions:
Research Question 1
The data reflects that there is a relationship between ICT demands and work/life
balance for public child welfare middle manager. Conceivably, devices provided to
public child welfare middle managers with the aim of increasing worker proficiency and
88
agency outcomes are directly related to work/life imbalance. The results of this research
support previous research, which indicates ICT use has the potential to lead to increase
work hours, decrease private hours, and increase stress (Nam, 2014; Senarathne
Tennakoon, 2011).
Research Question 2
The data reflects that age and work experience do not significantly explain more
of the variance in work/life balance over and beyond Information Communication
Technology (ICT) demands for public child welfare middle managers. Although research
indicates there is a difference in how the generations approach ICT use (Kubiatko, 2013;
Kubiatko et al., 2015; Zickuhr, 2011), public child welfare middle managers appear to
show little differences. The data from this study may not support the findings from
previous literature concerning age, ICT use, and work/life balance in that the public child
welfare middle managers are required to be proficient in the use of ICTs.
Research Question 3
The result of the data reveal there is a significant relationship between work/life
balance and perceived stress for public child welfare middle managers. Apparently,
public child welfare middle managers perceive their lives as having elevated levels of
stress resulting from work/life imbalance. Moreover, the culture of public child welfare
89
in and of itself promotes a stressful environment in that workers are repeatedly exposed
to respond to situations of child abuse and maltreatment. This conclusion supports
previous research found in the literature that notes a significant relationship between job
stress and public child welfare workers (Boyas & Wind, 2010; Boyas, Wind, & Ruiz,
2013; Salloum, Kondrat, Johnco, & Olson, 2015).
Research Question 4
managers?
The data reflects that age and work experience do not significantly explain more
of the variance in perceived stress over and beyond work/life balance for public child
welfare middle managers. Evidently, stress has no respect of persons. However, the
findings do not support the literature. Twenge (2010) contends that individuals identified
with the group Millennial are self-absorbed and would be more of the cause of stress in
the workplace.
Conclusions Based on the Results
The results of this hierarchical multiple regression analysis and SPSS analytics
were able to reveal measures of significance between Information Communication
managers. While two of the four hypotheses were supported, the findings present strong
implications that public child welfare agencies should focus on creating policies and
protocols to enhance work/life balance while embracing ICT use.
90
In this study, it was expected to find a relationship between age and work
experience significantly explain more of the variance in work/life balance over and
beyond Information Communication Technology (ICT) demands and perceived stress
over and beyond work/life balance for public child welfare middle managers. Zickuhr
(2011) noted that concerning age and ICT, individuals who fall within the age range of
Millennials (age 18 – 34 years) are likely to own and utilize the functions on most of the
advanced technology (smart phones, laptops, and tablets). Kubiatko et al. (2015)
contend that Millennials tend to be problem solvers skillful in multitasking and using ICT
more for retrieving information and intermingling with others than older generations.
Zickuhr (2011) further noted that members of Generation X (age 35 – 46 years) are
comparable to the Millennials; however, they are not as likely to prefer to utilize the
maximum functionality of the devices to the extent as the Millennials. Kubiatko (2013)
expounded that Millennials’ attitudes towards work and ICT were more positive than the
Generation Xers (age 35-46). Based upon the review of this literature, it was expected
that the independent variables for R2 and R4, age and work experience, would have a
significant relationship with the work/life balance and perceived stress. However, the
results did not correspond with expectations concerning this matter.
There was a significant, negative relationship between Information
welfare middle managers. As ICT demands increased, there was a corresponding
decrease in work/life balance. There was a significant, negative relationship between
work/life balance and perceived stress for public child welfare middle managers. As
work/life balance increased, there was a corresponding decrease in perceived stress. The
91
findings supported the expectations of a correlational relationship between Information
welfare middle managers. Public child welfare by its very nature cultivates an
environment that lacks clarity regarding boundary that should create a balance between
work and life for front line workers and middle management because the employees often
times are required to respond to the needs of the children and families served at the time
the need arises. Responding in this manner, often referred to as being on-call, enabled
further by advanced technology such as tablets and smart phones, allows access to
employees at any time, regardless of location and work hours. Research states that an
increase in the requirement in the area of work will lead to an increase in an imbalance
between work and personal time for employees (Živan et al., 2009). ICT allows work to
flow into non-paid work time (life) and life (personal matters) can flow into paid work
time in that management of personal matters often occur through the same type of
technological tools that are provided for enhanced work productivity. Fleck et al. (2014)
contend it is ICT use that has afforded employees the flexibility to manage the various
roles in their lives; however, use of said technology for work during times of non-paid
work time has been negatively connected to individuals’ health, happiness, and welfare.
Based upon the review of this literature, it was expected that Information Communication
Technology (ICT) would have a significant relationship with the work/life balance and
perceived stress. The results were consistent with the expectations concerning this
matter. From the present findings, coupled with past research (Adetayo et al., 2011;
Nam, 2014; Senarathne Tennakoon, 2011; Senarathne Tennakoon et al., 2013; Zuppo,
92
2011), it is evident that advanced technology effects public child welfare middle
managers’ work/life balance.
Limitations
The limitations of the current research study are discussed in this section. The
first limitation is the population of the study. The study focused on public child welfare
middle managers in a Southern state from which the population was sampled. More
specifically, the managers must have supervised for at least one year in public child
welfare to be a respondent in this research. According to the organization’s fiscal year
2014-2015 quarter three report, the total number of Case Manager 4 employed by this
Southern state’s public child welfare agency is 378. The total number of respondents was
108; however, only 103 were eligible for survey participation. By narrowing the
population to public child welfare middle managers in one southern state, the
generalizability of the findings were limited (Remler & Van Ryzin, 2011). One variable
that could be explored with a larger population is gender.
The second limitation was the recruitment method, purposive sampling. The
managers were recruited via work e-mail with the assistance of the Executive Director of
Human Resources (in compliance with the state’s policy regarding mass distribution of e-
mails). However, the recruitment e-mail stipulated that managers could only respond to
the survey during non-paid hours. The initial intent was for the survey to be open for 30
days. However, given the survey launch date and the 30-day period included several
official state observed holidays, the designated period for the survey to be open was 60
days. During the 60-day period, several reminder emails were sent in that the response
rate was low thereby leading to an extension in the survey to allow for saturation.
93
Changing the sampling method to convenience will allow for the use of respondents who
are convenient and meet eligible criteria. This method would allow for the recruitment of
potential participants through venues such as professional human service and/or social
work organizations.
A third limitation is the use of the Internet as a source for data collection is
advantageous for research in that it can be relatively inexpensive. However, there are
limitations associated with the use of the Internet as a data collection apparatus.
Research has shown that the use of the Internet as an instrument to survey may present
the user with problems such as computer issues (hardware and software), variations in
procedures, managing interruptions, and ensuring maintenance (Hewson, Vogel, &
Laurent, 2015).
Implications for Practice
The concept of work/life balance is not new. Researchers have examined the
concept from the implications of the motivations of work outweighing the need to enjoy
life (Sturges & Guest, 2004) to the stresses that lead to increased risk for health concerns
(Abendroth, 2011). Advance technology such as smart phones, laptops, tablets, and
wireless capabilities also known as Information Communication Technology (ICT) have
been introduced as work aides to increase work outcomes. With ICT, the workforce and
individual’s personal lives have numerous ways of staying connected and flexibility in
completing tasks. However, Fleck et al. (2014) remarked that it is this flexibility that
often causes employees to work during non-work time. This research study provided
information about the effect of advance technologies on public child welfare middle
managers’ work/life balance.
94
The findings yielded that as ICT demands increase for public child welfare middle
managers, there was a decrease in work/life balance. Furthermore, as work/life balance
increased, the perceived level of stress decreased. By gaining an understanding of the
effect of advance technology on the effect of public child welfare middle managers’
work/life balance Human service organizations will be able to recruit and retain staff,
more specifically public child welfare middle managers. Maintaining veteran proficient
managers within the organization increases the liklihood of delivery of quality services to
the children and families served through the system. Madden et al. (2014) noted that
high staff turnover in public child welfare leads to unfavorable, sometimes damaging
effects on clients as well as staff.
The Southern state public child welfare agency from which the population was
sampled currently offers front line staff and managers alternative workplace solutions
(AWS). The AWS plan affords employees a minimum of one day a week to work at a
remote location. In so doing, the agency provides employees with cell phones and tablets
that are functional through wireless networks. Employees agree to abide by the state’s
telecommute policy and maintain a regular workday schedule. However, the agency does
not provide the employees with a best practices policy for managing the flexibility of
AWS. When organizations show concern for their employees by establishing policies to
enhance work/life balance the organizations may entice and retain staff (Munn, 2013;
Singh, 2013).
Recommendations for Further Research
Whereas this study provided an examination of the effects of technology advances
upon public child welfare middle managers’ work/life balance, future research should
95
consider the following recommendations. The first recommendation would be to
reproduce the current study to include managers of public child welfare organizations
from several states. This would increase the generalizability of the conclusions. It is also
suggested that a comparison among the groups (separated geographically) is investigated
to ascertain if differences exists.
The next recommendation for further research is to conduct a qualitative
interview research study. According to Merriam (2009), qualitative researchers are
interested in comprehending how people give meaning to their world and the occurrences
and/or events they have in the world. Qualitative interviews will allow researchers to
glean a better understanding of how ICT use penetrates the boundaries of work/life
The final recommendation is for future research to consider the effect of ICT use
on work/life balance and secondary trauma for public child welfare professionals.
Professionals who care for others are at risk of experiencing burnout or secondary trauma
(Wagaman, Geiger, Shockley, & Segal, 2015). This will provide additional data to make
further assumptions on establishing healthy work/life balances.
Conclusion
Chapter 5 brings to a close this research study on the effects of technology
advances upon public child welfare middle managers’ work/life balance. Past research
(Adetayo et al., 2011; Nam, 2014; Senarathne Tennakoon, 2011; Senarathne Tennakoon
et al., 2013; Zuppo, 2011) provided evidence on how ICT use continues to impede on
the lives of employees as they seek to find balance between work, family, and leisure.
This research study added to the research by showing how those in the helping
96
profession of public child welfare are impacted by ICT use. The present research
substantiated a statistical correlation that as ICT demands increased, work/life balance
decreased. In other words, as the tools given to help the helpers become more advance,
the helpers themselves need more help. Furthermore, the present research substantiated
a statistical correlation that as work/life balance increased; there was a corresponding
decrease in perceived stress. Thus, the more balance the helper acquires, the less stress
the helper perceives.
97
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EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY ADVANCES UPON PUBLIC CHILD WELFARE

MIDDLE MANAGERS’ WORK/LIFE BALANCE

Gail P. McWhite Seymour

DAVID OWENS, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair

BETSY MCDOUGALL, PhD, Committee Member

TRACEE WASHINGTON, PhD, Committee Member

Elizabeth Koenig, JD, Dean, School of Public Service Leadership

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS

All rights reserved.

advancements, or Information Communication Technology (ICT) such as tablets and smart

work/life balance. Using a descriptive survey design to implement a quantitative non-

relationship between work/life balance and stress.

I am reminded of a scripture in the New Testament book of 1Thessalonians, the 5th

truly a blessing and I am grateful to call you friend.

cheerleader and encourager, thank you for everything!

who participated in this study.

List of Tables ........................................................................................................ vii

List of Figures ...................................................................................................... viii

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................1

Statement of the Problem .........................................................................................6

Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................8

Significance of the Study .......................................................................................10

Research Questions ................................................................................................11

Assumptions and Limitations ................................................................................16

Organization of the Remainder of the Study .........................................................22

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...........................................................................23

Methods of Searching ............................................................................................24

Theoretical Orientation for the Study ....................................................................25

Review of the Literature ........................................................................................30

Critique of Previous Research Methods ................................................................39

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY .....................................................................................42

Research Questions and Hypotheses .....................................................................43

Ethical Considerations ...........................................................................................60

CHAPTER 4. RESULTS ...................................................................................................63

Description of the Sample ......................................................................................65

CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS ....................84

Summary of the Results .........................................................................................85

Discussion of the Results .......................................................................................88

Conclusions Based on the Results .........................................................................90

Implications for Practice ........................................................................................94

Recommendations for Further Research ................................................................95

STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL WORK ..........................................................................109

Table 1. Research Questions, Independent/Dependent Variables ....................................54

Table 2. Reliability Coefficients .......................................................................................59

Table 3. Manager Generation ...........................................................................................66

Table 4. Years of Overall Work Experience .....................................................................66

Table 5. Years Working in Current Job ...........................................................................67

Table 6. Years of Supervisory Experience in Public Child Welfare ................................68

Table 7. Number of Children and Their Ages ..................................................................68

Table 8. Number of Hours Engaged in Work-Related Activities .....................................69

Table 9. Descriptive Statistics ...........................................................................................70

Table 10. Skewness and Kurtosis Coefficients .................................................................70

Table 11. Regression Coefficients for Work/Life balance ...............................................78

Table 12. Regression Coefficients for Perceived stress .....................................................81

Table 13. Summary of All Hypotheses Tested ..................................................................82

Figure 1. Sample Size Calculation for Proposed Analyses ................................................48