Out

Running Head: CHILDREN’S PERCEPTIONS OF CODIP
WHAT DO THE CHILDREN HAVE TO SAY?:

CHILDREN’S PERCEPTIONS OF THE CHILDREN OF DIVORCE INTERVENTION
PROGRAM
By
LAUREN M. SENKO
A dissertation submitted to the
Graduate School of Education
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Doctor of Education
Graduate Program in Education, Culture, & Society
written under the direction of
________________________________
Saundra M. Tomlinson-Clarke, Chair
________________________________
Tanja C. Sargent, Committee
________________________________
Cheryl Moretz, Committee
New Brunswick, New Jersey
May 2016

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CHILDREN’S PERCEPTIONS OF CODIP
© 2016
Lauren Senko
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ii

Abstract
Divorce has serious implications for a child’s social and emotional development (Pedro-Carroll,
2005). Few of the child-focused interventions that have been developed to address the negative effects of
divorce have been extensively evaluated to validate their positive outcomes. One school-based preventive
program that has undergone in-depth evaluations with multiple treatment and control groups to document
its efficacy among children of different backgrounds is the Children of Divorce Intervention Program
(CODIP) (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). While many studies have documented the durability and generalizability
of its positive outcomes, there is insufficient qualitative research exploring children’s perceptions of the
program. In particular, Pedro-Carroll, one of the program’s developers, has identified a need to explore
the active mediating aspects of the program, and the impact of age on children’s perceptions of
CODIP. Therefore, through a process evaluation study, involving approximately forty children of divorce
who attend two elementary schools in a public school district in New Jersey, this study investigated
children’s perceptions of CODIP. The following research questions guided my study: (1) how do
students describe their experiences in CODIP? (2) in what ways have students benefitted from their
involvement in CODIP? (3) which components of CODIP contributed to students’ positive outcomes? (4)
which features of the program did students like the most/least? (5) how did participants’ perceptions of
the program vary across developmental age groups? My data analysis revealed three main findings: (1)
children benefitted by learning how to express their feelings, solve divorce-related problems, and be part
of a peer support system; (2) the positive group dynamics, strong relationships with facilitators, and
experiential aspects of the program contributed to these benefits; and (3) participants offered constructive
feedback about environmental conditions and their desire for more hands-on activities. The implications
of these findings are considered for program developers and school counselors, and recommendations for
modifications to the program and considerations for implementation are offered. While further research
needs to be conducted to assess the generalizability of these outcomes, my study gives a voice to CODIP
participants, as well as provides a foundation for the potential active mediating elements that account for
the program’s success.
iii

Acknowledgements
I would like to gratefully acknowledge and thank the members of my committee: Dr.
Saundra Tomlinson-Clarke, Dr. Tanja Sargent, and Dr. Cheryl Moretz for their support and
encouragement throughout this journey.
I wish to also thank Tom DeMuro for his endless support and tireless efforts to make this
possible.
Also, I would like to thank all of the facilitators, who volunteered many hours of their
time to support many children of divorce.
This work would not have been possible without the children of divorce, who participated
in this study. I want to thank them for inviting me into their worlds and allowing me to get a
glimpse into their perceptions.
I am so grateful to my boyfriend, Dave, who has been so understanding and encouraging,
especially over the last few months. When I needed someone to put things into perspective for
me and to remind me to keep forging ahead to the finish line, he was there.
Finally, I want to thank my family. They have always been so supportive of all of my
endeavors, but knowing how much this means to me, they have been incredibly
motivating. Whether it was making me dinner or giving me advice, they were always there for
me.
iv

Table of Contents
Copyright.…………………………………………………………………………………ii
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………...iii
Acknowledgements……..……………………………………………………………...…iv
List of Tables……………………………………………………………….……..….....viii
List of Appendices………………………………………………………...………….…..ix
CHAPTER I
Introduction..………………………………………………………………………………1
CHAPTER II
Review of Literature…………………..…………………………………………………..4
Conceptual Framework……………………………………………………………9
CHAPTER III
Methodology……………………………………………………………………………..16
Research Design………………………………………………………………….16
Setting……………………………………………………………………………18
Participants……………………………………………………………………….20
Modifications to CODIP…………………………………………………………23
Data Collection………………………………………………………………..…24
Analyzing the Data………………………………………………………………30
Researcher Role and Trustworthiness……………………………………………31
Validity…………………………………………………………………………..32
CHAPTER IV
Findings…...……………………………………………………………………………..34
Benefits of CODIP…………………………………………………………….…35
Expressing Feelings……………………………………………………...36
v

Problem-Solving Techniques…………………………………………….39
I’m Not Alone…………………………………………………………....44
Program Components Contributing to Positive Outcomes……………………....47
Positive Group Dynamics…………..……………………………………47
Relationship with Facilitator……………………………………………..52
Experiential Nature of Program………………………………………….57
Games…………………………………………………………....58
Role-play…………………………………………………………62
Participants’ Constructive Feedback and Suggestions for Change………………66
Environmental Conditions……………………………………………….66
More Hands-on Activities………………………………………………..70
CHAPTER V
Discussion………………………………………………………………………………..72
Conceptual Framework: Revisited……………………………………………….72
Findings: Revisited………………………………………………………………74
Perceived program benefits………………………………………………74
Features contributing to positive outcomes…………………………...…75
Participants’ suggestions for improvement……………………………...77
Differences among developmental age groups………………………….79
Implications for Practice………………………………………………………………....80
Program Developers……………………………………………………………..80
School Counselors……………………………………………………………….82
Limitations……………………..….……………………………………………………..84
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….85
vi

References..........................................................................................................................86
Appendices………………………………………………………………………………93
vii

List of Tables
Table 1. Risk and Protective Factors…………………………………………………………….12
Table 2. Facilitators and Participants involved in CODIP Groups………………………………22
Table 3. Data Collection Timeline……………………………………………………………….25
Table 4. Description of CODIP Groups Observed on a Weekly Basis………………………….26
Table 5. Use of Data for Research Questions……………………………………………………29
viii

List of Appendices
Appendix A. Recruitment Flyer for CODIP……………………………………………………...93
Appendix B. Facilitators and Participants involved in CODIP Groups………………………….96
Appendix C. Modified CODIP Schedules………………………………………………………100
Appendix D. Summary Sheets for Facilitators……………………………..…………………...105
Appendix E. Assent for Participation in Research Activities Form...…………………………..106
Appendix F. Comments about the Group Form...………………………..……………………..109
Appendix G. Parent Correspondence Email...………………………………………………..…110
Appendix H. Focus Group Guide…………...………………………………………………..…111
Appendix I. CODIP Participant Agreement...………………………………………………..…112
Appendix J. Protective Factors……………...………………………………………………..…113
ix

CHILDREN’S PERCEPTIONS OF CODIP 1

CHAPTER I
Introduction
Divorce has serious implications for a child’s social and emotional development (Pedro-
Carroll, 2005). It is a process, marked by instability, which consists of numerous family
transitions, such as residential mobility, reduced contact with parents, remarriages among
parents, and decreased standard of living (Wallerstein & Lewis, 2004). These transitions can
often undermine an adult’s ability to parent (Oliphant, Brown, Cambron, & Yankeelov, 2002),
putting their child at an increased risk of experiencing strong feelings of anger and sadness
(Pedro-Carroll, Sutton, & Wyman, 1999), as well as anxiety and depression (Oliphant et al.,
2002). As a result, children of divorce often adopt unsuccessful avoidant coping mechanisms
and have lower self-esteem (Hetherington, Bridges, & Insabella, 1998; Lengua, Sandler, West,
Wolchik, & Curran, 1999).
The three most salient and enduring effects that divorce has on children are diminished
psychosocial well-being, decreased cognitive functioning, and social difficulties. The
psychosocial well-being of children of divorce is negatively correlated to the number of family
transitions that they experience (Amato & Sobolewski, 2001). They are at a greater risk of
developing internalizing behaviors, such as feelings of anxiety and depression (Gilman, 2005), as
well as externalizing behaviors, such as impulsivity and aggressiveness (Potter, 2010). In
addition, children of divorce experience decreased cognitive functioning, as evidenced by a study
conducted by Evans, Kelley, and Wanner (2001), which revealed that children of divorce get
seven tenths of a year less education than their peers in intact families, which can persist for
seven to eight years following the divorce (Jeynes, 2002). Finally, divorce can have significant
ramifications on children’s social development, as well. Many children from divorced families


are less sociable, have weak interpersonal skills, and experience difficulty trusting others in
relationships (Demo & Acock, 1988; Jeynes, 2002; Kim, 2011; Wallerstein & Lewis, 2004).
In response to a number of empirical studies that have documented a causal relationship
between post-divorce stressors and increased mental health disorders in children of divorce
(Sandler et al., 1991), over the past three decades numerous interventions have been developed
to address the risk and protective factors associated with the divorce experience (Cookston &
Fung, 2011). However, the majority of preventive programs lack evaluation data (Wolchik,
Sandler, Winslow, & Smith-Daniels, 2005). The Children of Divorce Program (CODIP) is one
of the few preventive programs that has undergone extensive evaluations with multiple treatment
and control groups to assess its efficacy among children of different ages and socio-demographic
backgrounds (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). In fact, since the program was established in 1982, six
studies have documented the durability and generalizability of the positive outcomes participants
experience as a result of the program (Pedro-Carroll, 2005).
The efficacy of CODIP has been largely based on five scales, designed to evaluate the
perspectives of teachers, parents, group leaders, and children related to their adjustment in the
classroom, problem-solving skills, behavior, and feelings about their families (Alpert-Gillis,
Pedro-Carroll, Cowen, & Emory, 1989). Comparisons of pre to post adjustment change have
indicated significant gains for the program group, versus the non-program group from all four
perspectives and across most scales (Alpert-Gillis, Pedro-Carroll, Cowen, & Emory, 1989).
Thus, while numerous evaluations have provided substantial evidence that CODIP works, there
is a need for a study to address why it works. In fact, the developer of the program, Dr. JoAnne
Pedro-Carroll, has identified “active mediating elements of the intervention” as an important area
to address (Pedro-Carroll & Alpert-Gillis, 1997, p. 20). Subjective meanings and multiple


realities of the participants’ experiences will begin to uncover specific elements of the program
that contribute to its positive outcomes (Oliphant et al., 2002).
The purpose of this qualitative study is to explore children’s perceptions of the Children
of Divorce Intervention Program by addressing the following research questions:
• How do students describe their experiences in CODIP?
o In what ways have students benefitted from their involvement in CODIP?
o Which features (components) of CODIP contributed to students’ positive
outcomes?
o Which features (components) of the program did students like most?
o Which features (components) of the program did students like least?
o How did participants’ perceptions of the program vary across developmental age
groups?
The aim of this research project is to offer feedback to the developers of the program,
based on children’s feedback regarding what elements of the program they perceive to be
successful and contribute to positive outcomes. This study builds on current research trends to
gather qualitative data to assess children’s perceptions of the services they receive (Mo-Yee-Lee,
1997). According to Stake (1978), qualitative data provide rich and detailed information related
to specific issues, such as children’s perceptions (Oliphant et al., 2002).


CHAPTER II
Review of Literature
Divorce can negatively impact a child’s social, emotional, and academic development
(Pedro-Carroll, 2005). Although many preventive programs have been developed to respond to
these concerns, few of the programs are empirically validated and those that are often are not
mandatory (Pollet, 2009). As a result, this leaves many students who are experiencing the
negative outcomes of their parents’ divorce with very little support to develop effective coping
and resiliency skills. The students in the Greenboro School District are a prime example; they
are not offered support by a court-based program nor a school-based program to specifically
address their needs. Therefore, unless they have proactive parents who have the financial means
to seek outside counseling and therapy, they are left to deal with their parents’ divorce on their
own, putting them at an increased risk for experiencing psychological distress, decreased
academic performance, and poor self-concept (Amato & Sobolewski, 2001; Pedro-Carroll, 2005;
Tartari, 2007). Given that no court-based programs are offered to them, these students need a
school-based preventive program, such as the Children of Divorce Intervention Program
(CODIP) to provide them with the support that they need.
The sections that follow describe preventive programs under each category in terms of
their program context, goals, and any related evaluative studies.
Court-Based Programs
In an effort to reduce the negative outcomes associated with divorce, judges are
increasingly decreeing that children and their parents attend programs to heighten their
awareness about the effects that divorce may have on them (Oliphant, Brown, Cambron, &
Yankeelov, 2002). While the court-based programs are better than nothing, they tend to be


short-term, locally-based, focused on the parents rather than on the child, not science-based, and
lack evaluative data. Furthermore, they are not consistently implemented across the states.
According to Pollet and Lombreglia (2008), forty-six states in the United States have educational
programs for divorcing/separating parents that are espoused by the courts, but far fewer are
available for children. Furthermore, there are thirty-five states, including New Jersey that do not
require a child, whose parents have recently separated or divorced, to attend an educational
program (Pollet, 2009). In these states, the need for preventive programs offered in schools and
community contexts is of heightened importance.
Programs Offered Outside of the Court
Preventive programs outside of the court are offered in a variety of service delivery
contexts, including schools, universities, and community service agencies (Cookston, Sandler,
Braver, & Genalo, 2007). Participation in these programs is voluntary, as opposed to many
court-based programs, which are mandated (Pollet, 2009). Other common features of preventive
programs offered outside of the court, include the following: they are school-based, designed to
provide children with structured peer support, teach cognitive-behavioral skills, consist of
experiential components, and are long-term. Each of these features will be discussed in greater
detail below.
It is essential to provide children with a non-threatening and safe atmosphere, in which
they feel comfortable sharing their most personal thoughts and feelings regarding their parents’
divorce (Magid, 1977). Given the residential mobility that many children face as a result of
divorce, as well as the interparental conflict that they may encounter at home, school is “the one
place that may feel the most normal to them when their families are undergoing big changes” and
“can be an important anchor” (Pedro-Carroll, 2010, p. 213). Also, providing preventive services


in schools normalizes the experience and provides children with an ongoing support system
(Drake, 1981; Kalter, Pickar, & Lesowitz, 1984). Therefore, school-based preventive programs,
such as CODIP, ensure for a non-threatening and safe atmosphere. In addition, given that one
million children experience their parents’ divorce each year (Pedro-Carroll, Alpert-Gillis, &
Cowen, 1992), many children whose parents are separated or divorced and thereby, who may
benefit from a preventive program, are found within schools.
The majority of these preventive programs are child-focused interventions, in which
children are grouped based on developmental factors, such as age. These factors directly impact
how they respond to their parents’ divorce and their ability to adjust during the postdivorce years
(Grych & Fincham, 1992). For example, the CODIP groups children according to their age:
kindergarten and first grade, second and third grade, fourth through sixth grade, and seventh and
eighth grade (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). Each group is provided with a different version of the
program that takes into account their developmental and cognitive abilities (Pedro-Carroll,
2005).
Often times, in the post-divorce years, children feel very alone and helpless. Tim Barnes
is the guidance counselor at two of Greenboro’s Elementary schools. In an interview, he shared,
“I have had many kids come to me and say: ‘I’m not positive, but I’m pretty sure that I am the
only one in this school whose parents are divorced.’” However, being in a group with peers their
age facilitates a “highly supportive group atmosphere” (Pedro-Carroll & Cowen, 1985, p. 603).
During a time when they are going through many transitions and everything seems to be
changing, children are comforted in knowing that they are not alone. (Pedro-Carroll, 2005).
Peers provide one another with mutual support by sharing their experiences and feelings, as well
as by clarifying misconceptions that they may have about their parents’ divorce by asking


questions (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). Children feel more comfortable discussing sensitive and
personal issues related to their parents’ divorce with peers who can relate, as opposed to in an
individual setting with an adult (Grych & Fincham, 1992). The group format is also responsive
to the literature related to how divorce negatively impacts children, by providing them with
natural opportunities by which to improve their social skills and as a result, to improve upon
their psychosocial well-being.
Preventive interventions outside of the court often directly teach cognitive-behavioral
skills. Stolberg and Mahler (1994), the founders of the Children’s Support Group (CSG), a
fourteen-week school-based preventive program, theorize that teaching cognitive-behavioral
skills is one of the key ingredients of any preventive program for children of divorce. Programs
such as the CSG and CODIP are designed to provide children with opportunities to practice
effective coping skills and to develop resilience (Pedro-Carroll, 2005).
Finally, preventive programs based in schools and community service agencies tend to be
long-term, when compared to those carried out in court-connected settings. Of the list of
programs compiled by Pollet (2009), which is not exhaustive, but contains the prominent
programs for children of divorce delineated by each state, community-based and school-based
programs range from 4 to 16 weeks in length. Children need repeated practice, in which they
can build skills and practice applying them, given a variety of different contexts and situations.
Multiple opportunities for practice assures for greater skill transfer. Several programs, primarily
the Children’s Support Group (CSG), which expanded to become CODIP have been extensively
evaluated to reveal that a preventive program of 14 to 16 weeks in length has shown “significant
improvements in children’s clinical symptoms in the skills and support conditions” (Pedro-


Carroll, 2005, p. 55). Follow-up studies have substantiated the maintenance of these
improvements over time (Pedro-Carroll et al., 1999).


Conceptual Framework
Children of Divorce Intervention Program (CODIP)
Pedro-Carroll and her colleagues developed the school-based preventive program,
CODIP, which focuses on protective factors related to promoting resilience in children after
divorce (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). Since its inception in 1982, four separate versions of the program
have been developed to accommodate the specific developmental needs of children ages
kindergarten through eighth grade. Groups consist of no more than eight children and through a
series of interactive components, including board games, role-playing, and writing, children are
taught skills essential for solving problems, managing their anger, disengaging from potential
loyalty conflicts, and tackling daily challenges (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). Furthermore, ranging
from 8 to 16 weeks in length, the long-term nature of the program offers participants repeated
opportunities to practice applying skills in a variety of different contexts and situations, which
assure greater skills transfer (Pedro-Carroll, 2005).
Program objectives. While the main goal of CODIP is to diminish the social, behavioral,
and emotional issues that transpire subsequent to divorce, the developers translated protective
factors into the following program objectives:
• Promote an empathetic group environment
• Help children identify and express divorce-related feelings
• Clear up confusion related to misconceptions regarding the divorce and foster an
understanding of divorce-related concepts
• Encourage children to develop positive views of themselves and their families (Alpert-
Gillis, Pedro-Carroll, & Cowen, 1989).
Program experiences. To meet the program objectives, CODIP is designed to provide
children with opportunities to practice effective coping skills to manage daily challenges, such as


extricating themselves from loyalty conflicts as well as dealing with anger and sadness (Pedro-
Carroll, 2005). Pedro-Carroll (2005) describes how CODIP helps children distinguish between
problems they can and cannot control by explicitly teaching them social problem solving and
interpersonal skills. The group format also allows them to share their successes and failures in
transferring these skills to their home environments with their peers, which serves as yet another
learning experience (Pedro-Carroll, 2005; Stolberg & Mahler, 1994).
Preventive programs engage children in acquiring cognitive-behavioral skills through the
use of experiential activities, including role-play and games. Many programs for younger
children are grounded in play therapy, in which children use role-playing techniques, puppets,
board games, and other exercises to self-regulate their emotions and feelings regarding divorce
through concrete experiences (Alpert-Gillis, Pedro-Carroll, & Cowen, 1989). For example,
CODIP employs activities such as the Feelings Grab Bag game, in which children practice
identifying their emotions and develop empathy toward others and the Red Light-Green Light
Game, in which they learn to distinguish between aspects of their parents’ divorce that they can
and cannot control (Pedro-Carroll, 2010). Older children may engage in an expert panel,
providing “callers” in their audience with expert advice related to coping with divorce (Kaduson
& Schaefer, 2006). This activity allows children to reinforce problem-solving and coping skills
to deal with transitions related to their parents’ divorce (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). These types of
experiential activities provide children with concrete opportunities to self-regulate their
emotions, develop empathy, establish healthy coping mechanisms, and identify ways to transfer
these coping skills to real life experiences (Pedro-Carroll, 2010).
Program outcomes. Serving thousands of children in the Netherlands, United States,
Canada, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, Cyprus, and South Africa, CODIP has been used by


more than 500 schools (Pedro-Carroll, 2010). Numerous controlled studies find that CODIP
provides children of divorce with skills and benefits to promote their “resilience and healthy
adjustment over time” (Pedro-Carroll, 2005, p. 59). Findings of children’s positive adjustment
are consistent across all four perspectives: teachers, group leaders, parents, and children (Pedro-
Carroll, 2005).
Five measures that have been used to determine the efficacy of CODIP are: the Teacher-
Child Rating Scale (T-CRS), the Group Leader Evaluation Form (GLEF), the Parent Evaluation
Form (PEF), the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC), and the Children’s
Attitudes and Self-Perceptions (CASP) (Pedro-Carroll, Sutton, & Wyman, 1999). Studies have
revealed evidence of significant gains across most of these measures, indicating improvement in
children’s attitudes towards their parents’ divorce and enhanced abilities to discuss personal
concerns with their parents, to solve conflicts, and to advocate for themselves (Pedro-Carroll,
2005; Pedro-Carroll & Alpert-Gillis, 1997). Furthermore, after participating in CODIP, children
demonstrated fewer internalizing and externalizing behaviors (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). These
findings underscore the importance of explicitly teaching children effective coping skills to
reduce family-related stressors (Wadsworth & Compas, 2002).
Suggested rationale for program efficacy. CODIP’s theory of action is grounded in the
belief that children’s adjustment to their parents’ divorce can be promoted through the
implementation of evidence-based preventive interventions (Pedro-Carroll & Jones, 2005). Such
interventions promote wellness by reducing potential divorce-related risk factors that increase
the likelihood of negative outcomes, and increasing protective factors, which conversely increase
the chances of positive adjustment (Pedro-Carroll & Jones, 2005; Leon, 2003) (see Table 1). To
that end, the developers of CODIP drew upon research of risk and resilience, play-based therapy,


group therapy, and cognitive-behavioral skills, in designing the program. They theorize that the
program features that contribute to its efficacy are: structure of peer group, cognitive-behavioral
play therapy components, and the long-term nature of the program.
Table 1. Risk and Protective Factors
Risk Factors Protective Factors
Interparental conflict Contact with non-custodial parent
Parental conflict Social support
Mentally ill parent Parental warmth and support
Inconsistent discipline Parental responsiveness
Poor quality of parenting Maternal education
Low socio-economic status Positive maternal emotional well-being
(Leon, 2003; Pedro-Carroll, 2005; Rolf, Masten, Cicchetti, Nuechterlein, & Weintraub, 1993)
Structure of peer group. The group format of CODIP where children are divided into
groups on the basis of age, offers them a “highly supportive group atmosphere” (Pedro-Carroll &
Cowen, 1985, p. 603), in which they are comforted knowing that they are not alone (Pedro-
Carroll, 2005). In addition, peers provide one another with mutual support by sharing their
experiences and feelings, as well by clarifying misconceptions that they may have about their
parents’ divorce by asking questions (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). Children often feel more
comfortable discussing sensitive and personal issues related to their parents’ divorce with peers
who can relate, as opposed to in an individual setting with just an adult, like a therapist (Grych &
Fincham, 1992). The group format also allows them to share their successes and failures in
transferring these skills to their home environments with their peers, which serves as yet another
learning experience (Pedro-Carroll, 2005; Stolberg & Mahler, 1994).


Cognitive-behavioral play therapy (CBPT) components. According to Drewes and
Green (2014), play provides children with opportunities to make meaning of their experiences,
communicate with others, as well as work through traumatic events such as their parents’
divorce. More specifically, cognitive-behavioral play therapy, which was introduced by Susan
Knell, “is based on behavioral and cognitive theories of emotional development and
psychopathology” (Drewes & Green, 2014, p. 21). Thus, play is used to explicitly teach children
coping skills and addresses instances of cognitive distortion by cognitive restructuring (Knell,
1998).
Interventions premised on CBPT usually utilize the following techniques to promote
positive adjustment: modeling, systematic desensitization, behavior rehearsal, and identifying
maladaptive beliefs and replacing them with constructive beliefs (Knell, 1998). Given that
modeling is effective in strengthening, weakening, or acquiring behaviors, CBPT interventions
often reflect modeling through play, using puppets or characters in books (Bandura, 1977). In
CODIP, each session begins with a model. For example, children learn how to use the three
steps in the social problem-solving cartoon, by first watching a model presented with puppets
(Pedro-Carroll, 2005). The technique of systematic desensitization replaces internalizing
behaviors like anxiety with adaptive responses (Knell, 1998). Children are provided with
opportunities to act out situations, in order to gain mastery in handling them (Knell, 1998).
CODIP participants act out common divorce-related problems and facilitators help them to
determine effective ways to solve these problems (Children of Divorce Intervention Program,
2015). In addition, behavioral rehearsal helps children to identify and address social skills
deficiencies. Frequent role-play and puppet play in CODIP allows for behavioral rehearsal and
facilitators coach participants with more adaptive responses (Fazio-Griffith & Ballard, 2014;


Pedro-Carroll, 2005). Finally, helping children to modify maladaptive beliefs often leads to a
sense of empowerment and personal understanding (O’Connor & Braverman, 2009). In CODIP,
children distinguish between problems they can solve and those that they cannot, such as parent
reconciliation. Grounded in cognitive-behavioral play therapy, CODIP was designed with the
goal of utilizing the aforementioned techniques to facilitate cognitive change and the acquisition
of developmentally appropriate behavioral skills (Knell, 1998).
Long-term nature of program. According to Fall (1999), intensive CBPT sessions are
effective if implemented for a half hour each week for at least six weeks. Children need repeated
practice applying skills in a variety of different contexts and situations as a way to develop them.
Multiple opportunities for practice assures greater skill transfer (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). The
developers of CODIP have found that older children benefit from one-hour sessions over the
course of 12 to 16 weeks, while younger children benefit from 45 minute sessions over the same
number of weeks (Pedro-Carroll & Jones, 2005). Several programs, primarily CODIP, have
been extensively evaluated to reveal that a preventive program of 8 to 16 weeks in length
contributes to “significant improvements in children’s clinical symptoms in the skills and support
conditions” (Pedro-Carroll, 2005, p. 55). Follow-up studies have substantiated the maintenance
of these improvements over time (Pedro-Carroll, Sutton, & Wyman, 1999).
Missing link. While statistical analyses of multiple general measures have validated the
efficacy of CODIP, there is a lack of research describing the participants’ perceptions of the
intervention and the program features that they attribute to its positive outcomes. In fact, beyond
these general measures, very little is known about how CODIP impacts children’s understanding
of their parents’ divorce (Ebling, Pruett, & Pruett, 2009). Qualitative studies can provide insight


into how the participants experience the program and to analyze their perceptions (Stake, 1978;
Oliphant et al., 2002).
A qualitative study of CODIP, using methods like focus groups and open-ended surveys
with participants will provide an opportunity to link program features with specific positive
outcomes. Sewell (1999) suggests that these are the most useful methods for understanding the
meaning of the program to its participants; open-ended methods allow participants to describe
the components of the program that are most important or meaningful without being limited to
predetermined categories. A qualitative study of CODIP will not only address limitations of
previous studies, but also, serve as a basis for precisely linking specific program features with
documented positive outcomes. Furthermore, it will provide grounds for analyzing how
consistent children’s perceptions are across the three different age groups (1st grade, 2nd & 3rd
grade, and 4th & 5th grade).


CHAPTER III
Methodology
Given that the purpose of this study was to understand what components of the program
children contribute to its documented positive outcomes to offer feedback to the developers of
the program, I employed a qualitative process evaluation design. In this section, I will begin by
describing the research design, which was derived from the results of an earlier pilot study.
Then, I will describe the setting, in which the study was carried out. The selection processes for
choosing the facilitators and recruiting participants will then by clarified. After that, I will
explain how the program was modified to be adapted to the restrictions imposed by the school
calendar. Next, I will describe the data collection process, including the role I played as a
researcher. Finally, I will explain the data analysis process, as well as precautions that I took to
ensure that potential research bias was minimized.
Research Design
A process evaluation research design was selected for this study, as my intent was to
focus on how the program was being implemented, as well as how the participants perceived its
implementation, in order to provide useful feedback to the program developers. According to
Ross, Lipsey, & Freeman (2004), process evaluation studies focus on formative evaluation and
are designed to offer valuable feedback to program managers and sponsors. Furthermore, by
analyzing program processes, process evaluation studies determine the relative degree of
effectiveness of specific program components, as well as barriers and facilitators that have an
impact on the implementation of the program (Joseph et al., 2015). To that end, one of the two
major roles that process evaluation studies play is to build on the work of an outcome evaluation,
which has deemed a program to be effective to examine factors of implementation responsible


for its positive outcomes (Ross, Lipsey, & Freeman, 2004). Therefore, process evaluation
studies do not only serve to explain the rationale for a program’s efficacy, but also suggest areas,
in which the program can be improved to make it even more successful.
The research design and methods for this study were derived from the results of a pilot
study conducted in the spring of 2015, which employed qualitative research methods on a small
scale (N=6) with the intent of refining the data collection strategy for the actual study, which
took place on a much larger scale (N=38). A process evaluation study explored the perceptions
of six third grade students, by means of focus groups, observations, and semi-structured
interviews with parents. The results of the pilot study and correspondence with the lead program
developer, Dr. JoAnne Pedro-Carroll suggested several ways to revise the data collection
strategy to more effectively answer the proposed research questions with a larger group of
students (personal communication, April 20, 2015).
A process evaluation study was conducted, intending to understand the inner workings of
CODIP from the participants’ perspective (Patton, 1990). Over the course of eight weeks, I met
with a group of third graders and served as both a facilitator and a researcher, in carrying out the
CODIP curriculum, as well as collecting field notes of my observations, conducting focus groups
with the participants and interviews with parents. Ultimately, analyzing this data led me to the
discovery of two key themes: according to participants, the positive outcomes of CODIP,
included a greater willingness to share feelings and concerns, an enhanced ability to respond to
divorce-related stressors, and feeling less “stuck in the middle”; and the three program features
responsible for these positive outcomes included providing participants with a safe place,
establishing shared experiences, and having multiple opportunities to develop coping skills.
Hence, the pilot study led me to the conclusion that the program features that participants


perceived to contribute to these outcomes matched up closely with what program developers
theorized to be responsible for CODIP’s efficacy (Pedro-Carroll, 2010).
The pilot study helped me to revise my research design. First and foremost, I realized the
need to delineate my role as a researcher to avoid potential bias among the research subjects; I
recognized that they may feel coerced to respond in a certain way, given their previous
relationship with me, as their teacher. Therefore, in my actual study, other teachers served as
facilitators and I maintained a separate role as a researcher. Also, during the data analysis phase
of the pilot study, I realized that the majority of data were collected at the end of the study. This
runs counter to the formative nature of process evaluation studies; therefore, I integrated more
types of formative data collection methods into my actual study, such as pre- and post-open-
ended surveys (Fitzpatrick, Sanders, & Worthen, 2011). Undoubtedly, the results of the pilot
study helped me to assure for greater success in the execution of my actual study.
Setting
This study was conducted in a suburban school district in northern New Jersey, known as
the Greenboro School District (pseudonym). While Greenboro is comprised of one high school,
one middle school, five elementary schools (grades 1-5), and two primary centers, my research
was carried out at two of the elementary schools: Mountainside Elementary School and
Riverdale Elementary School (pseudonyms used). The site was selected, as I am a third grade
teacher at Mountainside Elementary School.
• Mountainside Elementary School is medium-sized school for students in grades 1-5.
There are 362 students who attend the school, of which 70% are White, 14% are
Hispanic, 5% are Asian, 4% are Black, and the remaining 7% are multiracial. The


majority of students come from families of middle to high socioeconomic status with
only 14% of the student body eligible for free/reduced lunch.
• Riverdale Elementary School is a smaller-sized school for students in grades 1-5. There
are 224 students who attend the school, of which 47% are White, 29% are Hispanic, 4%
are Asian, 7% are Black, and the remaining 13% are of mixed race. The majority of
students come from families of low to middle socioeconomic status with 34% of the
study body eligible for free/reduced lunch.
Presently, no curriculum or program is provided to directly address the specific needs of
the hundreds of children of divorce in the district. While an after-school program has been
offered in the past at two of the five schools (Mountainside and Riverdale), which follows a
modified version of the Rainbows curriculum, the children of divorce that have attended this
program were among peers who were experiencing an array of other family-related issues, such
as abuse, loss of a parent, or incarceration of a family member. In addition, the objective of the
Rainbows curriculum is to provide children with a safe space to express their feelings about their
loss; the curricular materials are not specific to the needs of children of divorce
(www.rainbows.org).
Furthermore, support offered to this population of children on behalf of guidance
counselors is limited. While the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) recommends
a ratio of 250 students per every one guidance counselor, in the Greenboro School District, the
ratio is approximately 600 students per every one guidance counselor, as two guidance
counselors are shared among five elementary schools. Therefore, minimal support is offered to
children of divorce who attend the Greenboro School District.


Participants
Participants in this study included 38 students, as well as one guidance counselor, one
instructional aide, and eight teachers, who served as facilitators. The recruitment process for
both student participants and facilitators is described in detail below.
In an effort to draw a purposive sample, students were recruited, by means of a program
announcement sent via email in September (Appendix A) to all parents of students in grades 1-5,
who attended the two elementary schools. In addition, due to the fact that the guidance
counselor had a personal relationship with many children and families experiencing divorce, he
personally reached out to these families to recruit them for participation in the study, as well. All
students whose parents consented to their participation in the program and fulfilled the criteria of
being in grades 1-5 and having divorced or separated parents were eligible for participation.
At the end of September, the guidance counselor and I met to review the list of thirty-one
children, whose parents had expressed interest in having them participate in the program. In
addition, he shared with me two cases in which one parent wanted the child to be involved and
the other did not. He was able to talk both families into having their children participate. Once
we had a comprehensive list, parent consent forms were sent home with the students in their
backpacks (see Appendix B). Over the next week or so, parent consent forms were returned to
the guidance counselor. Also, he received initial forms back for seven additional children to
participate in the program.
On October 5th, we met to discuss how to group the children, based on their grade level
into mixed-gender groups of no more than six students. In doing so, we encountered several
issues, such as disproportionate numbers of children signing up at each grade. For example, at
Mountainside Elementary School, only one first grader and one second grader signed up for the


program. Therefore, although the curriculum is designed for students in grades K-1, these two
students were grouped together and were administered the K-1 curriculum. Likewise, thirteen
fourth and fifth graders signed up at Mountainside Elementary School, so groups were formed,
by taking their experiences as children of divorce and personalities into account to form mixed-
grade groupings.
Facilitators were selected by the guidance counselor and in most cases, were teachers
who had previously served as facilitators for the Rainbows program and were therefore familiar
with the role. However, all facilitators, regardless of their level of experience received eight
hours of training in September to understand their role as a facilitator, as well as the contents of
the CODIP curriculum. Training was provided by the Director of Programs and Services from
the Children’s Institute and addressed the experiences of children of divorce, explained how the
program is designed to address their specific needs, and provided facilitators with opportunities
to role-play specific issues that may arise and the means by which to most effectively address
them. Please note that one facilitator could not attend the training, due to childcare issues, so I
met with her individually after the training took place to provide her with the necessary
information.
In October, once the guidance counselor and I had formed the groups, we assigned each
facilitator to a group, taking into consideration the age group with which they were most
comfortable and/or had the most experience. The participant staff subjects, job title, CODIP
curriculum they implemented, school at which they work, as well as grade and pseudonyms used
for the students in their group are displayed in Table 2.


Table 2. Facilitators and Participants involved in CODIP Groups
CODIP Age
Facilitator Job Title School Students
Group
-Mary Beth (3rd)
-Richard (3rd)
Bob 3rd grade
2nd/3rd Mountainside -Susan (3rd)
Williams teacher
-Ines (3rd)
-Colleen (3rd)
-Anna (5th)
-Juan (5th)
Jillian Resource -Marco (5th)
4th/5th Mountainside
Campbell room teacher -Maria (5th)
-Jose (5th)*
-Hope (5th)
Tim Guidance -Chloe (1st)
1st Mountainside
Barnes counselor -Becky (2nd)
-Ashley (4th)
Marisa 2nd grade -Brie (4th)
4th/5th Mountainside
Scott teacher -Christina (4th)
-Diego (4th)
-Sally (5th)
-Cristina (5th)**
Angela Basic skills th th
4 /5 Mountainside -Lillian (4th)*
Baker teacher
-Rebecca (4th)
-Sasha (4th)
-Robbie (4th)
Evette Instructional
4th/5th Riverdale -Billy (4th)
Hill aide
-Suzy (4th)
-Gabe (2nd)
Ingrid Multi-age st
1 Riverdale -Alicia (2nd)
Hugh teacher
-Nancy (1st)
-Sarah (1st)
Joan Multi-age -Kyle (1st)
1st Riverdale
Martin teacher -Andrew (1st)
-Sean (1st)
-Michael (3rd)
Shan 3rd grade -Chris (3rd)
2nd/3rd Riverdale
Nelson teacher -Natalie (3rd)
-Larissa (3rd)
-Rachel (5th)
Bella 5th grade -Lucia (5th)
4th/5th Riverdale
Gonzalez teacher -Amy (4th)
-Cameron (4th)
*Indicates a student who joined the group late, due to a change in family dynamics.
**Indicates a student who left the group, due to a familial reconciliation.


Modifications to CODIP
While implementing CODIP within a school setting provided me with access to many
children of divorce (Pedro-Carroll, Alpert-Gillis, & Cowen, 1992), it also presented me with
numerous challenges. First, the program is designed to be carried out over the course of 12 to 14
weeks; however, it was difficult to identify a 12 to 14 week continuous period, uninterrupted by
holiday recesses or standardized testing. In addition, while it would have been ideal to
implement the program after school to allow for at least a full hour, I realized doing so would
significantly reduce my sample size and number of facilitators. My sample size would be limited
because many children of divorce come from families, in which parent(s) are already struggling
to deal with increased responsibilities and driving their children to/from an additional after-
school activity would only contribute to this stress (Pedro-Carroll, Alpert-Gillis, & Cowen,
1992). Furthermore, it would have been difficult to select a day that did not interfere with the
children’s other activities, such as sports and clubs, to assure for the greatest participation.
Likewise, because the facilitators were serving on a voluntary basis, I realized that holding the
program after-school would possibly conflict with other jobs, such as tutoring, or pose childcare
issues, as many of them are parents. Thus, along with the guidance counselor, I decided for the
program to take place during lunch/recess periods over the course of nine weeks.
To assure for the greatest fidelity of implementation in modifying the program, I
consulted with the Director of Programs and Services for CODIP at the Children’s Institute. I
discussed how to most efficiently collapse or combine sessions and develop modified schedules
for each age group. After getting input from the facilitators at the training in September, as well
as the guidance counselor, I developed modified schedules, so the program would last nine
weeks, as opposed to 12 to 14 weeks. In mid-September, I sent the schedules (see Appendix C)


along to the Director of Programs and Services to confirm that all essential elements were
included and that the program’s fidelity would not be jeopardized. She suggested creating
summary sheets for facilitators to complete after each session, so I was aware of any impromptu
changes that were made, as well as to collect their feedback on a consistent basis of elements of
the program, as well as those that were unsuccessful (see Appendix D).
The program commenced in mid-October and concluded directly prior to the district’s
holiday break at the end of December. All sessions took place during the students’ lunch/recess
and were planned in such a way to accommodate their involvement in band/orchestra, as well as
extra academic help sessions. In some instances, facilitators had to change the day of
implementation or conduct two sessions in a single week to adapt to their own meetings,
absences, and/or half day schedules, due to holidays and parent-teacher conferences. Overall,
the facilitators all carried out nine full sessions, beginning on the same week of October 19th and
ending on the same week of December 21st.
Data Collection
In order to address my research questions related to students’ perceptions of CODIP,
components of the program that they linked to its positive outcomes, and how participants’
perceptions varied, if at all, across developmental age groups, I carried out twenty-seven
observations, administered pre- and post-surveys, obtained feedback from parents, transcribed
audio recordings from focus groups conducted by facilitators, and collected student work
samples. The timeline over which I collected the data and each of the data sources are described
in detail, below.
Timeline
Data collection took place from October 2015 through to December 2015 (see Table 3).


Fortunately, I was able to adhere to my proposed schedule. However, throughout the course of
the study, one student left the group, as her father returned home and her parents agreed to work
on their marriage. She spoke with the guidance counselor about this and based on his
jurisdiction, she left the program. On the other hand, two students joined the group (see Table 2)
after week 4, due to unforeseen events that took place in their families. While I realize that their
participation in the group was helpful to ameliorate the distress they were experiencing regarding
their families, I have excluded them from the study in my final analysis. Therefore, while 38
students participated in the program, only the data collected relating to 35 have been included in
the study.
Table 3. Data Collection Timeline
October November December

-Weekly observations of Bob,
Angela, and Ingrid’s groups
-Parent feedback collected via
email sent on December 15th
-Post-open-ended survey
-Completed assent and consent administered during week of
Angela, and Ingrid’s groups
forms collected December 21st (after final
-Pre-open-ended survey session)
administered during week of
Angela, & Ingrid’s groups -Focus groups conducted
November 2nd (after third
during week of December 21st
session)
(during final session)
-Student work samples
collected
-Facilitator summary sheets
collected
Observational field notes. According to Patton (1990), observational fieldwork is
advantageous in understanding the context of a group and gaining insight into participants’


perspectives that may not appear in written surveys or focus group transcripts. Also, process
evaluation studies “are aimed at elucidating and understanding the internal dynamics of how a
program, organization, or relationship operates” (Patton, 1990, p. 95), which can only be
understood by means of close observation. In October, once all participants were recruited and
groups had been formed, I randomly selected three groups to observe on a weekly basis: one
group implementing the K-1 CODIP curriculum, one group implementing the 2nd & 3rd grade
CODIP curriculum, and one implementing the 4th-6th grade CODIP curriculum. See Table 4 for
a description of the aforementioned groups.
Table 4. Description of CODIP Groups Observed on a Weekly Basis
CODIP
School Facilitator Grade Participant’s Name
Age Group
K-1 Riverdale Ingrid 1 Nancy Anderson
K-1 Riverdale Ingrid 2 Gabe Wilson
K-1 Riverdale Ingrid 2 Alicia Chong
2nd & 3rd Mountainside Bob 3 Mary Beth Simon
2nd & 3rd Mountainside Bob 3 Richard Simon
nd rd
2 &3 Mountainside Bob 3 Susan DeMetro
2nd & 3rd Mountainside Bob 3 Ines Hillman
nd rd
2 &3 Mountainside Bob 3 Colleen Miller
th th
4 –5 Mountainside Angela 4 Rebecca Burke
4th – 5th Mountainside Angela 4 Sasha Fleming
th th
4 –5 Mountainside Angela 4 Lillian Davis*
4th – 5th Mountainside Angela 5 Cristina Diaz**
4th – 5th Mountainside Angela 5 Sally Simon
*Indicates a student who joined the group late, due to a change in family dynamics.
**Indicates a student who left the group, due to a familial reconciliation.
At the first group meeting, students in all groups completed assent forms (see Appendix
E). Then, I introduced myself to the students and explained my role as a participant-observer.
As a researcher, this role “permits the evaluator to access personal knowledge and direct
experience as resources to aid in understanding and interpreting the program being evaluated”


(Patton, 1990, p 205). During my observations, I amassed field notes by watching the group,
participating in activities, and interacting with the participants. I wrote down important events
and conversations and after each session, transformed my jottings into detailed field notes, which
included the time, description of context, participants, and participant quotes.
Pre- and post-surveys. I discussed my study with the program developer, Dr. JoAnne
Pedro-Carroll, and she provided me with an open-ended survey, “Comments about the Group”
(see Appendix F) that is copyrighted by the Mental Health Project and has been used in
numerous qualitative studies that she has conducted to measure children’s perceptions related to
the group (personal communication, April 20, 2015; Pedro-Carroll & Cowen, 1985). The 6-item
measure consists of two open-ended questions and six questions, which utilize a four-point scale
from 1 (very true) to 4 (not true at all). It was administered to participants after the third and
final sessions to consider how children’s perceptions about the program had changed over time.
The survey was read aloud to participants in the 1st grade group, as well as 2nd & 3rd grade groups
to ascertain their understanding of the questions. Overall, this measure provided participants
with an opportunity to reflect on their experiences being involved in CODIP, and to offer candid
feedback regarding the program.
Parent correspondence. On December 15th, prior to the last session taking place, I sent
out an email to all parents of program participants, asking about their perceptions regarding the
program’s impact on their child (Appendix G). In the email, I offered parents the opportunity to
discuss the program on the phone or in person, if they would like to do so, as well.
Unfortunately, I only received one response; however, I attribute this to timing, as the email was
sent out a week prior to holiday recess.


Focus groups. Focus groups make for a safe environment with one’s peers (Mauthner,
1997) and are advantageous, especially when individuals – like children – interviewed one-on-
one may be tentative in offering information (Creswell, 2007). A brief focus group took place
with each group, after they had completed the post-survey, during the final session. The intent
was to have each facilitator conduct the focus group, as they had already developed a level of
trust with the students and had experienced the program with them, so I figured students would
be most comfortable sharing their feedback related to the program, given these conditions.
However, in four cases at Riverdale School, due to time constraints imposed by rigid teaching
schedules, the guidance counselor carried out facilitators’ focus groups (Joan, Shan, Bella, and
Evette). The guidance counselor approached me in early December and shared the facilitators’
concerns that the quality of the focus group would be compromised if they attempted to cram it
in, subsequent to participants completing the post-survey and completing activities that were part
of the final session. Due to the guidance counselor’s flexible schedule and previously
established rapport with all group participants, he offered to conduct the focus groups for them.
In early December, facilitators were provided with a focus group guide and a brief video
that I created, explaining how to conduct a focus group. The focus group guide will consist of
eleven questions and several potential probes, arranged into three main categories: general
perceptions of program, resiliency skills, and suggestions for improvement of program
(Appendix H). The day before each focus group took place, I checked in with facilitators to
ensure that they had watched the video and understood the focus group guide and provided
facilitators with a digital voice recorder to use during the focus group. All focus group meetings
were audio recorded and the recordings were transcribed directly afterwards and uploaded to
Dedoose.


Student work samples. After the final session had taken place, I collected student work
from each facilitator that participants had produced during the weekly sessions. For example, the
students in the K-1 group created booklets about what makes them special, while students in the
4th & 5th grade group completed a “Challenges Checklist” in which they indicated specific issues
that they face with their parents’ divorce. Given that my observations of group sessions were
subject to my interpretation as a researcher, collecting student work samples helped reduce
potential disparities caused by research subjectivity and to gain insight into the six groups that I
did not observe (James, Milenkiewicz, & Bucknam, 2008).
The multiple sources of data collected and their relation to the research questions are
summarized in Table 5.
Table 5. Use of Data for Research Questions
Research Questions
Pre- and Student
Observational Parent Focus Group
Post- Work
Data Correspondence Transcripts
surveys Samples
1. How do students
describe their experiences X X X X
in CODIP?
a. In what ways
have students
benefited from X X X X X
their involvement
in CODIP?
b. Which features
(components) of
CODIP
X X X X
contributed to
students’ positive
outcomes?
c. Which features X X X X


(components) of
the program did
students like
most?
d. Which features
(components) of
the program did X X X X
students like
least?
e. How did
participants’
perceptions of the
program vary X X X
across
developmental
age groups?
Analyzing the Data
Analysis began during the data collection phase of my study. First, subsequent to each
observation, I developed comprehensive field notes, by transforming my jottings into detailed
descriptions of what took place during each group session, as well as key quotes of participants.
Similarly, after each focus group took place, I transcribed the audio recordings verbatim. Each
set of field notes and transcriptions was reread multiple times for corrections and then, uploaded
to Dedoose, a qualitative software program. Overall, 106 pages were uploaded for analysis.
Next, I organized the pre- and post-surveys by age group. I placed each participant’s pre-
and post-survey together. While organizing these surveys, I utilized initial steps in data analysis,
suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994). Thus, I developed informal document summaries, by
highlighting salient information that was pertinent to my research questions, specifically honing
in on participants’ quotes, given my interest in their perceptions.
After organizing the data, I acknowledged preconceptions that I had about the
experiences of children of divorce and the children and families involved in my study, by


engaging in Epoché (Patton, 1990). During this phase, I set aside my preconceived experiences
“to best understand the experiences of participants in the study” (Creswell, 2007, p. 235). I
wrote these down in my research journal, constantly revisiting them, as to ensure that they were
not interfering with my interpretation of the data throughout the process of data analysis.
Next, in order to gain a preliminary understanding of my data and to reflect on its overall
meaning, I thoroughly read through the data several times and wrote memos to myself, in order
to generate broad coding categories (Creswell, 2007). The memos assisted me in engaging in an
inductive and deductive process of developing codes. Using Dedoose, I identified and coded
excerpts, which answered my research questions. Throughout the course of data analysis, I
continued to refine my coding scheme, and in doing so, I began to interpret the data by looking
for patterns and connections among the various codes. This process of making meaning of the
data led me to identify several key themes.
Researcher Role and Trustworthiness
As researcher, my role is complex, as I have pre-established relationships with many of
the students who were involved in the study, given my professional role as a teacher at one of the
two research sites. According to Marshall and Rossman (2006), there are both positive and
negative aspects associated with conducting research within your place of work. While positive
elements, include accessibility to the site location and participants for study, as well as ease in
establishing a rapport with the participants, negative elements, include potential bias in
interpreting research findings, as well as issues with role release. Furthermore, my interest in
programs for children of divorce arose from my personal experiences with my parents’ divorce
in elementary school. There were no programs available to provide me with the necessary
support and I felt isolated, hopeless, and burdened with worries about the future, as a result. This


positionality as a former child of divorce is a strength, as it offers me a unique perspective,
which allows me to be sensitive to the needs of this population of children and empathize with
their experiences. In addition, during the study I utilized my positionality as a teacher with
whom many of the children were familiar and a former child of divorce to increase the comfort
level among the participants.
I took several measures to avoid researcher bias. First, teachers and staff members in the
Greenboro School District facilitated the CODIP groups. Similarly, subsequent to the final
session, facilitators conducted focus groups. Therefore, the potential for bias was minimized, as
I maintained one role as a researcher, as opposed to two roles, as a researcher and facilitator. I
also addressed any preconceived notions I had about divorce, by keeping a research journal, in
which I wrote down my feelings about the observations and focus groups, as well as questions
that I had, immediately afterwards. Ortlipp (2008) explains the role that self-reflective research
journals play in making the research process more transparent and minimizing researcher
subjectivity in qualitative research. Finally, once all data were collected, I checked all field notes
and transcriptions for accuracy. Collectively, these measures helped to ensure that my unique
positionality as a teacher in the Greenboro School District and former child of divorce did not
skew my findings.
Validity
To ensure validity I triangulated my findings; engaged in peer debriefing; used rich, thick
description to present my findings; and created an audit trail. In order to triangulate my findings,
I looked across the observational data, focus group transcriptions, student work samples, pre- and
post-surveys, and parent correspondence, in order to establish a coherent justification for my
themes (Creswell, 2009). Also, I engaged in peer debriefing by asking the guidance counselor to


review my preliminary findings and ask questions about my study to enhance the accuracy of my
findings (Creswell, 2009). In addition, when I presented my findings, I used rich, thick
description, by describing my findings in great detail, particularly focusing on the perspectives of
my participants. Furthermore, I included quotes from students, facilitators, and parents, as well
as excerpts from my observational notes to provide the reader with a deeper sense of the context,
as well as the emotions and feelings of the participants (Creswell, 2009). Finally, throughout the
data collection and data analysis processes I created an audit trail by documenting decisions I
made, as well as the rationale for making them. Employing several validity strategies allowed
me to assess the accuracy of my findings from the standpoint of the researcher, participants, and
readers, as well as to convince readers of the trustworthiness of my findings (Creswell, 2009).


CHAPTER IV
Findings
The bell rings, signaling the beginning of recess and excitement floods the classroom.
Many kids rush to the closets with a great sense of urgency to grab their Beyblades, Shopkins
collections, and football trading cards. In just a matter of seconds, they are gone, having burst
out of the classroom and sprinted down the hallways to the Library. While this tornado of
excitement had descended upon my classroom, two of my students, Richard and Colleen had
glanced at one another across the room and grinned. I witnessed how they had both so willingly
turned down offers to trade Shopkins and battle Beyblades, aware of the prospect of what
awaited them just around the corner in Mr. Williams’ classroom.
Once the classroom had emptied, Richard and Colleen skip down the hallway to Mr.
Williams’ classroom. Laughter penetrates the walls of his classroom and drifts down the
hallways. As we round the bend, we catch a glimpse of the colorful sign hanging on the door,
which informs visitors to knock before entering. Knowing that it does not pertain to them,
Richard and Colleen fling open the door, enter the classroom, and scurry to the carpet, which is
adorned with board game pieces and play dolls. Mary Beth and Ines are sitting in a circle on
the carpet and are doubled over in laughter, as they listen to what seems to be the end of a story
that Mr. Williams is telling about when he was a kid. Colleen joins the circle with “Starburst,”
the group puppet, which is a tattered cow.
As the din that had filled the classroom naturally simmers down to silence, Mr. Williams
offers the children a warm smile and says, “So, how is everyone’s week going so far?” The kids
glance around at one another, their body language almost taking on a voice of its own, as if
saying, “We all belong here.” Before I know it, the fleeting moment of silence is over and the
kids jump in to share. While Mary Beth excitedly offers that her dad visited over the weekend,


the other kids give her the attention they would, as if they were entranced by their favorite movie.
Whether sharing about visiting their dad in rehab or the moment they were enlightened to dad’s
infidelity, their eyes on fixated on one another like magnets and their ears are tuned to listen.
The next forty-five minutes seemingly fly by, as the kids engage in a role-play of divorce-related
problems that they have faced and offer one another solutions. As the final lunch bell rings, the
kids glance around the circle at one another and cry out in unison with a disapproving,
“Awwww.” This is a typical CODIP session.
The purpose of this chapter is to describe CODIP in action through the voices of the
participants. I will begin by depicting the primary benefits of CODIP for the children in the
Greenboro School District. Next, I will identify the program features that the participants linked
to positive program outcomes, as well as components of the program that they liked the most.
Then, I will offer participants’ constructive feedback regarding CODIP, specifically indicating
aspects of the program that they did not like, as well as their suggestions to change the program.
Throughout the chapter, I will provide an analysis of how these perspectives differ across the
three age groups.
Benefits of CODIP
According to the CODIP participants, in the Greenboro School District, there were three
main benefits of being involved in the program. First, they learned to express their feelings and
had numerous opportunities to practice to assure for skill transfer. Secondly, they acquired
problem-solving techniques to deal with the many divorce-related challenges that they faced.
Finally, participants almost unanimously identified knowing that they were not alone, as an
advantage of their involvement in CODIP. The findings are grouped into three categories, which
are expressing feelings, problem-solving techniques, and not feeling alone. In the sections that


follow, I describe each of these benefits in detail, applying the analytical lens of developmental
age group, in doing so.
Expressing Feelings
Age and developmental level are two prominent factors, which influence a child’s
response and feelings that they may have to their parents’ divorce. Despite the fact that in each
group, no two children had the same experience with divorce, there were many consistencies in
how they responded to it, and in particular, the feelings that they had. According to Wallerstein
and Kelly (1980), anger and feelings of stigma and isolation are more prevalent among third
through fifth graders, while sadness, fears of abandonment, and guilt are characteristic of first
and second graders. Therefore, at each level, the program was structured in such a way to help
children to identify their feelings, get a sense of validation for having these feelings, and then
learn to effectively express them. While students in the first grade group focused more on how
to recognize feelings and appropriately identify them, third graders learned how to effectively
channel positive and negative feelings and felt validated for having both kinds of feelings, and
students in the 4/5 grade level groups reframed their perspectives to better understand their
feelings.
According to the pre- and post-surveys, all participants in the first grade group identified
that it was “very true” that “our group was a safe place to talk about feelings.” Furthermore,
more than half of the children (N=4) identified talking about their feelings as one of the “2 or 3
most important things that this group has meant” for them.
During the first four sessions, I observed participants in Ms. Hugh’s group grapple with
their feelings. While Gabe shared his confusion about why his mom was sleeping on the couch,
instead of with his dad, Alicia and Nancy confessed to feelings of guilt that the divorce may have


been caused by something that they had done. Ms. Hugh helped them to identify these feelings,
through the use of a feelings chart, as well as discussion about what feelings look and sound like,
and how to ask someone how they are feeling. To that end, Ms. Hugh started off each session by
asking the children, “How are you feeling today?” She helped them to match the description of
what they were feeling to the appropriate feeling on the “Feelings Chart.” Once they identified
the feeling that they were experiencing – especially if it was a negative feeling - she often
followed up by asking, “Is it OK to feel that way?” thereby validating their feelings. Over time,
their response to this question transformed into an immediate and emphatic, “Yes!” as they came
to the realization that they are entitled to all of the feelings that they have, whether positive or
negative.
During the fourth session, Ms. Hugh read a book to the kids called Dinosaurs Divorce,
which incited many feelings among the participants, allowing them an opportunity to practice
identifying their feelings and expressing them effectively.
Alicia: I felt guilty when my parents divorced. I didn’t know what happened sometimes.
I thought it was something I did.
Ms. Hugh: Divorce is a grown-up problem and it’s not your fault. However, I could
understand how you could feel that way.
Nancy: I feel safe now.
Alicia: They aren’t fighting anymore, so I feel relieved about that.
In the two third grade groups, participants benefitted by being able to share their feelings
in a safe space and learn the best ways to communicate their feelings to their parent(s). Based on
the pre- and post-survey, all third grade participants (N=9) indicated that the “group was a safe
place to talk about feelings.” Furthermore, during the focus group, kids shared that they would


tell future participants that “it is OK to have bad and good feelings,” “it is safe to share your
feelings,” and “it helped me understand my feelings.”
At the third grade level, the first four sessions were dedicated to work related to feelings;
however, the focus shifted from identifying feelings to acknowledging that many of the divorce-
related feelings that we have may be uncomfortable. Furthermore, participants learned that it is
not only essential to acknowledge their feelings, but to able to express them, as well. For
example, in Mr. Williams’ group, Susan candidly shared how she felt frustrated when she found
out that her “dad was going out with someone else” when her parents were married. As a result,
her parents got divorced and “now it’s hard” because they “had to move to a smaller house and
mom takes toys and clothes to a consignment shop to get money.” The group members validated
Susan’s feelings, by sharing how they were frustrated, too, when being delivered the news about
their parents’ divorce. Given that Susan had shared having had several screaming matches with
her mom, Mr. Williams helped to coach her, in effectively channeling these intense feelings of
frustration and anger during swimming, and the group role-played to practice how Susan might
more successfully convey these feelings to her mom.
In the groups consisting of fourth and fifth grade students, 14 out of 15 students felt it
was “very true” that the group was a safe place to talk about their feelings. During the focus
groups, many participants reflected on how they felt “free” and “relieved” after sharing their
feelings. Lucia, a participant in Mrs. Gonzalez’s group explained how she “let her feelings free.”
Similarly, Anna, a fifth grader in Mrs. Campbell’s group offered that she would tell future
participants, “you gonna have like all this shame on you and when it’s done, you gonna be like
lifted – like, you’re not gonna think it’s your fault anymore.” Finally, Sasha, a fourth grader in


Ms. Baker’s group said, “Like instead of keeping all your feelings inside of you, you can talk it
out.”
Given their increased level of awareness and more widespread range of experiences,
students in this age group dealt with intense emotions, many of which provoked feelings of
shame. Participants benefitted by acknowledging the universality of these feelings, as well as
developing the means to effectively communicate divorce-related feelings to their parent(s).
During the second session in Ms. Baker’s group, one of the girls shared, “I am angry that my dad
thinks I don’t notice how he tries to earn us, but he does, by trying to buy us things.” Two of the
other girls piped in, “That’s what my dad does,” and “Me, too.” Ms. Baker coached the girls in
understanding why their fathers might be trying to do this to help them reframe their perspectives
(Thomas, 2011). In addition, they practiced using I-statements, “I feel _____________, when
you _____________” to support them in effectively communicating their feelings.
Overall, after weighing in, participants in all three age groups perceived a key benefit of
the program to be identifying and expressing divorce-related feelings, which is a component of
one of the two program goals, involving the reduction of stress associated with parental divorce
through a supportive group environment (Pedro-Carroll, Alpert-Gillis, & Sterling, 2010).
Sharing their feelings in the context of a peer support group served to normalize their feelings
(Pedro-Carroll, 2005), minimize feelings of self-blame, and develop appropriate ways of dealing
with their feelings (Pedro-Carroll & Cowen, 1985), thereby reducing stress, as well as potential
risk factors.
Problem-Solving Techniques
The second of the two overarching goals of CODIP, consistent across all three
developmental age groups, is to “build competence by teaching specific skills that can help


children cope with the many challenges posed by parental divorce” (Pedro-Carroll, Alpert-Gillis,
& Sterling, 2010). Specifically, participants identified acquiring problem-solving skills as one of
the primary benefits of their involvement in CODIP. Participants in all groups expressed that by
the end of the program, they felt more competent in discerning between problems they can and
cannot solve, as well as better equipped to deal with the former set of problems.
In the first grade groups, the second phase of the program, addresses problem-solving
skills and techniques. These sessions consist of frequent puppet play for behavioral rehearsal, in
which facilitators assist participants with developing more adaptive responses (Fazio-Griffith &
Ballard, 2014; Pedro-Carroll, 2005). For example, in Ms. Hugh’s group, participants engaged in
the “Red-Light, Green-Light Game,” to practice discerning between problems they can and
cannot solve. Using Tender Heart, the group puppet, she presented them with several problems
and they had to decide whether it was solvable and hold up a green circle, or unsolvable, and
hold up a red circle.
Ms. Hugh: On Thanksgiving, Tender Heart said his parents were fighting and he went to
his room and played with his little sister, but when he went downstairs, his parents told
him they had something to tell them. They said they were going to get a divorce and they
are going to live apart.
Alicia: (Holds up a red light.) You can’t choose.
Ms. Hugh: Exactly. It’s not Tender Heart’s problem; it’s his parents’ problem.
Nancy: (Quickly changes her green light to a red light.) The parents need to do what they
need to do.
Gabe: (Holds up his green light with a confident look in his eyes.) It could be solvable
because they might just need some time alone and they might come back to the same


home together again.
Ms. Hugh: Yes, Gabe, but most of the time that doesn’t happen. What could Tender
Heart do in the meantime to feel better?
Gabe: He could come to the group!
Ms. Hugh: (She pretends to be Tender Heart.) That would make me really happy! I want
to give you a hug, Gabe! (She squeezes Gabe’s arm, using the puppet, signifying a hug.)
Third grade participants entered the CODIP group with a rather strong ability to
distinguish between solvable and unsolvable problems. Therefore, their work together was much
more practical in nature, concentrating on applying social problem solving concepts to divorce-
related problems in their own lives. Students developed perseverance in their problem-solving
abilities, generating alternative solutions to problems and also, evaluating the consequences to
potential solutions in order to select the best one. Coupled with puppet play, third grade
participants utilized a three-step process to solve problems, depicted as a cartoon.
During the fourth session, in Mr. Williams’ group, participants took turns assuming the
role of “director” and casting fellow participants to act out divorce-related problems. The
“director,” in this case Colleen, was responsible for utilizing the social-problem solving steps to
guide the “actors” and “actresses” to arrive at a solution.
Colleen: Ines is going to be the mom, Mary Beth will be the friend, and Richard is the
dad. I’m going to be the kid and use Starburst (holds up the group’s puppet).
Mr. Williams: Okay, set the scene. What’s happening?
Colleen: The mom gets really mad at Starburst because she is supposed to be with her
dad, but the mom doesn’t want to be with the dad because the mom doesn’t really like the


dad or trust him. We are at the playground and Starburst is sitting on the slide. Mary
Beth is supposed to ask me what’s wrong.
Mary Beth: What’s wrong, Starburst? You look like you’re feeling sad.
Colleen: Well, I’m supposed to be with my dad, but my mom won’t let me go. And, I’m
really bummed because we were gonna go to the arcade.
Mary Beth: Well, you shouldn’t be sad if you’re going to the arcade.
Colleen: But, my mom won’t let me go. How do I solve the problem?
Mary Beth: Did you have something planned with your mom?
Colleen: No. She just doesn’t like me being with him because she doesn’t trust him.
Mary Beth: I know! You could bring a friend. This way, there will be another person
and maybe your mom will feel better.
Colleen: If my mom doesn’t trust my dad with me, she is not going to trust him with
another person, like a friend.
Mary Beth: Okay. Hm…well, maybe she could go with you guys! This way, you could
still go to the arcade with your dad and have fun, but your mom would feel comfortable
knowing that she was there with you.
Colleen wraps up the role-play and reflects on it, by sharing. “If you have a person you
feel comfortable with and trust, you can ask them for possible solutions, if you have a problem
you’re facing.” This is just one example of many underscoring how participants perceive the
group as a supportive and encouraging environment, in which they not only have opportunities to
share their problems, but to develop the skills to solve them, as well. In essence, through role-
play, participants replace internalizing behaviors like suppressing their emotions with adaptive
responses and coping skills (Knell, 1998).


The fourth and fifth graders were certainly the most vocal about the benefits associated
with talking through divorce-related anxieties with their peers and facilitators, in order to arrive
at practical solutions. Given the severity of some of the problems with which these kids were
faced, they strived to accept the situation for what it was, but generate solutions that would make
it tolerable for them at this moment in time. For example, one student in Mrs. Campbell’s group
shared how his mom’s most recent boyfriend had left the family. Given that he was the sole
provider for the family, which consisted of four children, the student was now plagued with
worry as to when he would get his next meal and if his mom would have enough money to pay
the rent. Mrs. Campbell was aware of the extent to which the student was internalizing these
feelings, so they discussed solutions for how he could relieve some of his anxiety. Utilizing the
problem-solving steps, with Mrs. Campbell’s guidance, he realized he could count on having
breakfast and lunch at school each day. Also, whenever he was concerned or worried, he would
share his feelings with a trustworthy teacher or friend, instead of bottling them up inside. During
the focus group, he said, “[The program] helped me a lot.”
The fourth and fifth grade participants also shared how the problem-solving techniques
prepared them to face future problems. As Sally put it, “It’s easier to have solutions ready for
when things go wrong.” Discussions centered on solutions for common divorce-related
problems, such as when parents argue, when children are inadvertently designated the role of the
middleman, or going back and forth between parents’ houses/apartments. These discussions
often made students feel more confident in their ability to grapple with such issues and at peace
with the current status, despite how chaotic, of their family. As Maria, a participant in Mrs.
Campbell’s group wrote, “Think of the bright side and not the negative…at least that you have a
family.”


Across developmental age groups, participants identified the acquisition of problem-
solving skills as a crucial benefit of the program. Developing active coping skills increased
participants’ confidence in their abilities to deal with stressful family situations (Sandler, Tein,
Mehta, Wolchik, & Ayers, 2000). Furthermore, through puppet and role-play, multiple
opportunities for practice assured for more successful transfer of these skills to the participants’
everyday lives.
I’m Not Alone
Like most programs for children of divorce, CODIP is premised on the tenet that a peer
group offers children a support system, in which they establish shared experiences and in doing
so, realize that they are not alone (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). The group experience offered children
opportunities by which to engage in “constructive interpersonal connections” with their peers
(Magid, 1977). While participants, in all three age groups, shared that attending the group
alleviated feelings of isolation and anxiety, by identifying peers who were experiencing similar
changes in their families, the importance of not feeling alone increased across developmental age
groups.
According to Chloe, a first grader in Mr. Barnes’ first grade group, she indicated on the
post-survey that one of the two or three most important things that the group meant for her was
“I met someone else whose parents are divorced.” Along the same lines, on the post-survey, all
but one of the first grade participants (N=8) marked that the following statement was “very true”:
“I made some new friends in [my] group.” Also, the same number of participants expressed that
it was “very true” that “I feel less alone than I did before our group.”
One aspect of their parents’ divorce that many of the first grade participants connected
about was missing their noncustodial parent. According to Wallerstein and Kelly (1980), this is


characteristic of most 5- and 6-year old children of divorce. While observing Ms. Hugh’s group,
Alicia and Gabe engaged in a conversation, in which they opened up about how they often
yearned for their noncustodial parent.
While drawing a picture of her family, Alicia draws her and her mom on one side of the
paper and her father on the other. Then, she draws a bold line down the center of the paper.
She looks up at Ms. Hugh with sad eyes; her face is devoid of the grin she almost permanently
wears.
Ms. Hugh: What’s wrong?
Alicia: I’m confused. I live with my mom mostly and sometimes I go see my dad.
Ms. Hugh: Does that happen to anyone else? When you’re with your mom, you miss
your dad, and when you’re with your dad, you miss your mom?
Gabe: Everyday!
Alicia’s face breaks into a grin, as she glances over to Gabe, seemingly exchanging a
look of understanding.
In the 2/3 grade level groups, participants developed shared understandings, by delving
into much more sensitive and personal divorce-related topics, such as co-sleeping and parents’
dating lives subsequent to the divorce. Susan, a participant in Mr. Williams’ group stated, “I like
it because I’m not the only one going through these things.” During the third session, as Mr.
Williams read aloud from the book Dinosaurs Divorce, a page entitled, “Living with One
Parent” prompted a discussion about co-sleeping. Mary Beth offered that she and her brother
and older sister take turns sleeping with her mother, ever since her parents divorced. Looking
around the circle at her peers’ faces, hesitant to how they may react, she quickly added, “I only
like it because I don’t have to make my bed, then.” Relief seemingly swept over Mary Beth’s


entire body, when Ines revealed that she sleeps with her dad whenever she visits him at his
apartment, as there is only one bed. In witnessing this exchange take place, I could almost see
the layers of loneliness and isolation melt off of Mary Beth and Ines, as they developed this
shared understanding.
According to Kelly and Wallerstein (1976), increased feelings of shame and isolation are
commensurate with the age of a child of divorce. Therefore, fourth and fifth grade participants
entered the program experiencing the strongest feelings of loneliness. Rachel, a fifth grader in
Mrs. Gonzalez’s group, explained how the group alleviated these feelings, in stating, “[in the
group] you don’t feel lonely, like you’re the only one who had this feeling, also.” In addition, on
the post-survey, Sally, a fifth grader in Ms. Baker’s group expressed that one of the most
important things that the group meant for her was, “I could meet others who feel the same way
that I do.”
During the second session in Ms. Baker’s group, an intense discussion about parents
trying to buy their child’s loyalty was stirred up by watching the movie, Tender Places. Ms.
Baker had them reflect on the movie, by writing their thoughts on an index card, so they could be
shared anonymously. She shared the first one, which read: “I hate how they just can’t be OK
with us trying to live together again. My dad thinks I don’t notice how he tries to earn us, but he
does, by trying to buy us things.” This clearly hit a nerve in Rebecca, as the typically shy and
reserved girl, dove headfirst into the conversation by almost shouting, “That’s exactly what my
dad does!” Sally joined the conversation, by offering her agreement. After encouraging the girls
to reframe their perspectives, by considering that their dads are perhaps coming from a place of
fear and apprehension, she wrapped up the conversation by confirming, “you’re not alone…there
are a lot of people feeling the way you’re feeling.”


Although most participants expressed having feelings of isolation and loneliness upon
entering the program, the intensity of these feelings increased across the developmental age
groups. Therefore, while students in the first grade groups appreciated meeting other children
their age who came from divorced families, participants in the 2/3 and 4/5 grade level groups
relied more heavily on establishing the supportive group environment to have opportunities to
share about common divorce-related issues and also, resolve misconceptions about family
transitions. As Pedro-Carroll (2005) puts it, these children “find much comfort and relief from
the words of a peer with similar feelings – sometimes even more so than from the intellectual
assurances of an adult” (p. 56).
Program Components Contributing to Positive Outcomes
The following section addresses the gap in the literature describing the participants’
perceptions of the components of the program that are responsible for its positive outcomes. My
analysis extends the findings that are available, which are primarily based on general measures,
to glean insight into how CODIP positively influences children’s understanding of their parents’
divorce and provides them with adaptive coping mechanisms to respond to it (Ebling, Pruett, &
Pruett, 2009). Participants attributed the benefits they experienced by being involved in CODIP
to the following three program features: positive group dynamics, a trusting relationship with
their facilitator, and the experiential nature of the program. Each of these components will be
discussed in great detail below.
Positive Group Dynamics
Participants valued the group, as they felt it was a safe place, in which they could share
information about their families without the fear of others finding out. Having a safe place and
being surrounded by people they can trust are crucial for a child of divorce. For many of them,


they did not regard their homes as emotionally safe places, for they were places where conflict
abounded. For example, during nearly each group session, 8-year old Susan mentioned an
argument she had with her mom or conflict between her parents, thereby expressing feelings of
stress and unease. During the second to last session, Susan felt the need to explain to the group
why her lunch consisted of merely a vanilla yogurt and a Granny Smith apple.
Susan: It was supposed to be my night with my mom, but we got in a big fight. It was so
bad that I called my dad to come and get me.
Mr. Williams: I’m sorry to hear that, Susan.
Susan: Yeah, I threw an apple and a yogurt in a bag and my dad picked me up to go stay
the night at his girlfriend’s house. That’s why I like barely have a lunch.
According to Pruett and Pruett (1999), Susan is not alone in her preoccupations with
safety, as many children of divorce feel that the web of safety and security in their lives is
shattered, when their parents get divorced. Furthermore, children can be hesitant to share about
their parents’ divorce with friends, given the shame they feel, as well as their worries that peers
will not understand what they are going through (Tartari, 2007). In Mr. Williams’ group, during
the fourth session, the participants had a discussion about their fears related to their peers finding
out that their parents were divorced.
Mary Beth: (Uses Starburst, the group puppet, to act out the scene.) Starburst, I told you
my parents are getting divorced and now the whole school is finding out. You were the
only one I told, so obviously, that’s how the whole school found out.
Mr. Williams: Are you scared of other people finding out?


Mary Beth: Well, Susan knows because she is in the group, and another girl I’m friends
with knows because my mom told her mom because they are friends. But, now more
people know about it, and I don’t know how.
Ines: Yeah, I had the same thing. In kindergarten, I told one of my friends about my
parents not getting along, and then, somehow the whole class found out.
This conversation provides a glimpse into the shame that children of divorce often carry
with them. In a longitudinal study, taking place over the course of 25 years, Wallerstein, Lewis,
and Blakeslee (2000) discovered that children often consider the divorce a secret, which is never
to be divulged. This thereby restricts them from entering into the “social world of their peers”
and limits their opportunities to “learn about other families” (p. 103). Thus, many children adopt
avoidant coping mechanisms with the intent of protecting themselves and their families
(Hetherington, Bridges, & Insabella, 1998).
Due to decreased feelings of safety and security, as well as being burdened by the secret
of their parents’ divorce, children of divorce are in dire need of people in whom they can
confide, who are not directly involved in the divorce, as well as an environment, in which they
feel safe. Thus, program participants perceived the CODIP groups as offering them just that –
individuals in whom to confide, in a space that was both safe and confidential.
Feelings of being safe in CODIP groups were consistent across all developmental age
groups. In fact, 97% of the participants indicated that the statement, “Our group was a safe place
to talk about feelings” was “very true” on their post-survey. Furthermore, while fifth grader,
Rachel, mentioned during the focus group that, “I think it’s a really safe place…no one will hear
what you’re saying,” a first grader, Nancy, mentioned, “This program is maybe safe for you and


you, you will not get hurt.” There were several aspects of the group that created feelings of
safety, including: participant agreement forms, door signs, and trust among group members.
Based on past practice, in addition to the consent and assent forms that children were
asked to complete, they were also required to sign a “CODIP Participant Agreement” form (see
Appendix I). The guidance counselor, Tim Barnes, shared that students had a similar agreement
during Rainbows groups in previous years, and as he put it, having those guidelines in place
“made them feel safe in the group and reinforced that no one should share other people’s
business outside of the group” (personal communication, October 14, 2015). Also, we discussed
how children come to the group at all different stages in the process of coping with their parents’
divorce and therefore, some may not be ready to talk about it, yet, but get a great deal just by
listening. Thus, while they were expected to be good listeners, they would never be pressured to
share.
There were many parallels in my observations of the first session of each of the three age
groups. With her first grade group, Ms. Hugh broke down the definition of confidentiality to be
“not sharing anything outside of the group, unless it is with your parents” and reminded them
that the group “was a safe place to share their secret with others.” Likewise, in Mr. Williams’
group, he told the third grade participants that the agreement was like a “special code” and “it’s
OK to tell your parents about what happens in the group, but no one else.” Finally, in Ms.
Baker’s group, she told the girls that, “what others share here is private and is to stay here.” In
essence, each facilitator, regardless of the age level of the group, verbally reinforced the meaning
of confidentiality to assure the safe nature of the group. Susan’s comment in Mr. Williams’
group affirmed this feeling of security, when she stated during the second session, “You come


here because you know it’s a safe place and if I shared something here and then found out
someone told it, I would feel like that safe feeling was ruined.”
In addition, Tim Barnes created door signs for each facilitator to hang on their classroom
doors, while the group was in session. The signs read: “Group in session – Please do not
disturb.” The participants, especially in the younger group, valued the privacy they felt that
these signs seemingly guaranteed. On several occasions, Gabe and Nancy, in Ms. Hugh’s group,
noticed that the sign was not posted or the door was open and would ask Ms. Hugh if they could
post the sign and/or close the door. For the first grade groups, they yearned for safety that was
created in more of a concrete sense, which is reflective of their developmental abilities and
reliance on concrete experiences to process more abstract concepts, like divorce (Alpert-Gillis,
Pedro-Carroll, & Cowen, 1989).
On the other hand, the 2/3 and 4/5 grade level group participants conceived safety to be
the outcome of trusting peer relationships. These relationships reduced children’s inhibitions
about discussing their emotions related to their parents’ divorce, enabling them to speak candidly
about their experiences (Gilman, 2005). Robbie, a fourth grader, said that one of the most
important things that the program meant for him was “sharing and not worrying I will get made
fun of.” Similarly, Mary Beth, a third grader in Mr. Williams’ group wrote, “They can’t tell
anyone what I said…they listen to me.” Many of the participants in the 2/3 and 4/5 grade level
groups used the word “secret,” and described how the group was a supportive environment, in
which they could entrust others with their secret.
CODIP participants across all three age groups indicated that having a safe and
supportive group environment was one of the key program features that contributed to its
positive outcomes. Children valued the physical and emotional safety the group offered them, as


well as the opportunity to entrust others with private information about their families. According
to Demo and Acock (1988), children of divorce have a greater chance of developing more
adaptive coping mechanisms if provided with opportunities to discuss their experiences with
peers, who have had similar experiences. Ultimately, the peers serve as “active intervention
elements, by offering one another “social support and shared perspectives and experiences”
(Stolberg & Mahler, 1994, p. 147).
Relationship with Facilitator
Another aspect of the program that participants associated with its positive outcomes was
the supportive relationship that they established with their facilitators. After experiencing their
parents’ divorce, children have difficulty forming trusting relationships with others, as they often
arrive at the horrifying conclusion that “Personal relationships are unreliable, and even the
closest family relationships cannot be expected to hold firm” (Wallerstein & Lewis, 2004, p.
359). In particular, the parent-child relationship often suffers; divorce leads to diminished
parenting, given that parents are often preoccupied with their own personal problems and
psychological distress (Strohschein, 2007). Subsequent to the marital separation, children need
their parents the most to make sense of what is happening and to adjust to the unstable and
constantly changing environment, in which they must learn to live between two homes and
grapple with divided loyalties. However, it is during this time that adults emotionally detach
from their role as parents (Wallerstein & Lewis, 2004) and in some cases, “blur the boundaries of
the parent-child relationship,” by turning to their children for emotional support and comfort
(Strohschein, 2007, p. 359). In a longitudinal study conducted by Wallerstein and Lewis (2004),
involving 131 children, when interviewed as adults twenty-five years subsequent to their parents’
divorce, nearly all recounted feelings of loneliness and anger. They described the feelings of


distress they experienced over their parents’ lack of availability and one individual recalled, “I
remember feeling so alone. I would go for days with no one to talk to” (p. 360).
Taken together, the aforementioned risk factors underlie increased mental health
problems (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). Furthermore, divorce can lead to decreased social competence,
as it impacts a child’s ability to consolidate “parental attachments, capacities for intimacy, and
trust” (Pruett & Pruett, 1999, p. 1544). However, there are numerous protective factors (see
Appendix J) that can offset these risk factors, one of which is supportive relationships with
positive adult role models (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). In this study, participants identified the
relationship they developed with their facilitator as a protective factor, or a feature of the
program that contributed to its positive outcomes.
On the post-survey, children of all age groups identified supportive facilitators as one of
the two or three most important things, which the group meant for them. While participants in
the first grade groups expressed it as “being able to eat lunch with Mrs. Martin,” those in the 2/3
grade level groups were able to articulate it as “Mr. Williams helps me with my problems.” In
one of the 4/5 grade level groups, Mrs. Campbell shared how students sought out support
throughout the week from her, even on days when the group was not scheduled to meet. Clearly,
participants perceived the facilitators as individuals to whom they could entrust their family
issues and depend on for guidance, as well.
Participants appreciated the facilitators’ willingness to share, especially those who have
had a direct experience with divorce, either as children or adults. For example, in one of the first
grade groups, Gabe got up from his seat and hugged Ms. Hugh, after she shared, “I love that the
group is here because when I got divorced, even as a grown-up, I went to a program like this and
it really helped me.” In sharing this, Ms. Hugh normalized the experience of divorce for the


children and offered them a sense of hope that if she was able to emerge from it as such a strong
and positive person, whom they all revere, then they could, too.
Furthermore, children in this age group are often most distressed by the transience of
relationships in their lives, as well as the need to continually adapt to a turbulent and unstable
environment (Amato & Sobolewski, 2001). For example, Nancy, a first grader in Ms. Hugh’s
group mentioned how “I am worried about who is going to take care of me and pick me up from
school.” Therefore, the predictable nature of the group, coupled with the awareness that the
facilitator was someone who was readily accessible and willing to offer them support, served to
assuage these fears.
According to Wallerstein (1986), many children between 8.5 and 12 years of age, are
humiliated by their own powerlessness, especially when it comes to the relationships in their
lives. More often than not, they exhibit a greater desire for nurturing, as they have lost a close
connection with one parent and are fearful that they will lose contact with their other parent, as
well (Ackerman, 2001). Many participants in the 2/3 grade level groups expounded upon the
feelings of powerlessness that they felt, when their parents began to date or get remarried. Mr.
Williams validated these feelings among the participants in his group, when he shared his
confusion and anger, when his parents got remarried. While reading Dinosaurs Divorce, he
shared a time when he felt ashamed.
Mr. Williams: I remember one time when my step-mom came to pick me up at school for
the first time. I was thinking about how the other kids were probably looking at her and
wondering to themselves, “What is going on?”
(Later in the conversation, Susan shared a similar experience.)


Susan: Yeah, my mom is always lying about messages that pop up on her phone from
match.com. She goes out with lots of people. Like now, she is dating someone from
Connecticut and told me and my sister that we might move there.
In sharing this, Susan was describing the powerlessness she feels in the relationships her
mom is forging to cope with the divorce and her frustration related to the impact that these
transitory relationships have on her own life. In the long run, while most likely improbable,
Susan was burdened by the fear that if her mother did date someone who lived in a different
state, it could alter her living arrangements, forcing her to make new friends and to get
acclimated to a new school. However, Mr. Williams shed light on the positive side of his
parents’ remarriages, when he said, “I’m happy that my parents got remarried because they
found people who they could be happy with.”
During the following week, Susan made a comment that echoed what Mr. Williams had
shared, when she made the comment below.
Susan: I really wouldn’t wish for my mom and dad to get back together again because
they weren’t happy together….I think I’d feel happy if they married someone new, as
long as the person was funny and nice.
Mr. Williams’ ability to identify with the participants as a child of divorce, himself, and
to openly share his experiences, allowed the participants to accept aspects of their lives that they
could not control and view post-divorce family changes in a positive light. Mr. Williams
consistently encouraged them that if he was able to cope and positively adjust to his parents’
divorce, then they could, too. Furthermore, they internalized the belief that he shared with the
group, “The most important thing is knowing that we have each other.”


While participants from three of the groups were fortunate to have the unique experience
of having a facilitator, who was either a child of divorce or a divorcée, children in all groups
reaped the benefits of forming supportive relationships with their facilitators. Participants had
few adults in their lives who were not implicated in the divorce, whom they trusted enough to
turn to for unbiased advice. Therefore, having a trustworthy teacher or staff member, who
exhibited a genuine concern for helping them cope with their parents divorce, who was at their
disposal five days a week, seemed like a dream come true to most participants.
Therefore, it is no surprise that when the sessions came to an end in December,
participants expressed feelings of disappointment and sadness, out of fear that another close
relationship they had developed would be severed. In Ms. Baker’s 4/5 grade level group, during
the last session, she asked the girls, “Is there anything else you would like to talk about?” With a
quiet hesitance in her voice, Sasha asked, “Can we keep meeting with you?” Similarly, more
than half of the groups arranged a weekly or monthly “reunion meeting,” as Ms. Nelson deemed
it, in which facilitators would open their classroom to participants and they were welcome to
come to just enjoy lunch or discuss any issues that they were facing in their lives. Several
facilitators mentioned that after the holiday break, despite all of the exciting things that may have
happened in the participants’ lives, one of the first things they did was seek out their group
facilitator to see when the first “reunion meeting” was going to take place.
CODIP participants identified a strong link between the benefits they experienced from
the program and the supportive relationship that they forged with their group facilitator. For
many participants, this relationship was the only relationship on which they could depend.
Given the weakened state of many of their relationships with their parents, participants looked to
the facilitators not only for someone in whom they could trust, but also, an adult who could help


them make sense of all of the transitions and turbulence in their lives, as well. As Susan put it,
“This program has made me feel supported…Mr. Williams helps me solve the problems with my
parents’ divorce.” The participants’ actions and words made it clear that all they wanted was to
feel secure in a relationship with an adult, whom they could trust.
Experiential Nature of the Program
The final component of CODIP that participants perceived as contributing to its positive
outcomes was the experiential nature of the program. Participants in all age groups valued
hands-on activities, which provided them with concrete opportunities to develop coping skills
and recognize ways to apply these skills to real-life experiences (Pedro-Carroll, 2010). Through
role-play, puppet play, and games, children had the chance to acquire skills, such as how to
disengage from loyalty conflicts, or ways to positively channel their anger, and then test out
different approaches in their real lives. Having multiple opportunities by which to rehearse these
coping skills in a supportive group context, prior to using them in their own lives, assures for
greater skill transfer and enhances their long-term adjustment (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). During the
focus group, participants in Jillian Campbell’s group reflected on how the experiential
components allowed them to “test out” specific coping skills, before applying them at home.
Jillian: Why has [CODIP] helped you with your parents’ divorce?
Marco: Sometimes what we do here, sometimes it does come true.
Jillian: Yes, and I know we have all tried different things at home to see if it worked and
each of you have come in at separate times and some of you have had stories where
problem-solving strategies have worked.
Marco: I’m just glad because when I first saw this group, I thought we would mess up a
lot, but when we got through it, people helped each other.


Children of all age groups echoed similar feelings of success, in acquiring coping skills
through hands-on activities, and then effectively applying them to solve divorce-related problems
in their own lives. In the sections that follow, I will describe the two experiential components:
games and role-play, which participants highlighted as helping them to build competence in
coping with divorce-related challenges.
Games. In all three age groups, developmentally appropriate games served to increase
the level of engagement among the participants (Stolberg & Mahler, 1994). Also, given that
divorce often imposes a great deal of stress on children, the games helped to alleviate some of
this stress, by incorporating an element of fun into the program. Furthermore, the games were an
effective vehicle for normalizing the divorce experience, helping children to express their
feelings, giving and receiving help from peers, and instilling hope about the future (Yalom,
1970).
Several students in the first grade groups indicated on the post-survey that “playing
games” and “having fun” were two or three of the most important things that the group meant for
them. During the focus group, Tim Barnes asked his group what they would tell a student who is
joining the group next year, about the program. Becky was quick to answer, “I would tell them
that it helps them with your divorce and you can play games and you can bring lunch and it’s
really fun.”
The first grade participants in Ms. Hugh’s group had enjoyed playing the “Red-Light,
Green-Light” game, during the sixth session, to hone their abilities to differentiate between
problems that are solvable and those that are unsolvable. During the next session, Ms. Hugh had
the following conversation with Gabe.
Ms. Hugh: There are only two more sessions left of the program.


Gabe: Nooooooooo!
Ms. Hugh: You have become a really good problem-solving group and have come up
with some good strategies.
Gabe: Can we play another game?
Ms. Hugh: Yes, today we’re going to play a game called “Daring Dinosaurs.” You are
going to be daring dinosaurs because you are daring to make good choices, using what
you have learned in the program.
During the next thirty minutes or so, Gabe, Alicia, and Nancy displayed the same level of
enthusiasm that they would exhibit if they were charging across the playground to the swings, or
involved in an intense Beyblade battle with their friends. Instead, they were reviewing feeling
words, social problem-solving skills, and coping skills for dealing with anger, as well as
distinguishing between solvable and unsolvable problems, and discussing their thoughts and
beliefs about divorce-related misconceptions. When the lunch bell rang, signaling that the
CODIP session was over, all three participants groaned and asked if they could continue playing
the game during the next session. Presenting coping skill enhancement in a game-like format,
clearly captured and maintained the participants’ interest in the first grade groups, as it seemed
unbeknownst to them that they were “working” in the process, by enhancing adaptive coping
mechanisms they had acquired during previous sessions (Pedro-Carroll, 2005).
While the 2/3 grade level groups also enjoyed the “Daring Dinosaurs” game, the “You’re
a Special Person” game, which is a component of the 2/3 and 4-6 grade level curricula, had a
significant impact on the participants. During the seventh session, participants were given the
opportunity to reflect on their strengths individually, by creating an “I Am Special” book. Thus,


during the eighth session, the “You’re a Special Person” game encouraged participants to
consider one another’s unique strengths, as group members.
As Mr. Williams explained the rules for the game, the silliness that had filled the room
seemed to dissipate and was replaced by a pervasive earnestness. The children followed his
directions with complete and utter diligence, writing their names atop the blank construction
paper that he passed out. Mr. Williams instructed them to take the next few minutes to pass the
papers around the circle. When they got a piece of paper with a group member’s name on it,
they were to reflect on positive qualities and strengths characteristic of that person and then
write them down on the paper.
For the next eight minutes, the typically rambunctious third graders operated like a well-
oiled machine, passing the papers around to one another, in complete silence. They glanced
around the room furtively at one another, as if they were undercover cops, working on an intense
case. As Susan wrote a positive comment about how funny Richard was, she giggled to herself,
perhaps recalling one of his comical moments that had taken place over the last few weeks.
Similarly, Colleen’s marker moved feverishly across the paper with Mary Beth’s name on it.
While Colleen’s reserved nature contrasted Mary Beth’s boisterous spirit, Colleen had plenty to
say about her fellow group member, and now, friend.
As the papers eventually made their way full-circle, finding their way home to their
original owners, silence continued to fill the room. Smiles appeared on all participants’ faces,
as they read what their peers had written about them. The positive comments from their peers
bore much greater significance than a note from a teacher or praise from an adult. Therefore,
when Richard made his way back to his classroom, the paper did not get lost in the abyss of his
desk, but was carefully tucked away, in a spot where he knew it would not get lost.


Given that there were fewer games at the 4/5 grade level – only three – there was a
ubiquitous yearning for more, thereby indicating how much the participants enjoyed the games.
For example, during the focus group, Rachel, a fifth grade participant in Mrs. Campbell’s group
explained that her favorite part of the program was picking cards with problems written on them
and then, determining whether the problem was solvable or unsolvable. The game presented the
skill of distinguishing between problems that a child of divorce can or cannot solve in a fun and
engaging way. However, at this level, games were replaced with other hands-on activities, such
as the expert panel, in order to “build children’s competencies while appealing to age-related
interests” (Pedro-Carroll, 2005, p. 58). Furthermore, the few games that were included were far
less active than those that were part of the curricula for younger children. Therefore, two of the
five facilitators at this level modified the games to make the more active, or included other
divorce-related games, such as “Divorce Jenga,” to engage and maintain the students’ interest.
Clearly, the participants’ persistent requests for more games indicate that they perceived the
games to be an integral component of the program, which contributed to its positive outcomes.
Participants in all three age groups expressed that the games were one of their favorite
components of the program. While the first grade and 2/3 grade level participants enjoyed active
games, like “Daring Dinosaurs,” they also valued quiet games, like “You’re a Special Person.”
However, the children in the 4/5 grade level group exhibited an overt sentiment that they enjoyed
playing the games so much that they would like to have had the opportunity to play more.
Overall, the games served as seemingly disguised therapeutic techniques, in which children
acquired and enhanced skills, such as expressing their feelings, building their self-esteem,
grappling with loyalty conflicts, and discerning between solvable and unsolvable problems – all
in the midst of having fun (Pedro-Carroll, 2005).


Role-play. Another experiential component of the program that participants enjoyed was
role-play. This technique serves to facilitate the expression of feelings and also allow children to
“try out” solutions to divorce-related problems and obtain feedback from their peers, based on
their handling of the situation (Pedro-Carroll & Cowen, 1985). While participants in the 4/5
grade level groups engaged in role-play with one another, participants in the first grade and 2/3
grade level groups primarily used puppets to do so. However, regardless of the type of role-play
in which the engaged, all participants perceived it as an aspect of the program that contributed to
its positive outcomes.
Nearly half of the participants in the first grade and 2/3 grade level groups indicated on
their post-survey that the puppet was one of the most important things that the group meant for
them. Facilitators in these age groups introduced the puppet as a member of the group, who also
had parents who were divorced, during the first session. The puppet was then used to model
skills and facilitate participants’ practice of these skills, thereafter.
As an integral component of cognitive behavioral play therapy, upon which CODIP is
premised, puppet play is used to “exteriorize conflict through symbolic action” (Bromfield,
1995, p. 435). In essence, puppets allow children to express any negative or uncomfortable
feelings that they may have towards an individual, and displace these feelings by expressing
them towards a puppet, instead. Therefore, participants experienced greater self-expression, as
they were not anxious about the outcome, given that the puppet could not get upset with them or
retaliate in any way (Bromfield, 1995). For example, Mary Beth, a participant in Mr. Williams’
group engaged in puppet play with their group puppet, Starburst to consider solutions to a
problem she was experiencing with a close friend. She had shared with the friend, in confidence
that her parents were getting divorced and then, several other people in her class somehow knew


about it. By engaging in puppet play, Mary Beth was able to express her shame regarding her
parents’ divorce, as well as the violation of trust she experienced, as a result of her friend telling
others. Furthermore, by utilizing social problem-solving steps, she arrived at a solution to the
problem, with which she felt comfortable.
In the first grade groups, the puppet served as a means of normalizing the divorce
experience, thereby leading to the positive outcome of making children feel as though they were
not alone. During the fifth session in Ms. Hugh’s group, she shared that the group puppet,
Tender Heart, experienced a problem, over Thanksgiving break. Tender Heart told the group
that he and his little sister heard his parents fighting and when they went downstairs, his parents
told them that they were going to get a divorce and therefore, would live apart from one another.
All having gone through a similar experience, the participants responded empathetically, and
tried to help him solve his problem. This form of puppet play not only normalized the divorce
experience, but validated the children’s feelings of nervousness, anger, and sadness that they felt,
when their own parents broke the news to them about getting a divorce.
Just as participants in the first grade and 2/3 grade level groups enjoyed engaging in
puppet play, children in the 4/5 grade level groups valued taking part in role-plays for similar
reasons. Role-play was integrated into the final four skill-acquisition meetings, in which group
members participated in role-plays to practice applying skills to divorce-related problems
(Pedro-Carroll, 2005). Role-play opportunities allowed children to hone their self-expression
skills, and “test out” solutions to divorce-related issues. It also provided children with
opportunities to explore other “roles” involved in divorce, such as the parents, and consider their
thoughts and feelings, regarding these issues. For example, during the fifth session, Rebecca


engaged in a role-play with Ms. Baker, in which Rebecca played the role of the mom and Ms.
Baker was the child.
Rebecca: Listen, Suzy, we are going to have to move in a few weeks.
Ms. Baker: Why, mom?
Rebecca: (Paused for a minute) I am getting a divorce from your father.
After this brief exchange, the girls burst into a fit of laughter. When Ms. Baker asked
them why they were laughing, they explained that a parent would never inform their child about
a divorce in such a nonchalant manner, providing very little detail. To that end, Rebecca
explained that she paused for a minute because she was not sure how to tell Ms. Baker, or Suzy,
that she was getting a divorce. By role-playing this scenario, Rebecca was able to better
understand what her mom went through when she broke the news to Rebecca.
In addition, during several group discussions, Sasha had mentioned many changes that
were taking place in her family, due to her parents’ relationships with significant others. She had
shared how her mom had just moved in with her boyfriend, so, because her mom was the
custodial parent, this meant that along with her brother and sister, she had to move into her
mom’s boyfriend’s house, as well. In addition, she was worried about her dad, as he and his
girlfriend had just broken up. Many changes were taking place in Sasha’s family, as a result.
During the sixth session, Ms. Baker posed the following scenario for the girls to act out:
“Sam’s mom has been hiring a babysitter, so she can go out on dates.” She asked Sasha and
Lillian to engage in the role-play. Sasha asked if she could be the mom and by default, Lillian
agreed to play the role of Sam.
Lillian: Mom, I feel really worried that you have been going out on lots of dates.
Sasha: Well, since your dad and I got divorced, I have been going out on dates to meet


someone.
Ms. Baker interrupted the role-play and called attention to the way that Lillian spoke to
her mom. The girls engaged in a discussion about how Lillian could have expressed her
discomfort and nervousness about her mom beginning to date, by screaming at her mom or
avoiding her; however, instead, she approached her mom in a calm manner and used an I-
message to describe how she was feeling. Sasha then considered how she could use similar
techniques to approach her mom’s boyfriend, when she felt uncomfortable, when he tried to act
like her dad and discipline her. In this instance, the role-play, which involved a fictitious
scenario that was parallel to a situation Sasha was facing in her life, facilitated her revelation of
feelings and provided her with a feasible solution – an I-message – to use with her mom’s
boyfriend.
Furthermore, this sociodramatic form of play allowed the participants to displace their
feelings from the individuals with whom they were connected to fictitious characters, played by
their peers. Therefore, the element of fear that the children may have had in facing some of their
divorce-related concerns was removed. For example, in the aforementioned situation, Sasha was
able to put aside the nervousness that she had been experiencing about approaching her mom’s
boyfriend and focus solely on honing her problem-solving abilities and self-expression skills
(Bergen, 2002).
Participants in all three developmental age groups valued role-play as a component of
CODIP that contributed to the benefits that they experienced. In the first grade and 2/3 grade
level groups, puppet play served to normalize the divorce experience and validate participants’
feelings. Similarly, children in the 4/5 grade level groups engaged in role-play with their peers
to hone their problem-solving skills and enhance their understanding of the thoughts and feelings


of others, such as their parents, who were implicated in the divorce-related issues that they faced.
All in all, just as with the games, role-play was a therapeutic technique that incorporated an
element of fun, while allowing participants multiple opportunities for skill enhancement (Pedro-
Carroll, 2005).
Participants’ Constructive Feedback and Suggestions for Change
The process of soliciting constructive feedback from participants, with regards to their
evaluation of the program served “to empower them to let their voices be heard and encouraged
them to value their opinions” (Oliphant et al., 2002, p. 161). The students had multiple
opportunities (i.e. pre-survey, post-survey, focus group) to share their feedback and to express
aspects of the program that they did not like, as well as suggestions for possible changes. In
addition, several facilitators took a moment at the end of each session to ask the participants to
reflect on anything that they did not like, or that they found to be ineffective.
Based on the results of the post-survey, 25% of the participants stated that they would not
change anything, and that they liked the program the way it was. During the focus group,
participants explained that “I don’t really think it could be better because I feel very supported in
this group,” and “I think that it talks about everything that we need to know.” The remaining
75% of the participants suggested for minor changes to be made in the following two categories:
environmental conditions and more hands-on activities. The participants’ feedback is described
in detail, below.
Environmental Conditions
The majority of feedback that participants offered was related to the context, in which the
program was delivered, as opposed to the program, itself. Given that CODIP has been carried
out in numerous service delivery contexts, including schools and churches, internationally, I


presume that each of these contexts would present similar issues for the participants involved.
Therefore, while the feedback below cannot be generalized to all service delivery contexts, it
serves as a reminder of some of the environmental factors to consider, prior to implementing the
program.
Several participants offered feedback about the window of time, during which CODIP
sessions were carried out. Based on the school and/or age of participants, the sessions took place
during recess, lunch, or both recess and lunch. Four male participants and two female
participants – all of whom were 2/3 or 4/5 grade level participants - suggested to change the time
of implementation. Overall, they did not like that the program took place during recess and
recommended that it take place only during lunch or after school. Chris, a third grader at
Riverdale, offered, “I think you should make it after school, instead of during recess.” Similarly,
Cameron, a fourth grader at Riverdale stated, “Change the time [to] lunchtime, so we could still
– we would have already played and we’d be eating our food, so we could still talk.” Clearly,
the participants valued their recess time, as an opportunity to play and socialize with their
friends.
However, as children, they did not realize the logistics involved in having the program
after school. As Tim Barnes explained, in previous years, when they tried to carry out the
Rainbows program after school, attendance was inconsistent and there was a much smaller
turnout. This was due to the fact that many of the parents of participants were single parents and
were attempting to balance work with shuttling their other children around to their after-school
activities. Therefore, having the program during lunch/recess allowed for the greatest
consistency in attendance and turnout among participants. Thus, the mere 14% of the
participants, who expressed discontent with the window of time, during which the program was


carried out paled in comparison to the prospect of changing the window of time, and being able
to serve fewer children, as a result.
In addition, participants across all three age groups expressed a desire to have more than
just nine CODIP sessions. As first grader Kyle put it, “I wish it would last longer.” In Shan
Nelson’s 2/3 grade level group, on the post-survey, the participants unanimously indicated that
the one thing they would change about the program would be to have “more time.” Likewise,
fifth graders Juan and Marco, in Jillian Campbell’s group, wrote that they would like to “make it
a little longer” and to have “more time and more lessons,” respectively. The fact that the
participants wanted to extend the program was more of an affirmation of how much they enjoyed
the program and the benefits they reaped from being involved, as opposed to constructive
feedback. Participants may have perceived the termination of the program as yet another loss in
their lives, given that they were no longer going to have weekly contact with individuals to
whom they had grown so close.
Another aspect of the program that participants suggested changing was the composition
of the groups. While some children felt it would be beneficial to have more participants in each
group, others offered that mixing up the groups across grade levels would provide for richer
discussion. During the focus group in Shan Nelson’s 2/3 grade level group, Natalie and Larissa
discussed the benefits of cross-grade level groups.
Natalie: You should like have more kids in the group. Like put more, like mix the grades
up, so you can hear like what other first graders or third graders or fifth graders need to
talk about.
Larissa: I agree with Natalie because it’s kind of better to hear other people and how they
feel.


While the children’s suggestions make sense, they run counter to the existing research,
which has been carried out by the CODIP developers. They have found that groups exceeding
five children do not accomplish program goals as effectively as groups with five or fewer
children (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). Furthermore, through extensive evaluations, the program model
has been adapted over the years for children of different ages, based on the fact that children
respond differently to divorce, based on their age. Likewise, each of the four versions of the
program reflects techniques and objectives, appropriate for children of that age group (Pedro-
Carroll, 2005). Therefore, increasing the size of the groups and/or creating cross-grade level
groups would pose great difficulty and potentially reduce the program’s positive outcomes.
The final environmental issue that participants mentioned, during focus groups and on
their post-surveys, was the room environment. Primarily, the participants from Ms. Baker’s 4/5
grade level group commented that the room, where they met for weekly CODIP meetings, was
“a cramped space.” As a basic skills teacher, Ms. Baker had to share a room with other teachers
and therefore, utilized the speech teacher’s room for her group’s meeting space, given that the
speech teacher was not there on Tuesdays. However, there were three weeks when the group had
to relocate to alternate spaces, as Ms. Baker had to shift their meeting time to a different day, due
to meetings and/or days off from school. As a participant-observer during these sessions, I
noticed that changing the meeting space certainly impacted the group dynamics. The level of
comfort and safety that had been established during previous weeks seemingly had to be
restored. Therefore, it is no surprise that all of the girls in Ms. Baker’s group proposed that next
year the group meet in a bigger space on a consistent basis. Once again, while this feedback is
specific to Mountainside Elementary School and not necessarily CODIP, it serves as a reminder
of yet another environmental factor to consider, before implementing the program.


Without question, participants in the 2/3 and 4/5 grade level groups were the most vocal
about environmental issues that they suggested could be addressed to improve the program’s
positive outcomes and/or increase children’s willingness to attend. Many participants stated that
they felt the program needed to be extended to include more lessons. Other participants
requested to consistently meet in bigger spaces, as well as to modify the composition of groups
to reflect more children in each group and children from all grade levels. Finally, a fraction of
participants (N=6) proposed changing the meeting time from lunch/recess to either just
lunchtime or after school. While these issues are specific to Mountainside and Riverdale
Elementary Schools, the participants’ perceptions shed light on a handful of environmental
factors that should be taken into consideration in any service delivery context.
More Hands-on Activities
Over 40% of the participants (N=15) suggested that the program could be improved if
they had more opportunities to play games or engage in hands-on activities. This is no surprise,
given that participants in all three age groups expressed that the games were one of their favorite
components of the program, which led to its positive outcomes. In all three first grade groups,
when prompted on the post-survey to “tell us anything about the program that you would
change,” all nine participants wrote something to the effect of “more games.” Only one
participant in the 2/3 grade level groups suggested to “play more games.” Lastly, among the 4/5
grade level groups, five participants felt that more games should be incorporated into the
program to enhance it.
While the participants enjoyed the activities that were less hands-on in nature, such as
reading books and watching movies, they suggested that these components of the program be
shortened to allow more time for games. Based on the summary sheets that the facilitators


completed, as well as my informal conversations with them, many facilitators responded to this
feedback and followed the participants’ lead. Therefore, with the guidance counselor’s or my
permission, they omitted books and shortened movie clips, to make for increased time to play
games. Also, in two cases, at the 4/5 grade level, facilitators included divorce-related games of
their own that were suggested by the guidance counselor, including “Divorce Jenga.” This was
largely due to the fact that only three games were included for participants of this age group and
based on their feedback, they were clearly yearning for more. Participants in all three age groups
enjoyed hands-on activities and suggested that the program could be improved if more hands-on
activities were incorporated.


CHAPTER V
Discussion
“Sometimes I feel invisible, like no one even notices me,” (Pedro-Carroll, 2010, p. 23)
and “It doesn’t matter…because I have no say so anyway” (Dlugokinski & Allen, 1997, p. 96)
are common feelings among children of divorce. With this study, my goal was to remove these
cloaks of invisibility and to make children of divorce feel as though someone does care about
what they have to say. Through a process evaluation study, I focused on the perceptions of
CODIP participants to transcend the existing research substantiating the efficacy of CODIP, in
an attempt to uncover specific aspects of the program that contribute to its positive outcomes
(Oliphant et al., 2002). Furthermore, drawing upon their experiences as CODIP participants,
children offered their feedback about components of the program that they enjoyed and those
which they did not.
In this chapter, I will discuss the findings in light of the previous research conducted,
which was used to inform this study. First, I will revisit the conceptual framework to provide a
sense of context, within which to situate the study. Next, I will discuss the findings, as they relate
to each of my research questions. Finally, I will summarize my conclusions and engage in a
brief discussion of the implications for program developers, school counselors, and for further
research, as well as the limitations of my study.
Conceptual Framework: Revisited
CODIP’s theory of action is premised on the belief that evidence-based preventive
interventions can promote children’s adjustment to their parents’ divorce, by reducing risk
factors and increasing protective factors (Pedro-Carroll & Jones, 2005; Leon, 2003). Therefore,
CODIP developers utilized theories of risk and resilience, as well as research related to group


and cognitive-behavioral play therapy in designing the program. Over the years, they have
carried out numerous evaluations to modify the program to meet the needs of children ages 5-14,
of various socioeconomic backgrounds. In addition, since the program’s inception in 1982, at
least six studies have documented the durability and generalizability of the positive outcomes
that participants have experienced, based on their involvement in the program (Pedro-Carroll,
2005).
For all four programs (K/1, 2/3, 4-6, and 7/8 grade levels), the developers theorize that
three program features are responsible for the program’s positive outcomes: structure of peer
group, cognitive-behavioral play therapy components, and the long-term nature of the program.
First, the group format of CODIP offers children a supportive group atmosphere (Pedro-Carroll
& Cowen, 1985), in which they are surrounded by other children of divorce and therefore, do not
feel alone (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). Secondly, CODIP is largely grounded in cognitive-behavioral
play therapy, in which the participants are offered multiple opportunities to make meaning of
their experiences through play. Also, modeling with puppets, characters in books, and role-play,
is used to help children strengthen, weaken, or acquire specific skills (Bandura, 1977) and
frequent role-play and puppet play in allows for behavioral rehearsal, as well as the development
of more adaptive responses (Fazio-Griffith & Ballard, 2014; Pedro-Carroll, 2005). Finally, the
developers of CODIP have discovered that children’s positive adjustment to their parents’
divorce can be promoted through the implementation of a preventive program on a weekly basis
for 45 minutes to an hour over the course of 8 to 16 weeks (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). Therefore,
while numerous studies have documented CODIP’s efficacy, the developers only have a theory
as to why it works.


Findings: Revisited
My research questions were written in such a way to explore the missing link between the
developers’ theory and positive program outcomes, by shedding light on the perceptions of those
directly involved, the participants. Below I will summarize my findings, as they relate to each
research question and in doing so, address the developers’ theory, as well.
Perceived program benefits. CODIP participants, in the Greenboro School District,
identified three main benefits of being involved in the program: having multiple opportunities to
express their feelings, acquiring problem-solving skills to tackle divorce-related challenges, and
being comforted by knowing that they were not alone.
Based on the results of the post-survey, over 70% of the participants (N=27) expressed
that the group was a safe place to share their feelings. The group, itself, provided children with a
designated space, in which they could share their feelings. And, at each level, the program was
purposefully structured in such a way to help children to identify their feelings, feel validated for
having these feelings, and then to acquire the tools by which to effectively express them through
a series of games and activities. This perceived benefit aligns with one of CODIP’s five program
objectives, which is to “help children identify and appropriately express feelings” (Pedro-Carroll,
2005, p. 56). The developers designed the curriculum, taking into consideration the
“universality, diversity, and acceptability of all feelings” prior to concentrating on divorce-
related issues (Pedro-Carroll, 2005, p. 57).
The second benefit that participants perceived - acquiring problem-solving skills - relates
to another one of CODIP’s program objectives, which is to enhance children’s active coping
skills. Research shows that children of divorce are at a greater predisposition to develop
internalizing behaviors, like anxiety and depression, as well as avoidant coping mechanisms to


grapple with their parents’ divorce (Gilman, 2005; Lengua et al., 1999). Given the numerous
family transitions that may take place following the divorce, including moving to a new home,
assuming more responsibility, and getting acclimated to a different standard of living, children of
divorce encounter many problems and situations, in which they feel helpless (Amato &
Sobolewski, 2001; Pedro-Carroll, 2005). Therefore, developers incorporated activities such as
the “Red-Light, Green-Light” game and resources like the social problem-solving cartoon into
the program to enhance children’s coping skills and offer them a realistic sense of control over
situations in their life that may otherwise feel overwhelming (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). Participants
in all groups expressed the effectiveness of these components in helping them to feel more
competent in discerning between problems they can and cannot solve, as well as better equipped
to deal with the former set of problems.
The final benefit the program participants identified was that the highly supportive group
environment offered them multiple opportunities to establish shared experiences and thereby,
diminished their feelings of loneliness, isolation, and anxiety. Over the course of nine weeks,
participants met other children, whose parents were divorced and who were facing similar
challenges, which fostered a sense of belonging. Promoting a supportive group environment is
yet another one of CODIP’s program objectives, as the developers believe that children seek
greater comfort in the words of a peer who has similar feelings, as opposed to an adult’s
intellectual and rational affirmations (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). As fifth-grade participant Rachel put
it, after joining CODIP “you don’t feel lonely [anymore].”
Features contributing to positive outcomes. As Grych and Finchman (1992)
established in their study and Pedro-Carroll (2005) reiterated, the majority of studies have
focused on moderator variables, as opposed to mediator variables. Therefore, the link between


implementing CODIP and children’s positive adjustment has been clearly documented; however,
the program components that account for positive outcomes have not (Pedro-Carroll, 2005). My
study addressed this gap in the research and findings revealed that participants highlighted three
program features: positive group dynamics, the experiential nature of the program, and a trusting
relationship with their facilitator, which accounted for the benefits that they experienced.
Two of the program features that children perceived as contributing to the program’s
benefits, positive group dynamics and the experiential nature of the program, are consistent with
the developers’ theory. Just as the developers conjectured, one of the reasons that CODIP
groups are successful is due to the highly supportive group format, in which they unfold.
Participants in my study valued the physical and emotional safety of the group, as well as the
opportunity to confide in peers about their family’s “secret.” Members of the group functioned
as active intervention elements, in offering one another social support, by sharing their parallel
perspectives and experiences. Likewise, the program developers theorized that the cognitive-
behavioral play therapy components of CODIP allow children multiple opportunities by which to
make sense of their experiences and to acquire adaptive coping mechanisms (Pedro-Carroll,
2005). The participants in my study corroborated this theory, in positing that the experiential
aspects of the program, primarily games and role-play, offered them numerous concrete
opportunities by which to develop coping skills, rehearse these skills, and then determine ways to
apply them given real-life experiences (Pedro-Carroll, 2010). In addition, games and role-play
were effective vehicles for normalizing the divorce experience and alleviating some of the
divorce-related stress imposed upon the participants, by integrating an element of fun into the
program. Therefore, according to both the children of divorce involved in my study and the


developers of CODIP, two mediator variables accounting for the program’s positive outcomes
are the supportive group environment and the experiential components.
However, the developers and study participants had incongruous beliefs about the third
mediator variable; while the developers theorized that it was the long-term nature of the
program, the participants perceived it to be the close-knit bond they formed with their
facilitators. During the months and years following their parents’ divorce, children are in dire
need of a trusting and supportive adult relationship (Wallerstein & Lewis, 2004). More often
than not, though, their parents are unavailable as they are preoccupied with their own
psychological distress and issues that they emotionally detach from their role as parents
(Strohschein, 2007; Wallerstein & Lewis, 2004). This explains why many CODIP participants
forged close relationships with their facilitators and depended upon them for advice and
consolation. While the group members valued the long-term nature of the program, they
perceived the supportive relationships that they forged with the facilitators to be such a crucial
component of the program’s success.
The participants in my study helped to distinguish the missing link to explain why CODIP
works. In comparing their perceptions to the theories of program developers, a qualitative
analysis of the data revealed that both groups perceived the supportive group atmosphere and the
experiential components of the program, as factors contributing to the program’s positive
outcomes. However, program developers identified the third program feature to be its long-term
nature, while the participants found it to be the strong and supportive relationships that they
formed with their facilitators.
Participants’ suggestions for improvement. While 25% of the participants were
satisfied with the program and felt that it could not be improved, the majority of participants


offered suggestions for minor adjustments to be made. Their recommendations fell into two
categories: environmental issues and an increased number of hands-on activities.
In terms of the former category, several participants in the 4/5 and 2/3 grade level groups
proposed for the program to take place during lunch only, or after-school, as they valued their
recess time and did not like missing it. Also, participants across all three age groups expressed a
desire to extend the program; they felt that nine sessions was not enough. Finally, participants in
one of the 4/5 grade level groups disliked the “cramped” room, where their meetings took place
and suggested gathering in a bigger space in the future. Clearly, all of this feedback is specific to
Riverdale and Mountainside Elementary Schools; however, serves as a reminder of several
environmental factors to consider, prior to implementing the program.
Another component of the program that participants suggested adjusting was the
composition of the groups. While some participants requested larger groups, consisting of six or
more kids, others justified the benefits of having cross-grade level groups. However, both of
these requests oppose existing research, which validates the effectiveness of groups of no more
than five children, who fall within the same age range (Pedro-Carroll, 2005).
Finally, over 40% of the participants (N=15) felt that the program could be more
effective if non-experiential components (e.g., reading books, watching movies) were shortened
to allow for more opportunities to engage in hands-on activities. Children in all three age groups
valued hands-on activities, like games and role-play. These activities served to infuse fun into
the program, as well as to normalize the divorce experience (Yalom, 1970). While the children
enjoyed the hands-on activities because they were fun, they were extremely effective, as they
allowed them multiple opportunities to acquire and enhance skills, such as expressing their


feelings, building their self-esteem, navigating loyalty conflicts, and distinguishing between
problems they can and cannot solve.
Differences among developmental age groups. Participants’ perceptions of CODIP
were rather consistent across developmental age groups. They distinguished similar program
benefits and attributed these benefits to the same set of program components. However, how
they experienced the program and thereby, arrived at these perceptions was quite different.
While the perceptions of children in the first grade groups were largely grounded in concrete
experiences, children in the 2/3 and 4/5 grade level groups expressed insights that were more
theoretical in nature. For example, all three groups of children valued the security of the CODIP
groups. However, while the younger children associated the safety they felt to the presence of
privacy signs hanging outside rooms and closed doors, older children related it to the abstract
notion that the group was like a vault – everything said in the group would stay in the group. In
addition, students in the first grade group perceived one of the benefits, problem-solving
techniques, as helping them solve problems that they had experienced in the past or were
currently experiencing. On the other hand, children in the 2/3 and 4/5 grade level groups were
able to anticipate problems they may encounter in the future and extrapolate how they could
apply specific problem-solving techniques to solve them. Finally, students in the 4/5 grade level
groups were certainly the most vocal, when it came to offering constructive feedback about the
program. While many participants in the first and 2/3 grade level groups just accepted the
program as it was, participants in the 4/5 grade level groups were the most insightful about ways
the program could be even more effective.


Implications for Practice
Program Developers
One important implication of this study is for CODIP developers to expand the
introduction section of program manuals to include more comprehensive guidelines about the
following: group formation, facilitator recruitment and assignment, as well as suggestions for
handling possible scenarios that may arise.
One of the program components that participants in my study attributed to the benefits of
CODIP was the positive group dynamics. Even though in some cases groups were formed solely
based on the participants’ age, in other cases, factors like maturity and level of insight were
considered. For example, at Mountainside Elementary School, there were 15 students who
signed up for CODIP at the 4/5 grade level. Therefore, the guidance counselor and I determined
that three groups had to be made. We spent a great deal of time contemplating possible groups,
based on what we knew about the students and the depth of their understanding of their situations
as children of divorce and relative abilities to articulate these understandings. I acknowledge
that not all CODIP group coordinators will be privy to this information. However, I suggest that
the program developers create a form for parents to complete, prior to their children being
involved in the program. Another option would be for the parents to meet with the group
coordinator for a brief interview. The objective of the form or interview would be to obtain
information about the participant to most effectively place them in a group with participants with
similar needs and experiences. This would be especially crucial if CODIP is implemented in a
service delivery context, other than a school, as group coordinators may have very little, if any
knowledge about participants.


In addition, program participants valued the close-knit relationships that they established
with their facilitators. Therefore, selecting group facilitators capable of forging such
relationships and supporting children of divorce is integral to the program’s success. To that
end, the introduction section of the group manual should be augmented to include a section about
recruiting and selecting facilitators. While Pedro-Carroll (2005) briefly mentions that group
facilitators should be skilled mental health professionals or if they are not, they should be closely
supervised throughout the course of program implementation, she does not expound upon the
latter point. I would suggest that a section be added to each program manual detailing guidelines
for selecting facilitators that are not mental health professionals. In my study, Tim Barnes and I
discussed the traits that would make someone an effective group facilitator, including the ability
to respond empathically to participants, having strong active listening skills, as well as being able
to manage dual roles (i.e. teacher and group facilitator) (Reed & Koliba, 1995). We utilized an
informal checklist to select individuals, who we felt would be effective group facilitators. The
program developers should consider incorporating a similar checklist or section describing the
guidelines for selecting group facilitators in the introduction section of the CODIP manual. This
is crucial to the success of the program, given that the participants in my study perceived the
supportive relationship that they forged with their group facilitator, as one of the three program
components that contributed to the program’s positive outcomes.
Finally, throughout the course of the program, facilitators encountered many scenarios
that they did not feel prepared to handle. This included participants joining the group several
weeks into the program and/or requesting to leave the group, due to resolved family
circumstances. While the facilitators felt comfortable approaching the Tim Barnes for advice in
handling these situations, after they had occurred, not all facilitators will be as fortunate to have


such an easily accessible and amenable group coordinator. Therefore, I recommend that the
program developers consider revising the introduction of the CODIP manual to include a section,
which describes several scenarios that may arise, as well as advice for how to most effectively
handle them.
A second implication for CODIP developers is based on the participants’ suggestions for
improving the program. Across all three developmental age groups, participants exhibited an
overt sentiment for more hands-on activities. Just as each CODIP begins with a model and
culminates with a review of the session, perhaps the developers can review lessons to ensure that
a hands-on activity is incorporated into each session, subsequent to the model. For example, the
developers can modify sessions that solely involve reading a book and discussing it to
incorporate a hands-on activity by having participants “stop and sketch” or use play-dough to
sculpt their emotional responses to a book. Such subtle modifications would serve to increase
children’s level of engagement (Stolberg & Mahler, 1994) in actively listening to a book and
taking part in a related discussion. In addition, techniques like role-play could be incorporated
into a greater number of sessions to respond to the participants’ requests for more hands-on
activities. Thus, by making subtle changes to the program and integrating a hands-on component
into the structure of each lesson would allow children to know what to expect, by creating
lessons that reflect a similar format, and increase their level of engagement.
School Counselors
There are several implications for school counselors to consider, prior to implementing
CODIP in the context of a school. First, the timing of implementation is crucial to the program’s
success. School counselors should take a look at the school calendar and consider a timeframe
during which there will be the fewest possible interruptions, due to holiday recesses and other


school activities (e.g., clubs, teacher meetings, etc.). In addition, they must reflect on whether it
is possible to carry out the program during recess and lunch and if not, if there is a space
available, in which to have the program after school. Based on the results of my study, it
appeared as though the children in the 4/5 grade level groups valued their recess time and
preferred that the group meet at an alternate time. Therefore, I would suggest that guidance
counselors determine all possible times for implementing the group and then, offer the children
in each group a choice of when they would prefer that it be implemented. For example, if there
is a space and a facilitator available to conduct a 4/5 grade level group during lunch, recess, or
after school, perhaps offer the children in this group all three options. Given that the success of
the program will be directly correlated to the participants’ willingness to be there, it is crucial
that guidance counselors select a preferable time of day, during which to implement the program.
Finally, the counselors should consider meeting with the participants before the program
takes place to inform them of what to expect and to assuage any of their fears. This would also
offer participants an opportunity to meet as a large group with other children of divorce in
different grade levels, taking into account their request for cross-grade-level groups.
Additionally, meeting with the children after the program ends is key to address the feelings of
loss that they may face, due to termination of the program, as well as to ensure that they receive
any ongoing support that they may need.
While the aforementioned list is by no means comprehensive, it enlightens guidance
counselors to several aspects of program implementation that they should consider, before
carrying out CODIP in their school district.


Limitations
There are several limitations of the current study, including: small sample, modifications
made to CODIP, prior relationships with facilitators, and changing group dynamics. First of all,
given that my sample was relatively small, consisting of only 38 students, the generalizability of
the results of the study to a broader population is limited. Furthermore, the use of students in
grades 1-5 only provided a snapshot of the experiences of children in grades K-8, for whom the
CODIP program is intended. Another limitation of the study is that modifications were made to
the CODIP curricula at all age groups, in order to ensure that all groups began and ended during
the same weeks. While we made the modifications under the guidance of the Director of
Programs and Services from the Children’s Institute, the fact that certain program components
were condensed and/or eliminated from implementation of the program impacts the findings of
the study. In addition, given that the program was delivered in the context of a school, many of
the participants already had established relationships with their facilitator. Therefore, while the
students in my study identified the supportive relationship they forged with their facilitator as a
mediator variable contributing to the program’s positive outcomes, this finding may not be
generalizable to all service delivery contexts. A final limitation is that the dynamics of two
groups changed throughout the course of the nine weeks, as students either joined or left the
group. While I excluded these students when analyzing the data, their late entrance into the
group and/or leaving the group in the middle of implementation had an effect on the other group
participants. I have acknowledged the impact that the aforementioned limitations have on my
findings and took them into consideration when interpreting my findings.


Conclusion
As this was a qualitative study of the perceptions of children of divorce of CODIP at my
school, the findings of my study are limited to this context. However, by describing what
unfolded over the course of the nine weeks of CODIP and specifically, in analyzing the
participants’ perceptions, this study enabled me to consider why the program is so effective.
Given that the study took place on a small scale, it scratched the surface of active mediating
elements of CODIP that account for its success, which can be explored in greater depth and on
larger scales in future studies. Moreover, this study documented the consistency of participants’
perspectives and experiences across three developmental age groups. Finally, based on
participants’ perceptions, this study provides the program developers with suggestions for ways
to improve CODIP’s effectiveness, by revising the program manual and incorporating more
hands-on activities into the program. The findings of this study contribute to the limited
literature available on why the intervention is successful, by addressing the developers’ theory in
light of the perceptions of program participants.


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Appendix A
Children of Divorce Intervention Program
for Children of Separation and/or Divorce
Registration is now open for the new Children of Divorce Intervention Program
(CODIP) support group for students who are dealing with family changes involving
separation and/or divorce. This peer support group will offer students a safe,
comfortable setting to share their feelings with other students who may be able to relate
to the way they may be feeling. It will also offer the students the emotional support they
need to be able to have their best school experience possible. A combination of games,
activities and literature will be used to encourage dialogue to guide the students through
their specific changes. All groups will be facilitated by either a teacher, who has received
CODIP training or me. Any students in grades 1 - 5 who may benefit from the program
are welcome to join us!
The groups will meet in appropriate grade levels once a week for 9 weeks during
recess/lunch periods beginning in mid-October. In contrast to the former Rainbows group,
this program will be offered during recess at both Mountainside and Riverdale Schools so
that transportation will no longer be an issue and conflict with all after school programs
will be avoided. However, since it will run during recess time it may not be appropriate for
all students. Therefore, it is important that no child be forced to come to this group so
that it remains a positive experience for all members.
In addition, please know that all sharing remains confidential with the exception of
when there is concern regarding the safety of a participant, as per the “duty to report”
state mandate. If you are interested in having your child participate in CODIP, please
complete the form below and return it in an envelope addressed to my attention. If you
have questions about the program, feel free to call me or contact me to set up a
conference. Please see the attached flier for more information about CODIP.
Tim Barnes, School Counselor


Student(s) ________________________________________________
Grade ______ Teacher_______________________________________
Parent name________________________________________________
Phone ________________________ Email _______________________
Parent signature ____________________________________________


CODIP is an evidence-based prevention program designed to address the specific needs of

children of divorce, by helping them to develop effective coping skills. Since the program’s
inception in 1982, CODIP has supported thousands of children worldwide in countries such as
the United States, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia.
Program Goals:
• Increase children’s ability to identify and appropriately express their divorce-related
feelings
• Increase children’s acceptance and understanding of divorce-related concepts
• Reduce children’s anxiety and worry about their family circumstances
• Build confidence by teaching skills to help children cope with a variety of challenges
Benefits:
• Reduced desire of children to blame themselves or someone else for the
divorce/separation
• Increased coping skills and ability to solve personal problems and let go of problems that
are beyond their control
• Enhanced positive perceptions of themselves and their families
• The positive, supportive group environment of peers in the school setting allows children
to share their experiences and learn from one another
For more information about CODIP, please visit:

https://www.childrensinstitute.net/programs/codip.


Appendix B
October 8, 2015
Dear Parents,
We are looking forward to having your child(ren) be a part of the

Children of Divorce Intervention Program (CODIP) this year. Their
participation will help me with my dissertation, as I am exploring kids’
perceptions of the program. Signing the attached two forms will just
allow me to include them in my research. Please note that no names or
any identifying information will be included. Furthermore, the
“Audio/Visual Addendum to Consent Form” just allows me to audiotape
them during a final session, in which they will answer some questions
regarding their thoughts of the program.
If you have any questions, I am happy to answer them. I

appreciate your cooperation. Please return all forms by next
Wednesday, October 15th.
Sincerely,
Lauren Senko
Third Grade Teacher
Mountainside School


INFORMED CONSENT FORM
(This consent form is for Confidential Data Collection. This form is provided to the investigator as a guide. Instructions and
sample language are noted in boldfaced italics within the brackets [ ]. Sample language should be removed).
You are invited to participate in a research study that is being conducted by Miss Lauren Senko who is a student in
the Graduate School of Education at Rutgers University. The purpose of this research is to determine participants’
perceptions of the Children of Divorce Intervention Program and explore how (if at all) they vary across
developmental age groups.
Approximately 30 subjects will participate in the study, and each individual's participation will last approximately
one hour a week for a period of eight weeks.
The study procedures include: attending group meetings; when they feel comfortable, sharing their experiences
about divorce with their peers; playing games; writing; drawing; and participating in two focus groups. Focus
groups will be audiotaped and will take place after the third session and after the eighth session.
This research is confidential. Confidential means that the research records will include some information about
you/your child and this information will be stored in such a manner that some linkage between your/your child’s
identity and the response in the research exists. Some of the information collected about you/your child includes
their feelings related to divorce. Please note that we will keep this information confidential by limiting individual's
access to the research data and keeping it in a secure location. All data will be kept in a locked drawer in my
classroom or on a password-‐protected folder on my personal computer to which no one else has access. Any data
uploaded online will be to a heavily secure online data analysis system, known as Dedoose.
The research team and the Institutional Review Board at Rutgers University are the only parties that will be
allowed to see the data, except as may be required by law. If a report of this study is published, or the results are
presented at a professional conference, only group results will be stated. All study data will be kept for three years
and destroyed thereafter.
There are no foreseeable risks associated with this study other than potential emotional discomfort. This risk will
be minimized by maintaining an environment where discussions regarding the children’s struggles in coping with
their parents’ divorce are validated and supported through empathy and compassion. Should a child encounter
any emotional discomfort, facilitators and/or the guidance counselor will offer emotional support and if necessary,
contact the child’s parent/guardian regarding the issue.
You have been told that the benefits of taking part in this study may be: connecting students with other students
going through divorce, provide students with a safe environment in which to discuss their parents’ divorce,
offering them coping mechanisms through program activities to effectively deal with their parents’ divorce, etc.
However, you may receive no direct benefit from taking part in this study.
Participation in this study is voluntary. You may choose not to participate, and you may withdraw at any time
during the study procedures without any penalty to you. In addition, you may choose not to answer any questions
with which you are not comfortable.


If you have any questions about the study or study procedures, you may contact myself at:
Lauren Senko
3 Jeffrie Trail
Whippany, NJ 07981
Phone: 201-‐317-‐7470
Email: [email protected]

You may also contact my dissertation chair at:
Dr. Saundra Tomlinson-‐Clarke
Rutgers University
10 Seminary Place
New Brunswick, NJ 08901

If you have any questions about your rights as a research subject, please contact an IRB Administrator at the
Rutgers University, Arts and Sciences IRB:

Institutional Review Board
Rutgers University, the State University of New Jersey
Liberty Plaza / Suite 3200
rd
335 George Street, 3 Floor
New Brunswick, NJ 08901
Phone: 732-‐235-‐9806

You will be given a copy of this consent form for your records.

Sign below if you agree to participate in this research study:

Subject (Print) ________________________________________

Subject Signature ____________________________ Date ______________________

Principal Investigator Signature _____________________ Date __________________


Audio/Visual Addendum to Consent Form
You have already agreed to participate in a research study entitled: Dealing with Divorce: Exploring Children’s
Perceptions of the Children of Divorce Intervention Program conducted by Miss Lauren Senko. We are asking for
your permission to allow us audiotape as part of that research study. You do not have to agree to be recorded in
order to participate in the main part of the study.
The audio recordings will be used to ensure that I fully understand what the students say during the focus groups
in addition to ensuring accuracy.

The audio recordings will include information shared during focus groups. They will include students’ pseudonyms,
as identifiers.

The recordings will be stored in a password-‐protected folder on my personal computer to which no one else has
access and linked with a code to subjects’ identity. They will be stored for three years and then destroyed
thereafter.

Your signature on this form grants the investigator named above permission to record you as described above
during participation in the above-‐referenced study. The investigator will not use the recording(s) for any other
reason than that/those stated in the consent form without your written permission.

Subject (Print) ________________________________________

Subject Signature ____________________________ Date ______________________

Principal Investigator Signature _____________________ Date __________________


Appendix C
Grade Level 1
Greenboro Public Schools
CODIP
Procedure Materials
Session(s)
-Introductions – distribute name tags, ice breaker
(“Getting to Know You” game) -Name tags
-Introduce puppet -Puppet
Session 1 1 -Describe group purpose & structure -“You-nique” posters
-Make “You-nique” mini-posters -Crayons, markers
-Review questions about group purpose, etc.
-Introduce topic of feelings and share feelings -Feelings poster
poster -Mini feelings posters
-Discuss three ways to identify feelings -Puppet
Session 2 2&3 -Read & discuss The Way I Feel -The Way I Feel
-Create a “Feeling Telegram” -“My Feeling Telegram”
-Review questions about feelings -Crayons, markers, etc.
-Feelings poster
-Review feelings concepts -Mini feelings posters
-Introduce concept of families -Puppet
-Children draw a picture of their families -Blank white paper
Session 3 4&5 -Introduce concept of divorce -Crayons, markers,
-Read & discuss Let’s Talk About It: Divorce pencils
-Review questions about family and divorce -Let’s Talk About It:
Divorce
-Review how divorce is a grown-up problem
-Dinosaurs Divorce
-Read & discuss Dinosaurs Divorce
-Scenarios for “asking”
-Introduce the coping skill of “asking”
Session 4 6 -Play “Ask a Dinosaur” game
-Puppet
-Dinosaurs on popsicle
-Review questions about how to use “asking” as
sticks
a coping skill
-Review the coping skill of “asking”
-Introduce the concepts of “problem” and
-Problem-Solving cartoons
“solution”
-Posters of children with
-Explain the three steps of the Problem-Solving
problems (divorce-related
Session 5 7 cartoon & model how to use it
and non-divorce-related)
-Play the “What Can I Do” game
-Puppet
-Review questions about divorce-related
-Parent letter
problems and possible solutions and send home
parent letter
-Review the Problem-Solving Cartoon -Problem-Solving cartoons
-Play the “What Can I Do If…” game (use -Grab bag with cards of
Session 6 8 children’s personal problems, if applicable) possible scenarios
-Review questions about divorce-related -Puppet
problems and possible solutions
-Review Problem-Solving Cartoon and examples
of how children have applied it to their own lives -Problem-Solving cartoons
-Distinguish between problems that can and -Puppet
cannot be solved -Red and green circles
Session 7 9 -Facilitator performs a puppet play modeling an -Scenarios written on
unsolvable problem sentence strips of
-Play “Red-Light Green-Light” game solvable/unsolvable
-Review questions about solvable/unsolvable problems
problems
-Problem-Solving Show and Tell
-Calendar
-Discuss how group will end
-“Daring Dinosaurs” game
Session 8 10 -Play “Daring Dinosaurs” game
board and pouch with
-Closing remarks – remind students about how
pieces & cards
many sessions are left, etc.


-Create an “I Am Special” book -Puppet
-Explore feelings about group ending -“I Am Special” books
Session 9 11 & 12 -Complete post-survey (feedback about group) -Markers, crayons, etc.
-Conduct focus group -Post-survey
-Distribute certificate of participation -Certificates
-Optional: Have a party.


Grade Levels 2 & 3

CODIP
Procedure Materials
Session(s)
-Name tags
-Introductions – distribute name tags, ice breaker
-Feelings poster
(Name Game)
Session 1 1&2 -Feelings – introduce topic of feelings
-Mini feelings posters
-Grab bag with feelings
-Play “Feelings Grab Bag” game
cards
-Briefly review feelings/feeling concepts
-Feelings poster
-Set up families using dolls
Session 2 3&4 -Introduce concept of divorce
-Play dolls
-Dinosaurs Divorce
-Read Dinosaurs Divorce
-Copies of Social Problem
-Distinguish between problems/solutions
Solving cartoon
-Introduce Social Problem Solving cartoon
Session 3 5&6 -Discuss alternative solutions, given a problem
-Puppets
-Cards with X’s and O’s
-Play Tic-Tac-Toe
-Tic-Tac-Toe board
-Puppets
-Copies of Social Problem
-Discuss solutions for divorce-related problems,
Solving cartoon
Session 4 7&8 using Social Problem Solving cartoon
-Grab bag with divorce-
-Play “Red-Light Green-Light” game
related problem situations
-Red & green circles
-Share solutions for divorce-related problems
Session 5 9 -Play “Daring Dinosaurs” game
pieces & cards
-Read and discuss Two Homes to Live In
-Two Homes to Live In
Session 6 10 & 11 -Facilitator performs play, using puppets about a
-Puppets
parent-child issue (see examples)
-Review play performed by facilitator
-Puppets
-Children work in groups to perform their own
-Calendar
plays
Session 7 11 & 12 -Discuss how many meetings are left
-Play “Daring Dinosaurs” game, emphasizing
pieces & cards
parent-related issues
-Blank “I Am Special”
-Children complete “I Am Special” books books
Session 8 13 -Discuss potential group termination issues -Crayons, markers, and
scissors
-Play “You’re a Special Person” game
-White paper
-Complete post-survey (feedback about group)
-Markers
Session 9 14 & 15 -Conduct focus group
-Post-survey
-Hand out certificate of participation
-Certificates


Grade Levels 4 & 5

CODIP
Procedure Materials
Session(s)
-Introductions – “Get-acquainted” exercise -Name tags
-Discuss feelings about group -Feelings poster
-Reinforce purpose of group and discuss -Mini feelings posters
Session 1 1 confidentiality -Cards for “Feelings Grab
-Discuss feelings & play “Feelings Grab Bag” Bag” game
game -Copies of “Challenges
-Complete Challenges Checklist Checklist”
-Review purpose of group, feelings, and any other
pertinent discussions from Session 1
-Feelings poster
-Show Tender Places
Session 2 2 -Discuss how divorce is a difficult time for
-Tender Places DVD
-Equipment to show DVD
everyone
-Share common experiences
-Review discussion from session 2 and viewing of
-Index cards with possible
Tender Places
perspectives
-Partner up kids and give each partnership a
- What In the World Do
“perspective” to use, as they’re listening to a book
You Do When Your
read aloud
Session 3 3 -Read aloud What In the World Do You Do When
Parents Divorce? A
Survival Guide for Kids
Your Parents Divorce? A Survival Guide for Kids
-Example of newsletter
-Discuss what they gleaned from book, using the
created by kids from
perspective they were assigned
CODIP group
-Introduce group newsletter
-Follow up on newsletter to probe student interest
-Introduce Social Problem-Solving steps
-Model how to use SPS steps with divorce-related -Copies of Social
problem Problem-Solving steps
-Children write descriptions of divorce-related cartoon
Session 4 4&5 problems they have faced -Divorce-related problems
-Identify solutions, using SPS steps and then role- written on cards
play -Blank index cards
-Describe homework: Use SPS steps to solve a -Markers
problem over the next week and be prepared to
share
-Share results of efforts to solve personal
problems, using SPS steps
-As a group, discuss the difference between
-Copies of Social
problems that can/cannot be solved
Problem-Solving steps
-Children practice distinguishing between
cartoon
Session 5 6 solvable/unsolvable problems
-Cards with
-Facilitator introduces coping skill of disengaging
solvable/unsolvable
from unsolvable problems and models with an
problems
example
-Role-play, using examples of solvable/unsolvable
problems
-Chairs for panel
-Props for panel (e.g.,
-Review how to distinguish between solvable and microphone, name cards,
Session 6 7 unsolvable problems etc.)
-Panel of experts -Possible questions for
panel, written on index
cards
-Discuss the feeling of anger -How to Take the Grrr Out
-Optional: Read aloud excerpts from How to Take of Anger
Session 7 8&9 the Grrr Out of Anger -Anger-provoking
-Introduce anger-provoking scenarios and how to scenarios, written on
deal with them, using “I” statements index cards


-Kids are given several anger-provoking scenarios -Erasable sentence strips
and using role-play, they practice using “I” for “I” statements
statements -EXPO markers
-Discussion about the feeling of “being caught in -Calendar
the middle”
-Discuss how families are different -What Am I Doing in a
-Read aloud & discuss What Am I Doing in a Step Step Family?
Family? -Questions for panel
-Panel of experts related to families written on index cards
Session 8 10 -Ask students if there are any other special issues -Paper to record any
or divorce-related concerns that they would like to special issues or divorce-
discuss that they have not thus far related concerns
-Remind them that one session remains
-Review coping skills for solving problems and
managing their anger
-Discuss how some changes are good and having
a positive perspective on family changes -Chart paper
-Play “You’re a Special Person” game -Markers
Session 9 11 & 12 -Explore feelings about group ending -Post-survey
-Complete post-survey (feedback about group) -Certificates
-Conduct focus group
-Distribute certificate of participation


Appendix D
Summary Sheet
Session # _____
Facilitator Name: ________________________
Grade Level(s): ____________________________
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I made changes to the schedule when conducting this session. (Please circle one.)
Yes No
If Yes, I made the following changes:
• ________________________________________________________________
• ________________________________________________________________
• ________________________________________________________________
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
What worked: What did not work:
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
Additional comments/feedback:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________


Appendix E
ASSENT FOR PARTICIPATION IN RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
Investigator: Ms. Lauren Senko
Rutgers University
Study Title: Dealing with Divorce
This assent form may contain words that you do not understand. Please ask the researcher or
your parent or teacher to explain any words or information that you do not clearly understand
before signing this document.
1. Ms. Senko is inviting you to take part in her research study. Why is this study being done?
I want to understand what kids think about the Children of Divorce Intervention Program. In
particular, I want to know the parts of the program that you feel are helpful and work well and
the parts that you feel could be changed in some way. About 30 kids in Mountainside and
Riverdale Elementary Schools will be involved in this study.
2. What will happen:
You will come to weekly group meetings where we will play games, read books, and engage in
activities that will help you talk about your parents’ divorce. You are welcome to talk about your
experiences being a part of a divorced family at any time, knowing that what you say will only
remain in the group; however, you will never be forced to share and you are always welcome to
just be a good listener, too. In addition, you will complete a survey (answer some questions) at
the beginning of the program and the end of the program, asking you your thoughts about
CODIP. Furthermore, you may participate in focus groups, in which a group of students will be
asked about their thoughts regarding the program. With your permission indicated below
(included in parent consent form sent home with child), I will make an audiotape of each session.
3. What does it cost and how much does it pay?
You don’t pay to take part in this study and you do not get paid for participating.
4. There are very few risks in taking part in this research, but the following things could
happen:
Probably: Nothing bad will happen.

Maybe: Your responses could be seen by somebody not involved in this study. I will do my
absolute best to keep all your responses private. Your responses will be kept locked up. Your
name will not appear on anything; I will use a pseudonym (fake name) instead. I will make sure
that the information you share with me or the group leaders is well-protected. The only way that
information will be shared is if I learn that you or someone else is in serious danger – I would
then have to tell an appropriate family member, such as your mother, father, or caretaker or the
appropriate officials to protect you and other people.
Very unusual: You could be upset or embarrassed by a few of the questions. If this should
occur, remember that you don’t have to answer any questions you don’t want to and either you or
a member of the research team may choose to stop the project.


5. Are there any benefits that you or others will get out of being in this study?
All research must have some potential benefit either directly to those that take part in it or
potentially to others through the knowledge gained. Some of the direct benefits include being
able to connect with other children of divorce and share your experiences. Through the program,
you may be able to develop some coping mechanisms (ways to deal with the divorce) that may
help you in the future.
It’s completely up to you! Both you and your parents have to agree to allow you to take part in
this study. If you choose to not take part in this study, we will honor that choice.
No one will get angry or upset with you if you don’t want to do this. If you agree to take part in it
and then you change your mind later, that’s OK too. It’s always your choice!
6. CONFIDENTIALITY: We will do everything I can to protect the confidentiality of your
records. If we write professional articles about this research, they will never say your name or
anything that could give away who you are. We will do a good job at keeping all our records
secret by following the rules made for researchers.
7. Do you have any questions? If you have any questions or worries regarding this study, or if
any problems come up, you may call the principal investigator Ms. Lauren Senko at:
Phone: 201-317-7470
3 Jeffrie Trail
Whippany, NJ 07981
e-mail: [email protected]
You may also ask questions or talk about any worries to the Institutional Review Board (a
committee that reviews research studies in order to protect those who participate). Please contact
the IRB Administrator at Rutgers University at:
Rutgers University, the State University of New Jersey
Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects
Office of Research and Sponsored Programs
3 Rutgers Plaza
New Brunswick, NJ 08901-8559
Tel: 848-932-0150
Your parent or guardian will also be asked if they wish for you to participate in this study. You
will be given a copy of this form for your records.


Please sign below if you assent (that means you agree) to participate in this study.
____________________________________________________________
Signature Date
Name (Please print): __________________________________________
Investigator’s Signature: _______________________Date: _______________


Appendix F


Appendix G
Parent Correspondence
The following will be sent via email to all parents of participants after the final CODIP session
has taken place:
Dear Parent:
I am very interested in your impressions of what the program has meant to your child. Given
that your thoughts and feelings about the program can be very helpful in shaping future services
for children, I would appreciate any comments that you have on the following question:
In what ways have your child’s feelings and behavior changed, if at all, since the program
started?
If you would like to discuss this in greater detail, I am happy to set up a phone call or in-person
meeting, as well.
Thank you in advance for your feedback.
Sincerely,
Lauren Senko


Appendix H

Focus Group Guide
General Perceptions of Program – Questions will be of the following nature. Please note:
Pictures may be included to provide students with concrete visuals to more effectively describe
their thoughts and understandings.
• Imagine that I asked you to meet with students who are going to be involved in the
program next year. What would you tell them about it?
o What would they expect the program to be like?
o How might they expect it will change their ability to deal with their parents’
divorce?
• On a scale from 1-5 (1 being the least and 5 being the most), how helpful have our
meetings been in making it easier for you to deal with your parents’ divorce?
o Why do you feel this way?
• What are ways that the program has helped you?
o Expressing your feelings? Telling the difference between problems you can solve
and those that you cannot?
• What was the most difficult thing for you to deal with regarding your parents’ divorce
when you started the program?
o Did the program help you deal with it better? If so, how?
• How do you feel the program change you, if at all?
Resiliency Skills – Questions will be of the following nature. Please note: Pictures may be
included to provide students with concrete visuals to more effectively describe their thoughts and
understandings.
• What types of coping skills did the program help you to develop, which makes it easier to
deal with your parents’ divorce?
• Being resilient means you are able to bounce back from something. So, if your parents
make you feel like you’re in the middle of their argument, resiliency allows you to deal
the feelings that you have and then, move on from the situation. On a scale from 1 to 6
(with 1 being the least resilient and 5 being the most resilient), how resilient would you
describe yourself as being?
• When you think about your family as it is now, please tell me the words or thoughts that
come to mind.
o Is hopeful one of those words? Why or why not?
Improving the Program – Questions will be of the following nature. Please note: Pictures may
be included to provide students with concrete visuals to more effectively describe their thoughts
and understandings.
• Do you feel that the program could be better? If so, how?
• What would you take out of the program?
o Why would you take it out?
• What would you add to the program?
o What do you feel is missing?


Appendix I


Appendix J

Individual Factors Family Factors Extrafamilial Factors
Being protected from Caring relationships with
Active coping style
interparental conflict positive adult role models
Strong support network:
Psychological well-being of
Accurate attributions school, family, and
parents
community
Preventive interventions that
Solid, supportive relationships
Having hope for the future provide children with support
between parent and child
and coping skills
Realistic appraisal of what
Economic stability
can/cannot be controlled
Parental discipline; maintenance
Effective coping skills of household structure and
routines
(Pedro-Carroll, 2005)

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Running Head: CHILDREN’S PERCEPTIONS OF CODIP

WHAT DO THE CHILDREN HAVE TO SAY?:

A dissertation submitted to the

Graduate School of Education

Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey

in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

Graduate Program in Education, Culture, & Society

written under the direction of

New Brunswick, New Jersey

All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS

All rights reserved.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

the program’s success.

encouragement throughout this journey.

time to support many children of divorce.

glimpse into their perceptions.

I am so grateful to my boyfriend, Dave, who has been so understanding and encouraging,

Analyzing the Data………………………………………………………………30

Researcher Role and Trustworthiness……………………………………………31

I’m Not Alone…………………………………………………………....44

Program Components Contributing to Positive Outcomes……………………....47

Positive Group Dynamics…………..……………………………………47

Relationship with Facilitator……………………………………………..52

Experiential Nature of Program………………………………………….57

Participants’ Constructive Feedback and Suggestions for Change………………66

More Hands-on Activities………………………………………………..70

Conceptual Framework: Revisited……………………………………………….72

Perceived program benefits………………………………………………74

Features contributing to positive outcomes…………………………...…75

Participants’ suggestions for improvement……………………………...77

Differences among developmental age groups………………………….79

Implications for Practice………………………………………………………………....80

Table 1. Risk and Protective Factors…………………………………………………………….12

Table 2. Facilitators and Participants involved in CODIP Groups………………………………22

Table 3. Data Collection Timeline……………………………………………………………….25

Table 4. Description of CODIP Groups Observed on a Weekly Basis………………………….26

Table 5. Use of Data for Research Questions……………………………………………………29

Appendix A. Recruitment Flyer for CODIP……………………………………………………...93

Appendix B. Facilitators and Participants involved in CODIP Groups………………………….96

Appendix C. Modified CODIP Schedules………………………………………………………100

Appendix D. Summary Sheets for Facilitators……………………………..…………………...105

Appendix E. Assent for Participation in Research Activities Form...…………………………..106

Appendix F. Comments about the Group Form...………………………..……………………..109

Appendix G. Parent Correspondence Email...………………………………………………..…110

Appendix H. Focus Group Guide…………...………………………………………………..…111

Appendix I. CODIP Participant Agreement...………………………………………………..…112

Appendix J. Protective Factors……………...………………………………………………..…113

Carroll, 2005). It is a process, marked by instability, which consists of numerous family

Wolchik, & Curran, 1999).

psychosocial well-being, decreased cognitive functioning, and social difficulties. The

psychosocial well-being of children of divorce is negatively correlated to the number of family

well as externalizing behaviors, such as impulsivity and aggressiveness (Potter, 2010). In

addition, children of divorce experience decreased cognitive functioning, as evidenced by a study

In response to a number of empirical studies that have documented a causal relationship

experience as a result of the program (Pedro-Carroll, 2005).

that contribute to its positive outcomes (Oliphant et al., 2002).

of Divorce Intervention Program by addressing the following research questions:

• How do students describe their experiences in CODIP?