DEVELOPING UNDERSTANDING IN EFFECTIVE COMMUNITY POLICING:

A SINGLE CASE STUDY

by

Travis Richardson

Copyright 2019

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Organizational Management & Leadership

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 ABSTRACT

Explored in the qualitative single case study were the perspectives of police officers and

trainers on the effectiveness or noneffectiveness of community police training. The

methodology utilized in this study was a qualitative single case study. Officers provided

perceptions on the applicability of the principles and concepts on which they were trained,

and trainers gave insight into principles and concepts they believed were important in the

training of recruits. Officers and trainers’ interviews uncovered four major themes: (a)

initiating friendly, culturally competent interactions is an effective community police

training principle, (b) reasonable transparency is an effective community police training

principle, (c) application of community police training increases trust and cooperation, and

(d) application of community police training has limited effectiveness. Themes were

developed through analysis of interview data through queries, word frequency, and

continually reading and reassessing the transcriptions. This study’s results were utilized to

draw the conclusion that the police officers believed that it was important to have a

knowledge from training of the culture and economics of the community and to actively

interact with the community. The analysis of the data also pointed to officers believing

that practical training and transparency within the limits of officer safety were effective in

community policing. Additionally, most police trainers believed the application of

community police training principles increased trust and cooperation when applied.

Finally, the idea that the application of community police training has limited

effectiveness without positive interaction and feedback from the community was noted.

iii
 DEDICATION

This study is dedicated to my Grandfather, William Edward “Bill” Richardson for

always giving my sister and I a home and making education so very important. I will

never forget the lessons.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to start off by thanking my family. My wife and son have been

through this journey all the way and never wavered in their support. Many family

functions and vacations were postponed in the pursuit of this dream that we can all share

in going forward. I love you both dearly. To my sister, who believed that I did not spend

enough time out in the world, it was your voice that I heard when I worked long nights. It

was a great help even though it may not seem like it. To my brother, John Hernandez,

your support and voice carried me through this, and I love you more than I can explain. I

would like to thank some very close friends, Bubba and Sissy Bethea. Your support means

the world to me. I am a better person every day for having you in my life. I want to thank

John Burke for being a boss that understood the importance of the journey and never put

the job before the person.

I want to thank the men and women of law enforcement for their contribution to

this project. Your insight into the experiences of the daily interactions with people and

your perspectives makes this possible. I want to thank the Chiefs of Police for the La Porte

Police Department, Galveston Police Department, League City Police Department, and the

Texas City Police department for their support in this research.

I would like to thank my coach and mentor Steve Tippins. Your insight and

understanding have been the light when things were dark. Your voice and explanations

have opened my mind and allowed me to think when I could not find the way. You are

greatly appreciated and a wonderful mentor.

v
 I would like to thank each member of my committee. It is a commitment to serve

and help an aspiring doctoral candidate move through the process. Your time and patience

are greatly appreciated.

Last and most of all, I would like to thank my chair, Dr. Ramon Moran. I have said

and still feel that it was God that led me through the sea of names and faces to the one

person that could make this journey a reality. You have always been a phone call away

and made time to help me. You are the person that got me through QRM when I was very

frustrated. Your patience and kindness are a testament to your character and commitment

to education.

vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents ............................................................................................................................... Page

List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ x

Chapter 1: Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1

Background of the Problem ............................................................................................ 2

Problem Statement .......................................................................................................... 5

Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................................... 7

Population and Sample ................................................................................................... 7

Significance of the Study ................................................................................................ 9

Nature of the Study ......................................................................................................... 9

Research Question ........................................................................................................ 12

Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................. 12

Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................. 14

Definitions of Key Terms ............................................................................................. 16

Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations............................................................... 17

Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 18

Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................. 20

Title Searches and Documentation ............................................................................... 20

Historical Research in Community Policing................................................................. 21

Current Community Policing and Crime Prevention .................................................... 45

Theoretical Framework Literature ................................................................................ 50

Qualitative Method Literature Review ......................................................................... 55

Research Design Literature ........................................................................................... 56

Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 58

Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 58

vii
Chapter 3: Research Methodology...................................................................................... 60

Research Method and Design Appropriateness ............................................................ 60

Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 62

Population and Sample ................................................................................................. 63

Informed Consent and Confidentiality.......................................................................... 66

Instrumentation ............................................................................................................. 67

Field Testing ................................................................................................................. 67

Issues of Trustworthiness .............................................................................................. 68

Data Collection ............................................................................................................. 70

Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 71

Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 72

Chapter 4: Analysis and Results ......................................................................................... 74

Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 74

Data Collection ............................................................................................................. 74

Demographics ............................................................................................................... 76

Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 77

Results ........................................................................................................................... 80

Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 92

Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................................. 94

Discussion of Findings.................................................................................................. 96

Limitations .................................................................................................................. 105

Recommendations for Leaders and Practitioners ....................................................... 105

Chapter Summary ....................................................................................................... 111

References ......................................................................................................................... 114

Appendix A: Informed Consent ........................................................................................ 130

viii
Appendix B: Invitation Letter ........................................................................................... 131

Appendix C: Permissions Letter ....................................................................................... 132

Appendix D: Interview Guides ......................................................................................... 133

Appendix D: Interview Question Alignment Matrix ..................................................... 1334

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Literature Review Table ....................................................................................... 21

Table 2. Participant Demographics ..................................................................................... 77

Table 3. Data Analysis Themes and Codes ........................................................................ 79

Table 4. Breakdown of Themes and their Corresponding Literature ................................. 96

x
 Chapter 1

Introduction

The awareness of racial bias and police violence has been increasingly heightened

by media coverage, viral videos, and protest; as a result, tensions between officers and

minority civilians have also increased (Adegbile, 2017; Epp, Maynard-Moody, & Haider-

Markel, 2017). Many researchers have suggested community policing (CP) to alleviate

these tensions and reduce crime, while increasing safety for both police officers and

community members (Adegbile, 2017; Barthelemy, Church, Changey, & Maccio, 2016;

Epp et al., 2017; Kahn, McMahon, & Stewart, 2018; Kimbrough, 2016; Merkey, 2015;

Sereni-Massinger & Wood, 2016; Stampler, 2016; Williams, Brower, & Klay, 2016).

While community policing has been adopted by numerous departments and agencies

across the United States, a gap remains between community policing training and its

effectiveness or noneffectiveness (Kearns, 2017; Przeszlowski & Crichlow, 2018). The

information from this study sought to bridge this gap by examining the perceptions of

police officers and departmental trainers on community police training and its

implementation within communities and its effectiveness versus noneffectiveness. The

analysis of the data may have implications for effective community policing practices

that can be tested among other samples with the goal of improving police practice and

police officer-minority civilian relations more broadly. In the initial chapter, this study is

introduced by discussing relevant background information, the general and specific

problems addressed, the theoretical and conceptual frameworks in use, the nature of the

study, and its significance in the field.

1
Background of the Problem

Law enforcement is one of the oldest professions in the modern world. Rawlings

(1991) stated that there were important developments in policing in the late 20th and

early 21st century, many resulting from an emphasis on ‘value for money’ in social

services. The profession has always been charged with the service and protection of the

citizens within their jurisdiction. Like other professions that serve the communities, law

enforcement has been able to keep up with the technology changes throughout the world;

however, the social aspect of the profession did not evolve as quickly. Officers are better

equipped for internal communication and self-defense with the introduction of modern

technologies. The challenges begin when the training to deal with the changes in the

culture of the communities is not keeping up with the influx of the diversity of the

citizens. Stephens (2005) stated that most police futurists agree that more education and

refocused training will be necessary to deal with emerging crimes and disorder while

developing the social skills necessary to work in the diverse atmosphere of communities.

There continue to be severe tensions between the police and minority community

members as well as overall scrutiny of policing, largely due to mass awareness of

mistreatment and police violence against minority civilians, elicited through viral videos,

protests and media coverage of the topic (Adegbile, 2017; Epp et al., 2017). Some

examples of the mistreatment include excessive use of force, hyper-surveillance of

minority communities, racial profiling, and other forms of discrimination and racial bias

(Epp et al., 2017; Kearns, 2017; Patterson & Swan, 2016; Sewell, Horsford, Coleman, &

Watkins, 2016). Many researchers have called for community policing implementation in

response to these issues of policing and civilians’ distrust of the police, as both

2
community members and police officers can come together on core concerns such as

public safety, liberty, and equality (Adegbile, 2017; Barthelemy et al., 2016; Epp et al.,

2017; Kahn et al., 2018; Kimbrough, 2016; Merkey, 2015; Sereni-Massinger & Wood,

2016; Stampler, 2016; Williams et al., 2016). Community policing is further dependent

on trusting relationships between officers and civilians (Adegbile, 2017; Kimbrough,

2016; Merkey, 2015; Williams et al., 2016).

Blakemore, Barlow, and Padgett (1995) introduced diversity training and

questioned the use of standardized training in the field of community policing.

Standardize training reflected the use of classroom documentation of case law and legal

precedence; however, it included very little practical training and was not effective for

dealing with the culture, racial, and ethnic diversity of the communities. The question of

the article discussed the training needed to get law enforcement to connect with

communities. Ward (2013) discussed community policing and the styles and

effectiveness when added to daily communication. The principle behind this method was

attempting to analyze whether communication between police and citizens could make

policing more effective. The primary question for the research was whether better lines of

communication create better relationships between law enforcement and the citizens they

served. Schneider (1998) analyzed the communication between police and a socially

disadvantaged neighborhood in Vancouver, Canada. The research questions centered on

community policing, communication between the parties, and whether increased

communication could help lower the crime rate.

Vodde (2009) noted police academies continue to utilize the paramilitary

approach to training potential officers. This approach is traditional and does not consider

3
the changes over time in communities. Diamond and Weiss (2015) surmised that better

critical thinking improves decision-making. These scholars hypothesized that discretion

and de-escalation are community policing concepts that should be emphasized in both the

initial training and annually throughout law enforcement. The primary questions of the

study centered on the relationship between law enforcement, society, and the training that

law enforcement receives to build the relationship. Vodde (2009) and Diamond and

Weiss (2015) provided a different perspective and methodology for understanding current

police training and the changes that could be made to improve community relations. The

data collected centered around the training and communication in policing from the

perspective of administrators and community leaders; however, it does not account for

the officer’s perspective, the trainers teaching the information, or the effectiveness of the

current training received in reference to community policing.

Implementation of community policing has been studied at length, but mainly

through an examination of its effectiveness as seen by community member and police

administrators’ perceptions, as well as effective methods of implementation (Barthelemy

et al., 2016; Hough, 2016; Namgung, 2018; Przeszlowsi & Crichlow, 2018; Stein &

Griffith, 2017). Some researchers have examined the effectiveness of specific community

policing training programs (Barthelemy et al., 2016; Rosenbaum & Lawrence, 2017;

Skogan, Craen, & Hennessy, 2015); however, all have failed to examine specific

challenges in training procedures, utilizing the training received, and its effectiveness or

noneffectiveness Many scholars have argued that the training should be more student-

centered and that adult students need adult-styled training for contemporary policing

(Hur, 2017). They have neglected the perspective of training officers about effective

4
training and training challenges, as well as differences between academy training,

controlled curriculum and certification testing preparation, and field training, linking

theoretical training with practice in a real-world environment (Chappell, 2007; Lum &

Nagin, 2017). This study was an effort in addressing this gap in the literature by

examining both police officer and training officer perceptions of community policing

training characteristics, its effectiveness or noneffectiveness, and the differences between

academy training and field training.

Problem Statement

According to Gutierrez (2016), police training is problematic with a focus on

firearms skills and a lack of necessary training to manage emotional and physiological

reactions to highly stressful encounters through conflict management. With community

police training being based more on officer safety, defense, and ability to deal with

encounters and less on decision-making, service work orientation, and officers’

relationship with citizens, the effectiveness of the training in community policing may be

reduced and lead to a lack of effectiveness (Guler, Karakaya, & Uluturk, 2014). The

general problem addressed in this qualitative single case study was the concern with

community policing, its documented challenges, and the need to know the effectiveness

of the training received whether in the classroom or in the field. The lack of effective

community policing results in distrust of the police by community members and distrust

of community members by police, and the distrust has led to violent interactions and a

lack of effective policing, particularly in minority communities (Jetelina, Jennings,

Bishopp, Piquero, & Reingle Gonzalez, 2017; Kearns, 2017; Merkey, 2015; Nix, Wolfe,

Rojek, & Kaminski, 2015). The specific problem was the perception of police officers

5
and police trainers regarding community police training effectiveness has not been

explored. (Kearns, 2017; Przeszlowski & Crichlow, 2018). According to Lum and Nagin

(2017), police training is created for control curriculum and testing certification purposes

and it does not shape or challenge the officer’s beliefs as to the purpose and function of

effective policing. Without an examination of training procedures as taught by trainers

and effectiveness from the perspective of the officers, it is difficult to determine whether

the community policing training being presented is effective or noneffective within the

communities.

To address these problems, the theory of collective efficacy was utilized, which

outlines the impact of communal trust and initiative on crime reduction, to guide a

qualitative single case study (Sampson, Raudenbush, & Earls, 1997). The theory of

collective efficacy was extended to incorporate community members as well as the police

officers that are meant to serve under the auspices of community policing (Kimbrough,

2016; Merkey, 2015; Rosenbaum & Lawrence, 2017; Williams et al., 2016). There is a

gap in the extant literature on community policing training regarding the perceptions of

police officers and particularly training officers towards community policing training

effectiveness or noneffectiveness as it is utilized within the communities. (Johnsen et al.,

2017; Kahn et al., 2018). The gap in the literature was addressed by examining these

perceptions. The pursuit has been supported by previous studies, particularly regarding

future research in community policing implementation (Hough, 2016; Kearns, 2017;

Przeszlowski & Crichlow, 2018). The suggestions for future research were responded to

by examining both police officers’ and training officers’ perceptions of community

policing training.

6
Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the qualitative single case study was to discover the perceptions of

police officers and police trainers regarding community police training effectiveness.

Semistructured interviews with six police officers and three police trainers were

conducted. Departmental training materials were analyzed. Ineffective training was

generally defined as leading to ineffective community policing practices, which may have

deleterious effects on police-civilian relations. The theory guiding this study was the

definition of collective efficacy from Sampson et al. (1997), which focuses on the impact

of strong communal ties, and aligns with community policing’s emphasis on the need to

strengthen relationships between community members and police officers.

Population and Sample

The sample for the study included recently trained recruits (i.e., those between

one to five years of experience) and training officers from police departments in the

Texas gulf coast area. Recent recruits, as opposed to more experienced officers, were

appropriate for the study as their perceptions were of more recent, and thus more current,

training measures. Interviewing officers with at least one year with the department

offered their relevant perceptions of actual time spent in the field. Sampling training

officers provided a unique perspective of training procedures that may provide insight

into departmental training ideologies. Purposive sampling was used in order to select the

participant officers and trainers who would share their perspectives on the experienced

phenomenon. Purposive sampling provides for a more concentrated and narrowly focused

population that can provide more specified insight and be thus appropriate for the study

(van Rijnsoever, 2017). Six officers and three trainers from departments on the Texas

7
Gulf Coast were interviewed, for a total of nine interviews. The number fell within the

range of appropriate sample sizes for case studies (Boddy, 2016; van Rijnsoever, 2017).

The sources of data for this study included semistructured interviews and field

training materials. Semistructured interviews were appropriate because they allowed the

participants to deviate if needed from the specific questions of the interviewer, while also

allowing the interviewer to keep the conversation centered around the central concepts

and research concerns (Silverman, 2015). Officers and trainers were recruited through

email, and the interviewer explained the case study and its concepts. The interviewer

conducted telephone interviews so as not to apply unnecessary pressure from others being

present and thus risk the presence of bias in the participants’ commentaries. The

interviews were recorded and transcribed. Analyst relied on the content analysis method

for analysis and interpretation of data. Transcriptions were coded and analyzed according

to themes found in the theoretical and conceptual frameworks of collective efficacy and

community policing, such as a focus on officer-civilian relations and an emphasis on

critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Notes taken during the interviews were

compared to the transcriptions to ensure accuracy. Interview data was compared to

departmental training materials to ensure an accurate understanding of specific training

procedures that may be referenced in the interviews.

Because the interviews revolved around participants’ perceptions of programs

within their place of employment, there may have been a risk of bias, in that they may

have felt pressured to agree with workplace programs and opinions. The interviewer

mitigated this pressure by keeping the interviewees anonymous and conducting the

interviews on the telephone outside of the police departments. The interviewer obtained

8
permission from the police deputy chief of each police department to conduct the

interviews and obtain training materials and requested a list of potential participants. The

identities of those within the final sample were known only to the interviewer in order to

protect against potential backlash or pressure upon the participants.

Significance of the Study

In addition to advancing the literature on community policing training, the aspects

of effective training measures were aimed to be determined that may be applied

practically and tested for suitability in other locales. The implementation of such

effective community policing practices could provide for positive social change by

improving police practices and contributing to collaborative social control. Effective

implementation means that officers have strengthened their relations with civilians. A

strengthening of police-civilian relations works to solve the general problem of police-

civilian tensions, preventing violent interactions that often occur due to these tensions

(Adegbile, 2017; Kimbrough, 2016; Merkey, 2015; Williams et al., 2016).

Nature of the Study

The purpose of the qualitative single case study was to discover the perceptions of

police officers and police trainers regarding community police training effectiveness. In

this section, the methodology is described and justified that was used in the study,

including the research design, sampling strategy, methods for data collection and

interpretation, validity of these approaches, and ethical considerations.

The principles of qualitative research are to understand individuals’ experiences

of a certain phenomenon, interpret processes and meanings surrounding that

phenomenon, and use theoretically based concepts to explore that phenomenon

9
(Silverman, 2015; Yin, 2016). A qualitative research design was utilized in this study

because the purpose of the study aligned with the principles to discover the perceptions of

police officers and police trainers regarding community police training effectiveness.

Quantitative researchers gather data for numerical analysis, use statistical calculations,

utilize statistical software and validated scales, and find explanations and correlations

within the data (Silverman, 2015). A quantitative approach would be inappropriate for the

study, as the phenomenon to be studied the gap between training procedures and effective

community policing practices has largely to do with behavioral aspects and perceptions

of individuals and cannot be entirely quantified. Perceptions can be quantified through

certain survey methodologies, these approaches provide superficial perceptions, while the

results of the study sought to examine these perceptions in-depth.

Case study methodologist seek to understand a certain concept or group within its

specific context and may utilize multiple methods of data collection (triangulation) to get

at the understanding (Marshall & Rossman, 2014; Yin, 2017). A single case study

approach was used to explore the gap between community policing training and practice

within the context of the police department. A phenomenological approach would

similarly look at subjective views of a lived experience, such an approach seeks to look at

those subjectivities to get at the essence of the phenomenon (Marshall & Rossman,

2014). The case study approach facilitates an understanding of the group being studied in

the context of the experienced phenomenon. This approach was more appropriate for the

study that aimed to understand the perceptions of the participants in the particular context

of community policing training. In line with case study methodology, triangulation was

10
used to ensure accuracy, rather than solely depending on participant responses (Yin,

2017).

Appropriateness of design. Qualitative research is appropriate for qualifying a

social or human problem (Marshall & Rossman, 2014). A clear distinction exists between

a qualitative method and a quantitative method. Qualitative research includes various

components and limited cases, whereas quantitative studies include smaller components

and a larger number of cases. The qualitative methodology consists of descriptive

information, whereas the quantitative method consists of collecting and analyzing

numerical data (Newman & Hitchcock, 2011). Qualitative research includes humanistic

and interactive approaches to investigate a phenomenon in its natural environment.

Descriptive case study and phenomenological designs were considered, with the

descriptive approach to case study considered most appropriate because the intent was to

describe the perception of officers and trainers, which had not been widely studied. The

phenomenological method was rejected because the focus of the study was on community

policing training and not the lived experience of the participants. Using a descriptive

approach increased knowledge and insight into ideas officers and trainers have toward

their use of training and its applicability within the community networks. The

phenomenological design focuses on the lived experience of the officers and trainers;

however, some new officers and trainers may not have time to develop lived experiences

with the community for evaluation of community policing training.

Data analysis approach. The data was analyzed using content analysis with the

aid of NVivo and other content analysis software. Content analysis is a data analysis

technique that is used to determine concepts or words present in a text (Elo et al., 2014).

11
In the data analysis technique, researchers analyze the relationships, meaning, and

presence of such concepts or words and use such analysis to generate inferences

regarding the themes that emerge from the text and participants (Vaismoradi, Turunen, &

Bondas, 2013). Texts in the context of the study referred to the transcripts from the

interviews, as well as from the research documents collected from the trainers at the law

enforcement agency. To conduct content analysis, data was broken down, or coded, these

texts into smaller categories on different levels, and examined these data using cross-

sectional as well as relational analysis to explore themes (Vaismoradi et al., 2013).

Research Question

In addressing the identified general and specific problems, as well as utilizing

collective efficacy and community policing as the theoretical and conceptual frameworks

of the study, perceptions of community policing training by newly recruited officers and

trainers in Texas Gulf Coast police departments were explored. The research questions

that guided the qualitative single case study were:

RQ1: What do departmental trainers perceive as effective community police

training principles?

RQ2: What are police officers’ perspectives on the community police training

effectiveness in their application?

Theoretical Framework

The theory of collective efficacy (Sampson et al., 1997) framed the study. The

theory of Collective efficacy is defined as the belief that the strength of communal ties

among a community’s members, along with members’ devotion to the good of the

community, will reduce violence and crime in the area. Collective efficacy is dependent

12
on certain communal and structural characteristics, such as the constancy of the

population of residents, which may be lacking in communities with a high turnover of

residents, resulting in ever-changing racial and socioeconomic demographics (Sampson

et al., 1997). These characteristics can be destabilized by economic decreases among the

neighborhood’s population.

In the seminal study of Sampson et al. (1997), it was hypothesized that varying

levels of collective efficacy among different communities accounted for varying levels of

crime and that communities were negatively impacted by concentrated economic and

social disadvantages, such as low job opportunities, poor quality of policing, and high

crime. Alternatively, Sampson et al. hypothesized that communities would be positively

impacted by residential stability. Census tract data of 343 neighborhoods within Chicago

was analyzed and found that the data largely supported their hypotheses. Social control,

cohesion, and trust were found to be predictors of reduced violence in communities,

demonstrating the validity of the theory of collective efficacy. Collective efficacy in a

broader context was used in the study to support the need for and effectiveness of

community policing, which is the conceptual framework for the study, and which is

explored in greater depth in the next section. In the context of community policing,

collective efficacy extends beyond the community members to include the specific police

officers engaged in that community and aligns with community policing’s emphasis on

building strong relationships. The research’s analysis of the collected data on the officers

and training officer’s perspectives regarding community policing led to a rich description

of how building officer’s cultural competence and interpersonal skills, toward the aim of

strengthening officer-civilian relations and working toward collaborative social control.

13
 Collective efficacy is directly opposed to the broken windows theory, which has

developed into a no-tolerance approach to policing, underlined by the belief that cracking

down on small crime will reduce crime overall, particularly violent crime (Howell, 2016;

Wilson & Kelling, 1982). As aspects of community policing were examined, broken

windows theory was incompatible due to its focus on superficial qualities of the

community, such as neighborhood appearance and crime rates (crime rates as a number

devoid of an in-depth investigation into the cause). Collective efficacy was more

appropriate for the study, as the theory focuses on community relationships as the basis

for reform, which is essential to community policing practices. Within the study,

effective training measures were examined by performance assessment (such as reduction

in crime) but are ultimately dependent on the collective efficacy theory in determining

whether training measures align with the theory’s focus on relationships. Supporting this

framework, Nix et al. (2015) found that collective efficacy, along with fair police

practice, positively impacted community members’ levels of trust in the police. In the

same year, Merkey (2015) wrote an article on the effectiveness of restorative justice and

community policing. The approach similarly focuses on community relationships and

trust, applicable to residents as victims, residents as offenders, as well as the police that

serve the community. These studies corroborate the appropriateness of the collective

efficacy framework for the study, which revolved around community policing practices.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework employed by the study is the practice of community

policing, based upon the theory of collective efficacy. According to Stamper (2016), one

of the main contributors to the first community policing program used in the U.S. in San

14
Diego in 1972, Stamper defined true community policing as “the citizens policing

themselves,” with assistance from community organizations, law enforcement agencies

and other governmental bodies (p. 2). In the model, community members are the primary

agents of order in their communities, with law enforcement as truly subservient to these

needs. The success of the partnership between police and community relies on strong,

trust-based relationships between officers and civilians.

Community policing is seen by many law enforcement agents, governmental

officials, and researchers as an effective way to resolve tensions between police officers

and community members and reduce crime through more effective policing and

collective efficacy (Kearns, 2017; Kimbrough, 2016; Merkey, 2015; Sereni-Massinger &

Wood, 2016; Stamper, 2016; Williams et al., 2016). The framework is used by the study

to inform assumptions of what effective policing and police training looks like. Williams

et al. cited three aspects of community policing that are particularly relevant for beat-

level officers, which the study also considered in the analysis of the results: (a) officers’

actions are formed by reflective problem-solving experimentation; (b) their learning is

informed by community feedback; and (c) they can adapt to new problems at the

moment, in that their skills sets allow them to formulate appropriate responses to high-

stress situations through critical thinking and problem-solving. Principles of community

policing, such as an emphasis on community agency and needs, strong relationships

between officers and community members, and officers’ interpersonal and critical

thinking skills, was found as themes within the study in order determine the effectiveness

of community policing training and practice in Texas Gulf Coast area police departments.

15
Definitions of Key Terms

Broken windows theory of policing. This is the theory that blighted areas,

involving abandoned buildings with broken windows, foster further dilapidation by

showing community residents that no one cares for space (Wilson & Kelling, 1982).

Based on this principle, broken windows policing focuses on cracking down on small

crimes to prevent more serious crimes and reduce crime overall.

Collaborative social control. Collaborative social control refers to successful

crime management and the effective addressing of community needs by the combined

forces of law enforcement and community members. The principle is crucial to

community policing initiatives (Sampson, 2008).

Communities. In the context of this study, communities were considered

regarding racial and ethnic backgrounds, as these demographic factors are of central

concern to the general problem of police-minority civilian tensions (Sampson et al., 1997;

Sewell et al., 2016). Thus, “community members” referred to minority civilians within

these communities.

Community policing. Community policing, based on the theory of collective

efficacy and opposed to broken windows policing, asserts that crime is best managed by a

collaboration between law enforcement and community members (Stamper, 2016;

Williams et al., 2016). The collaboration is dependent upon trusting relationships

between the two parties; thus, community policing training largely focuses on officers’

interpersonal skills.

Critical thinking/problem-solving. Within the context of this study, critical

thinking and problem solving refers to a skill emphasized by community policing

16
practices that focus on officers’ abilities to analyze varying situations and react

appropriately, rather than in a purely proscribed manner (Sereni-Massinger & Wood,

2016; Williams et al., 2016). Critical thinking and problem-solving are developed in

training but are largely dependent upon specific field experiences.

Theory of collective efficacy. The theory of collective efficacy suggests that

crime rates are lessened in communities where community members have strong

relational ties, as these strengthened relationships contribute to social control (Sampson,

2008; Sampson et al., 1997). The theory is expanded to include police officers in the

context of community policing.

Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations

Two primary assumptions were made within this study. First, it was assumed that

participants would be honest in their responses within the interviews. This honesty was

checked regarding certain topics by comparing their responses to departmental training

materials. Second, it was assumed that the use of the theory of collective efficacy would

be appropriate and effective in assessing community policing training measures. This

assumption was based on the discussion of the applicability of collective efficacy to

community policing practices from Sampson et al. (1997).

This study had two primary limitations. First, the small sample size was made use

of in this study. As such, results are limited to the population and site under study and

cannot be generalized to all officers and trainers participating in community policing

training. The findings produced practical suggestions that may be useful to future

researchers and police departments to test. Second, participants may have been biased in

their responses due to fear of reprisals for speaking against their institution of

17
employment. This limitation was addressed by maintaining confidentiality and

conducting interviews in a private location outside of the police departments from which

the sample was derived.

Within the topic of community policing training, perceived challenges of

community policing training and its effectiveness or noneffectiveness were the focus of

this study, as these areas are under-examined within the literature. Perceptions of officers,

as well as trainers, was examined, as trainer insight specifically has been under-examined

within the literature. The study’s analysis of the research findings relied on principles of

community policing, as these principles have been established as effective for achieving

collaborative social control. The conclusions of the study may be transferrable as items to

test or explore in other locales and among other populations in relation to community

policing training.

Chapter Summary

The general problem of police-civilian tensions was addressed in this study by

utilizing the conceptual framework of community policing that is supported by the theory

of collective efficacy (Merkey, 2015; Sampson, 2008; Sampson et al., 1997; Williams et

al., 2016). The specific problem was that the perception of police officers and police

trainers regarding community police training effectiveness had not been explored

(Kearns, 2017; Przeszlowski & Crichlow, 2018). The gap was examined by exploring the

perceptions of six police officers and three training officers from Texas Gulf Coast area

police departments. Through semistructured interviews and a review of departmental

training materials, the results of this study aimed to understand how participants describe

effective community policing training, the challenges they perceive within the training,

18
and the differences in curriculum and effectiveness that they perceive between academy

training and field training. This study was developed in response to a gap in the existing

literature regarding community policing training challenges and trainer perceptions

(Barthelemy et al., 2016; Hough, 2016; Namgung, 2018; Przeszlowsi & Crichlow, 2018;

Rosenbaum & Lawrence, 2017; Skogan, et al., 2015; Stein & Griffith, 2017). Insight into

effective community policing training practices was provided by this study that may be

tested by other researchers and in other police departments. In Chapter 2, the literature

related to community policing is further discussed from a historical and current

perspective. The challenges of community policing and the role of trust in law

enforcement were also examined.

19
 Chapter 2

Literature Review

In Chapter 2, a review of the literature centering on the topic of community

policing is provided. The intention was to provide a review of the pertinent literature that

would establish an understanding of what has been discussed. The results of these studies

justify the study’s theoretical framework. This chapter began with the search

methodology utilized and the topic searches for training, communication, and law

enforcement community interaction.

Title Searches and Documentation

An extensive review of the literature utilizing both online databases and the

University of Phoenix Online Library was conducted. The University of Phoenix Online

Library provides access to several databases such as EBSCOhost, ProQuest, Sage

Research Methods Online, Digital Dissertation, and Emerald. Google Scholar, Science

Direct, and the University of Chicago website retrieved sources outside of the University

of Phoenix Library. The keywords utilized in this search included collective efficacy,

broken windows policing, police tensions, community policing, community policing

implementation and training, police officer perceptions, and President’s Task Force on

21st-Century Policing. Each term was search individually and utilizing Boolean terms,

such as “AND, and “OR.” There was also cross-referencing used for finding articles that

describe community policing, training, and broken windows. The last place considered

for pertinent information was the training manuals and documentation from law

enforcement agencies included in the study. Table 1 shows the topics that were searched,

the types of publications, and the total number of references returned.

20
Table 1

Literature Review Table

Topics Peer-Reviewed Web-Based

Searched Journals Books Sites Total
Community 48 6 8 62
Policing

Collective 21 2 2 25
Efficacy

Qualitative 32 22 33 87
Research

Police Training 105 7 3 115

Broken 31 6 1 38
Windows

Collaborative 53 6 1 60
Social Control
290 49 48 387
Total

In the following sections, the theoretical framework used for the study is detailed,

the concept of community policing, the challenges associated with its implementation,

and the role of trust in the process of community police training. The perceptions of

community members, police officers, and police administrators as detailed in the existing

literature are also explored, as well as the skills training and retention practices that have

been explored in previous studies. Finally, the chapter will close with a summary of the

literature and the conclusions of the review.

Historical Research in Community Policing

Amadi (2014) described the historical background of the shift from the traditional

model of policing to community policing. This author stated that the traditional model of

policing in the United States was institutionalized in the early 1900s and was the model
21
of policing in the country from 1920 to 1970. During this period, police administrators

believed that maintaining separation between the community and the police was the way

to reduce corruption and political interventions in police affairs; however, this separation

strategy led to widespread ineffectiveness. Amadi stated that the relationship between the

police and the citizens was characterized by alienation and led to civil unrest in many

communities across the country. As a result, community policing was introduced, which

places the quality of life within the community as a central priority in striving for the

absence of crime and disorder. This is in contrast to traditional concepts of policing,

wherein success is measured mainly through response time, detection rates of serious

crimes, and calls handled by the police (Amadi, 2014).

COPS establishment. The Omnibus Crime Control Act of 1968 was introduced

by the federal government, which made a substantial amount of funds available for state

and local police and other law enforcement agencies (Amadi, 2014). A substantial portion

of the funds was used to provide training and develop programs to improve relations

between the community and the police, with most big-city police departments

establishing divisions for police-community relations to increase interactions between the

police and the public. Decision-making and planning for operations were decentralized,

and police administrators began to highlight the importance of respecting citizens’ rights

and the responsibility of the police force to treat the citizens they serve respectfully as

human beings. In 1994, the United States Congress passed the Violent Crime Control and

Law Enforcement Act, which allocated approximately $11 billion to American law

enforcement.

22
 One important provision of the 1994 Act was to foster the interaction of the police

force with the communities and to accelerate transitions of law enforcement groups to

community policing. The Act also authorized the creation of the Office of Community

Oriented Policing Services (COPS), which had the function of training and providing

technical assistance in community policing, forging partnerships with other law

enforcement groups and community residents and developing a network of regional

community policing institutes (Amadi, 2014). This concept has since become very

popular, particularly in the United States and in other European countries. It has been

reported that most police departments in U.S. municipalities with populations exceeding

100,000 have adopted community policing, and over 90% of police departments in large

urban areas employed fully trained community-oriented police officers (Gill, Weisbur,

Telep, Vitter, & Bennett, 2014).

Community policing theory. Community policing is a policing philosophy based on the

idea that if the police and the citizens of the community work together strategically and

creatively to prevent and fight crime, then the crime-related problems of the

neighborhood will be reduced, the physical conditions of the community will be made

better, and the residents would feel safer (Amadi, 2014). The community has been used

to refer to people that have at least one of the following elements: (a) communities based

on geographical areas; (b) communities based on frequency of social interaction; and (c)

communities based on a common tie such as social life, consciousness of their

homogeneity, or common norms (Ngwu & Ahuruonye, 2017). Laru-an and Beup (2015)

emphasized that the community must be viewed as a stakeholder to ensure the success of

CP. CP has been described as democracy in action as it requires the participation of all

23
stakeholders, such as the local government, civic and business leaders, public and private

agencies, churches, residents, schools, and hospitals, among many others who share the

concern for the well-being of the community (Semboja, Silla, & Musuguri, 2016).

CP has three key elements: (a) refocused police strategy, (b) partnership with

citizens, and (c) problem-solving (Amadi, 2014; Gill et al., 2014; Maguire, Johnson,

Kuhns, & Apostolos, 2017). Refocused police strategy refers to the shift of police

strategies from reactive to proactive by including efforts to prevent disorder through the

identification and correction of the sources of crime rather than provide their service after

the fact. Police officers are expected to increase their use of foot patrol, door-to-door

policing, directed patrol, and other alternatives to motorized patrol strategies of

traditional policing. Police officers are also expected to focus not only on major crimes

but also on minor offenses, which can influence higher crime rates in a community

(Amadi, 2014). The expectations also required a transformation of the organizational

design of law enforcement agencies. The traditional hierarchy of police departments

needed to be flattened in order to be able to delegate the decision-making to frontline

officers who are directly engaged with their communities (Gill et al., 2014).

Secondly, a partnership with citizens pertains to the cooperation and coordination

between the community and the police, which allows the community to participate in its

protection. CP is hinged on the idea that the police alone cannot effectively combat crime

and disorder without the active involvement of the citizens (Amadi, 2014). Police officers

are not limited to the traditional tasks of law enforcement and must draw on community

involvement and input to develop strategies for addressing crime (Gill et al., 2014).

Police officers are required to be able to identify community leaders, such as civic and

24
religious rights leader, to include the citizens’ input regarding community safety in

planning and decision-making processes, and to have higher accountability and

responsiveness. Citizens participate as volunteers or reserves in a collaborative effort

with the police. The information that can be retrieved from community residents is

important in the goal setting, and task execution of the police as public perception can be

used to evaluate the effectiveness of police programs. Survey information can be used to

evaluate public attitudes towards the police and gauge citizen behavior including

victimization or crime prevention efforts (Amadi, 2014). Community engagement with

the police also allows residents to express their needs, fears, and expectations to the

police, including their fear of crime, and their perceived threats to the community

(Thomas, 2016).

Lastly, problem-solving refers to the efforts of police officers to aid community

members in determining causes of disorder within their communities as well as to help

them create strategies for handling those causes of crime on both a short-term and long-

term basis. Police officers are expected to act as a liaison between the citizens and the

governmental and non-governmental institutions that are tasked to maintain community

order (Amadi, 2014). CP is not simply geared towards improving police-community

relations; rather, it is also a problem-solving process which draws upon the expertise of

the citizens in identifying the social issues that serve as the cause of a disorder, crime,

and fear within the community (Gill et al., 2014).

Foundational concepts. The foundation of community policing has been

revealed by some studies. Researchers claimed that it is largely based on the goals of

preventing the use of military power and force by making sure crimes are averted or

25
prevented (Cordner, 2014; Gibson & Akhgar, 2017; Schanzer, Kurzman, Toliver, &

Miller, 2018). It is claimed that the first and most valuable task of the police is to prevent

crimes from happening (Cordner, 2014; Gibson & Akhgar, 2017; Schanzer et al., 2018).

As such, the most logical way to measure the success of the police is to assess crime

levels. In other words, the most effective mechanism to determine police effectiveness is

to evaluate whether there is an absence of crimes (Cordner, 2014; Gibson & Akhgar,

2017; Schanzer et al., 2018). The premise of modern community policing is to have the

support of the public in their mission of crime prevention. Another premise is for the

police to acknowledge that it is necessary first to gain the trust and respect of the public

before they can do their jobs properly and that it is the public that provides the police

with the power and legitimacy to enforce laws and prevent crimes (Sučić & Karlović,

2017). Without this power and legitimacy, the police will not be able to enforce the laws

of the land. Effective modern-day community policing is those that can prevent crimes

because the police agencies have worked with community leaders encompassing

educational leaders, politicians, citizens, business leaders, and many more other public

and private figures within a community (Normore, Ellis, Clamp, & Peterson, 2015).

Researchers have also posited that in order for community policing to be effective

at crime prevention, the police must go beyond gaining the respect of the public but

garner their cooperation (Becker, 2017; Soska & Ohmer, 2018). In modern-day policing,

law enforcement officers and educational leaders across the nation acknowledge that the

community and the resources found within play crucial roles. Most communities also

have academies and offer support programs to aid in police crime reduction efforts.

Successful police departments that have prevented crimes were found to be those that

26
have engaged the public for ideas as to how to stop crimes from happening or have used

the public as their ears and eyes, reinforcing the idea that cooperation with the

community is the way to prevent crime (Becker, 2017).

Community mistrust and uprisings against police departments can be a cause of

their ineffectiveness in crime prevention. Citizen support can diminish with acts of

violence perpetrated by the police themselves, especially if they are reported by the

media (Archibald, Daniels, & Sinclair, 2017; Ratcliffe, Groff, Sorg, & Haberman, 2015).

Citizen uprisings against police brutality have been documented time and again, acting as

a barrier to effective community policing against crime prevention. In recent, years, the

reports of these misconduct and a misdemeanor by the police themselves have been

reported widely, especially because there are hundreds of sites designed at covering these

instances. For instance, the New York Times has a page specifically dedicated to covering

police brutality. In New York alone, there are hundreds of such cases each year

(Albrecht, 2017).

Not all misconduct by the police could have been reported or substantiated, just a

few reports can already sow distrust among community members and discourage them

from cooperating with the police (Albrect, 2017). To gain support and be effective in

community policing, the police departments had to avoid excessive and unnecessary

brutality and violence. Apart from police brutality, police insensitivity and inability to

treat all citizens the same no matter their wealth, glass, and gender can prevent

community policing from being effective (Albrect, 2017). In order to successfully

implement and sustain community-orienting policing programs or activities, there is a

need to gather input from all citizens.

27
 CP training theories. Hough (2016) conducted a review of previous studies to

analyze hiring practices of police agencies regarding CP; particularly, how CP has been

defined, the personal characteristics needed for effective implementation of CP principles

as identified in the literature, and the identified extant strategies for hiring candidates who

can effectively implement CP strategies. Data used for Hough (2016) was obtained from

the work of the Community Policing Consortium of COPS, comprised mainly of studies

conducted in the early 2000s. Hough (2016) found that within the data analyzed; CP was

commonly defined around principles such as the integrity and accountability of officers,

the goal of safety for both the police and the community, improved community relations,

teamwork among officers and members of the community, and effective problem-solving

on the part of the officers. The identified characteristics of individuals who can

effectively execute CP strategies included conscientiousness, emotional maturity, and

stability, the ability to influence and persuade others, amicability, possessing a service-

minded orientation, strong memory, reading comprehension, and practical intelligence.

The author also emphasized that there is still a great need for more research to examine

hiring practices for CP intentions and to analyze the overall presence or absence of

improvement among police officers when implementing CP principles and if these

principles are considered in the training the officer receives.

Przeszlowski and Crichlow (2018) performed an exploratory assessment of CP

implementation in smaller cities in the United States. They highlighted the gap in the

literature regarding the impact of CP in smaller cities and the role police departments

play in crime prevention in such municipalities. They also aimed to understand the effect

of social disorganization on the crime rates in the areas examined. Three datasets were

28
studied: the 2013 Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics Survey,

the 2012 Uniform Crime Reports, and the 2012 U.S. Census 5-Year American

Community Survey. Data were retrieved from 309 different small-scale agencies,

employing 40-80 people full-time and found that CP did not present an especially

significant effect on the crime rates in smaller cities; whereas, social disorganization

displayed a significant impact on crime rates. The authors emphasized the potential of

taking social disorganization theory into account in the implementation of CP to produce

lower crime rates. The authors also highlighted the need for further research to examine

variations in CP implementation strategies in smaller cities.

CP effectiveness. Laru-an and Beup (2015) studied the level of effectiveness of

CP in patrol operations, traffic investigation, and criminal investigation in the context of

a district in the Philippines. The authors administered a descriptive survey to 177 local

government officials within the district to assess the perceptions of the respondents

regarding CP implementation in the 5th District of Iloilo. The authors found that most

respondents perceived CP as effective or very effective, which is highlighted by a good

working relationship of the police force with the community. Patrol operations provided

police officers with the opportunity to be visible to the people within the community and

lessen opportunities for crime from would-be criminals at the same time. CP in traffic

investigation was also found to be effective; however, residents reported the need for

improved traffic facilities. CP in the criminal investigation was also found to be very

effective with young and female respondents which reported very high satisfaction rates

with CP. The effectiveness of CP in many areas of law enforcement was highlighted by

the results of this study.

29
 CP has been found to reduce the fear of crime and improve perceived safety

among communities by increasing familiarity and trust among and between citizens and

the police. Simply increasing the awareness of citizens regarding CP strategies has been

associated with reduced fear of crime and stronger feelings of attachments to the

community (Maguire et al., 2017). Besides reported effects on crime control outcomes,

CP has also been found to have positive impacts on non-crime control outcomes like

increased trust in the police, lower fear of crime, police legitimacy, and satisfaction with

policing (Gill et al., 2014). Scholars have suggested that community policing is the most

appropriate model of policing for handling the issues that arise from the increasing

diversity of contemporary American society. As the makeup of the nation shifts to higher

levels of ethnic, racial, religious, and cultural activities, law enforcement groups are

forced to properly adjust and recalibrate their strategies and approaches (Amadi, 2014).

In contrast to findings on the benefits of CP, researchers have shown that CP has a

negligible impact on fear of crime in large cities; moreover, some studies have shown

that CP can even potentially increase fear of crimes (Maguire et al., 2017). Maguire et al.

stated that this disparity in findings might be due to the variation in measures of CP

effectiveness across studies and settings. CP implementation varies across

neighborhoods, cities, and nations; thus, the operationalization and measurements of its

factors are made difficult and inconsistent. Rukus, Warner, and Zhang (2017) also

reported that law enforcement culture could also make citizen empowerment difficult.

Critics of CP contend that CP can frequently be implemented in such a way that provides

little empowerment. The impact of CP also remains uncertain due to the lack of

systematic and progressive evaluations of the feasibility and output of CP models that

30
take constructs such as organizational support, police attitudes and job satisfaction, and

work environments into consideration (Thakre, Sivakumar, & Jaishankar, 2015).

There have been various studies on the history, definition, and implementation of

CP in various contexts and settings. The outcomes have tended to vary depending on

different factors present in the study’s setting. While there have been positive outcomes

identified about CP, there continue to be challenged in its implementation and its

operationalization in literature. In the following section, the challenges associated with

CP implementation are explored.

Challenges in community policing. While the benefits and positive outcomes of CP

have been covered extensively in the literature, there are also several challenges

associated with it (Semboja et al., 2016). Taylor (1998) identified five major challenges

in the implementation of CP: (a) insufficient and holistic researches for designing,

implementing, and evaluating CP; (b) lack of targeted implementation, especially

observed in city governments; (c) a lack of follow-through in fully implementing plans

for CP; (d) intervention of political groups and criticism; and (e) lack of a well-defined

relationship between CP and crime. Mulugeta and Mekuriaw (2017) also cited four

barriers to CP implementation: (a) the police officer might prefer to work independently

of the community in the identification and solving of problems; (b) the

resident/community might have different values and expectations; (c) the police culture

might lack proper training and performance measures; and (d) the specialized units might

promote different values. Poor implementation could lead to the lack of flexibility and

tailoring at the neighborhood level, incapacity to recognize the historical lack of trust

31
between the minorities and the police, and lack of community knowledge about the

crime.

Another one of the foremost problems highlighted in the literature is the lack of a

proper conceptualization of the concept of CP. Bitaliwo (2014) stated that there are

various definitions of CP in literature and practice. The use of differing definitions, in

turn, has negatively affected the implementation of CP because of conflicts of interest

and lack of consensus. These barriers have further resulted in lowered acceptance of CP,

a lack of specific indicators that can help measure its impact and effectiveness, the

absence of a specific strategy within the institutional framework, and a lack of

community consultation regarding the most appropriate and acceptable form of CP to

promote increased participation from the community. CP has also been found to suffer

from uncoordinated transfers, limited consultation with the general public regarding the

proper time for meeting with liaison officers, and lack of proper training for community

liaisons (Bitaliwo, 2014). Many law enforcement agencies also experience

implementation issues because, given the paramilitary management structures that

pervade most police departments, the inclusion of citizen feedback could create

difficulties. The shift of policing and social service to a proactive manner of delivery

could be difficult for people in a workforce that is culturally rooted to be reactive (Rukus

et al., 2017).

While CP may be perceived as an effort of preventing crime and ensuring

communal participation, the type of neighborhood may determine whether or not the

community will be efficient in dealing with their problems (Nyaura & Ngugi, 2014). The

level at which communities are willing and motivated to participate in crime prevention

32
programs is greatly influenced by the context and the level of social organization.

Communities that share common values are more willing to achieve common goals, such

as the maintenance of peace and order. A community’s social organization is vital in its

capacity to self-regulate. The social organization does not always lead to high community

participation, as their willingness may be hindered by factors such as fear of crime,

perceptions of local government agencies, and the demographic profile of their

communities (Manaliyo, 2016).

Improving credibility. Work is needed to improve the image and credibility of

the police and increase the trust of the public especially in areas marked by a history of

police violence and civil unrest (Bitaliwo, 2014). Community members’ perceptions of

local police and other government institutions have a great influence on their decision to

volunteer in programs for crime prevention. Dias (2015) stated that systemic and

institutional racism creates barriers to community policing. The author defined racism in

the United States as the misuse of power by systems and institutions fueled by elements

of white supremacy (Dias, 2015). Dias noted that racism creates four barriers to building

trust and legitimacy in community policing in the United States: (a) the historic use of

policing as a means of creating and maintaining racial inequity and exploitation; (b) law

enforcement’s denial of the existence of race problems and their participation in it; (c)

racism shaping the way societies are oriented around and desensitized to violence; and

(d) how racist ideologies could permeate the training of police officers and produce

trends towards increased militarization. This author stated that policing plays a crucial

role in modern society in protecting the vulnerable from potential exploitation and harm;

however, policing has been used to enforce boundaries on racially marginalized

33
populations resulting in police violence and threats of violence against minority

communities (Dias, 2015). Communities of color have struggled with some version of

historical trauma which shapes their collective experience in the United States and

continues to affect those communities today. The denial of racism in law enforcement

could also create barriers to the establishment of trust and legitimacy in CP because it

could lead to heightened lethal force in societies saturated by systemic racism, which

cannot be solved if not acknowledged as a legitimate issue. Dias explained that racism

also desensitizes people to violence, which could lead to a lack of belief in the efficacy

and importance of policing in regulating violence. Racism could also lead to the

development of police officers who are trained to see minorities as threats and the

perpetuation of the objectification of communities of color as the other (Dias, 2016). Dias

highlighted the importance of dismantling racism as a way of furthering CP effectiveness

by first acknowledging the problems of law enforcement, the removal of these barriers to

effective racial justice, and the reformation of the way police officers are trained.

Jetelina et al. (2017) conducted a study on the varying levels of use-of-force of

police officers about the race and ethnicity of the police officers and the civilians being

apprehended. The data for Jetelina et al. (2017) included 5,630 use-of-force reports from

the Dallas Police Department between the years 2014 and 2015. The officer-civilian

encounters in the corpus were categorized into different race/ethnicity relations. The

results of Jetelina et al. (2017) showed that 48% of use-of-force encounters occurred

between white officers and nonwhite civilians (Jetelina et al., 2017). White officer and

black civilian encounters also showed more likelihood of aggressive use of force, with

and without weapons, in comparison to the white office and white civilian encounters.

34
Greater likelihood of aggressive use of force, with and without weapons, also occurred in

encounters between black officers and black civilians, Hispanic officers and white

civilians, black officers and Hispanic civilians, and Hispanic officers and black civilians

(Jetelina et al., 2017). The likelihood of aggressive use-of-force without weapons was

found to be lower between black officers and black civilians in comparison to that

between white officers and white civilians. The likelihood of use-of-force with the use of

weapons was higher in encounters and Hispanic civilians, and Hispanic officers and

black civilians when compared to the white officer and white civilian encounters. The

findings of this study also emphasized that the race and ethnicity of civilians had an

impact on the way police officers treated them. Findings Jetelina et al. (2017) showed

that their race relations do pose a barrier to proper and fair policing. Jetelina et al. (2017)

provided empirical evidence to people’s perceptions of law enforcement from the

perspective of police-public interactions.

Using data from roll-call surveys with 741 officers in three departments, Kearns

(2017) reported that officers are also likely to be more supportive of CP in white

communities than in minority communities. The finding is true for both white and

nonwhite police officers. The author further added that this could be the result of a

perceived greater social distance between officers of any race and ethnicity from people

who belong to minority groups. Kearns (2017) further highlighted the need for changes

beyond policy; rather, officers and aspiring officers must be assessed of their bias to

identify their capacity to perform at a law enforcement role. The results of this study

reinforced the greater difficulty of CP implementation in minority communities. Histories

of police brutality also create deep societal chasms, which result in fear and anger among

35
minority communities. The fear may lead to lower communal participation and lack of

trust in the criminal justice system. The well-documented over-militarization of local law

enforcement groups also contributes to this fear, which could deter people from

exercising their constitutional rights (Lumsden, 2017). In particular, systemic flaws that

manifest in daunting patterns of unconstitutional abuses against African Americans done

by police officers have led to generations after generations of African Americans viewing

the police force as emblematic of abusive power (Otey, 2016).

Implementation of CP. Skilling (2016) performed qualitative research to analyze the

application of democratic policing principles in the implementation of CP in Kenya,

which is a country with a history of lacking police accountability and civilian oversight.

The author studied the implementation of CP by the Crisis Response Development

Foundation, which included the establishment of CP projects in partnership with the

Kenyan government and communities in various locations in Kenya. This author

performed semi-structured interviews with members of the Lemelepo Community

Policing Project (LCPP), including the committee’s office administrator, secretary,

treasurer, and staff members. The author emphasized that the interviewees reported

numerous challenges involved in the application of democratic policing principles in

Kenya mainly because the police force of Kenya is transitioning from a context of regime

policing that is characterized by widespread corruption and abuse. The author added that

the CP projects in Lemelepo exhibited the possible effectiveness of CP when combined

with collective action, proper channels of resources, and accountability systems.

There are several challenges highlighted in the literature regarding CP

implementation. There are several barriers to success in different contexts and

36
communities. The findings in the review of the literature have shown that one of the most

glaring challenges is the lack of trust between the police and the community. In the

following section, the literature findings regarding the role that trust plays in the police-

community relationship and how this affects community policing and law enforcement,

in general, are detailed.

Some researchers have revealed that community policing is not without barriers,

the first of which is the nonacceptance of the residents themselves. The lack of trust

between the police and the community can lead to resistance to community policing

(Becker, 2017). There have been researchers as well who noted that even though much

has been written the value of changing to community policing, limited has proven how

valuable community policing really is for deterring crimes. Several researchers further

claimed that community policing is just nothing but rhetoric and cannot be considered a

valuable strategy (Boettke, Lemke, & Palagashvill, 2016; Simon, 2017). Most of the

studies called for additional research, especially since they found that community

policing does not lead to fear of crime and cannot deter criminal behaviors (Johnson,

2017).

Sytsma and Piza (2018) compared a specialized community-oriented policing unit

to a reactive unit with regard to officers’ perceptions about public contact as well as job

performance. Sytsma and Piza (2018) also contrasted bicycle patrol officers from motor

vehicle patrol officers serving these units. Through a static group comparison design

wherein 178 participants within the Toronto Police Service answered questionnaires

about their perceptions, these researchers found that bicycle patrol is linked with more

contacts with the public and higher rates of proactive policing. Motor vehicle control has

37
less public contact and higher rates of reactive policing. Bicycle officers were also found

more likely to have higher rates on various measures of crime control. The results

revealed that officers with a mandate to engage in community policing engage with the

public for more reasons compared to those mandated to engage in reactive strategies and

in relation to this, more likely to rate higher of perceptions of having performed well on

their duties in a procedural and fair manner. Based on these results, Sytsma and Piza

(2018) cited the importance of having a specialized community-oriented policing unit

that covers bicycle control to achieve the goals of community-oriented policing, the chief

one of which is to prevent crime without the use of military weapons.

Johnson (2017) claimed that although there is many hailing community-oriented

policing as the new paradigm of American policing, little data exist to actually prove and

reflect on its effectiveness and success in crime reduction. There is limited evidence as to

its capacity to increase crime clearance rates. Johnson (2017) also claimed that one more

weakness of the community-oriented policing is that it has never been definitely

described as a successful style of policing, leaving much more research that is necessary

to be carried out on its effectiveness specifically as a crime reduction method. Utilizing

the Trojanowicz's seminal conceptualization of community-oriented policing as the

foundation, this correlational study was designed to evaluate if there were statistically

significant relationships between the phenomenon of community-oriented policing, rates

of crime, and rates of crime clearance across nine municipalities of Carteret County,

North Carolina. Data for community-oriented policing methods were gathered from the

police agencies by engaging in personal contact with agency personnel. Other data for

crimes and crime clearance were gathered from the State Bureau of Investigation and the

38
Federal Bureau of Investigation's Uniform Crime Report. A Spearman's rho and a chi-

square test for independence led to the finding that there is a statistically significant

relationship between community-oriented policing. The same goes for community-

oriented policing and the violent crime rate (p = .03). The same statistically significant

relationship was also revealed between this style of policing and the violent crime

clearance rate (p = .03), as well as with the property crime clearance rate (p = .009).

Given this, the study’s findings served as additional evidence of the community-oriented

policing’s effectiveness, which they posited could improve positive social change for

police agencies in North Carolina.

Role of trust in law enforcement. One of the main goals of community policing is to

enhance trust levels between officers and community members for both parties to act as

partners in combatting crime (Rukus et al., 2017). This process can be made difficult by a

lack of trust on either or both sides. On the side of the police officers, opening up law

enforcement departments to the general public could be a daunting and difficult

experience. On the side of the citizen, creating a trusting relationship with policing

agencies can be difficult, especially within communities that are characterized by

perceived unfair and negative reactions with the police. Communities with low levels of

collective efficacy are also likely to be defined by a lack of trusting relationships within

its residents. Some scholars have shown that communities that can place great trust in

their police force feel safer. Social cohesion is also made stronger by higher levels of

trust, which could further improve crime rates and increase attention to the needs of

vulnerable groups such as minorities and the youth (Rukus et al., 2017).

39
 According to Solakoglu (2016), there has been a growing body of literature about

the public’s perception of the police. The increase is the body of literature is mainly due

to the desire to gain a better understanding of how the public perceives the outcomes of

the services provided by the police. Solakoglu added that one way for police forces to be

effective is to reduce crime rates with the support of the citizens; however, such a means

requires a sense of police legitimacy. Police legitimacy pertains to the level of conviction

the ruled party has to the right of the ruling party to provide orders and commands that

need to be followed (Czapska et al., 2018). Solakoglu (2016) suggested that police

legitimacy could be measured by the public’s confidence and trust in the police, noting

that increasing trust among citizens is a commonly accepted measure of successful

policing. While police effectiveness can have a direct impact on the public trust, the

social contexts, organizations or disorganizations, level of transparency or democracy

present in the country, and the socio-economic factors of the community, although not

directly tied to police performance, all have an influence on public trust in law

enforcement (Solakoglu, 2016). The riots in major cities all over the world have revealed

that the relationship between ethnic minorities and the police is characterized by tension

and negative attitudes (Van Craen & Skogan, 2014).

Wekesa and Muturi (2016) evaluated how trust, integrity, and transparency

affected community policing as a crime prevention strategy in Kisii central sub-county.

These authors stated that the lack of accountability in CP serves as a barrier to the

development of closer relationships between the stakeholders. Trust was also defined as

one of the main stumbling blocks to the establishment of partnerships as police officers

are likely to feel the loss of autonomy in the process. The potential tension and ambiguity

40
in police-community relationships could lead to skepticism about the effectiveness of CP.

Wekesa and Muturi (2016) sampled 60 respondents who were given questionnaires to

assess perceptions of the effects of trust, transparency, and integrity on CP

implementation (Wekesa & Muturi, 2016). The results showed that transparency led to

increased morale among the community and that trust promotes higher satisfaction

among community policing members (Wekesa & Muturi, 2016). The importance of trust

in the implementation of CP and the perceptions of both the community members and the

police officers were reinforced by this study.

Van Craen et al. (2014) studied which factors influenced the trust levels of

different ethnic minorities in European countries in the police officers who are assigned

the serve them. The authors replicated a previous study on Turkish and Moroccan

minority groups’ trust in the Belgian police to assess the similarities and the differences

in the self-reported descriptions of trust levels among minority groups. The focus of Van

Craen et al. (2014) was 259 Polish immigrants living in Belgium. Van Craen et al. (2014)

gathered data from the Polish Community Survey 2010, which is a face-to-face survey

designed by the Policy Research Centre on Equal Opportunities with the goal of

assessing the integration and attitudes of the Polish minority group members towards

government institutions. The authors hypothesized that social capital and the participants’

perceptions of discrimination would not have an important role in the explanation of the

Polish immigrants’ trust in the Belgian police (Van Craen et al., 2014). The results of

Van Craen et al. (2014) showed that although some minority group members have several

similarities with the majority of the population, they are still vulnerable to discrimination.

This experience of discrimination could foster distrust, along with core institutions

41
making too little effort to limit discrimination in society. The author highlighted the need

for further studies about the minority trust in Europe through testing performance theory

and procedural justice theory among minority groups.

Restoring trust. Merkey (2015) studied the benefits of restorative justice

regarding the rift between police officers and community members who belong in

minority sectors instead of numerous killings of unarmed minority civilians by police

officers. Merkey posited that communities could be restored, and CP can be effective, if

victims, offenders, and police officers are reintegrated into their communities and

develop relationships based on trust and accountability through the model of restorative

justice. The author highlighted that rehabilitative justice is more effective than punitive

justice. The results of this study validated the importance of collective efficacy and CP in

restoring positive relationships within the community and reducing crime; furthermore,

the author highlighted the importance of trust and accountability in the effectiveness of

CP.

Manaliyo (2016) explored the challenges facing community participation in crime

prevention programs in one of the Cape Town townships through a qualitative study. The

author stated that participation in crime prevention within local communities is in its

infancy in the South African context and the South African Police Service (SAPS) plays a

significant role in advancing CP in South Africa. He added that failure of law

enforcement in South Africa had been primarily linked to long-standing allegations of the

corrupt and ineffective nature of SAPS. The sample of Manaliyo (2016) comprised 45

purposively selected ordinary citizens and representatives of anti-crime organizations in

Khayelitsha. The data collection was done through in-depth face-to-face interviews that

42
continued until Manaliyo (2016) reached data saturation. The findings of Manaliyo

(2016) showed that while community participation has clear potential for reducing crime

in the community of Khayelitsha, problems such as poverty and the ineffectiveness of

SAPS prevent the advancement of community participation. Another barrier was the lack

of trust and faith in the SAPS. According to Manaliyo (2016), the restoration of the

public’s trust in the SAPS is necessary for residents to effectively participate in the crime

prevention programs of the community. The number of residents who report crimes and

provide quality information to police forces about potential criminal activities will

continue to decline unless the perception of the residents of the police forces improves.

Building relationships. Demirkol and Nalla (2017) evaluated the relationship

between police culture and community policing and determined whether culture served as

a barrier or a facilitator of the successful implementation of community policing.

Demirkol and Nalla (2017) gathered data from 1970 officers employed in three different

police functions - patrol, plainclothes, and airports in Turkey, and analyzed these through

structural equation modeling. The results showed the relationships between six

determined dimensions of police culture, which are authoritarianism, cynicism, social

cohesion, loyalty, work alienation, and autonomy. Demirkol and Nalla (2017) also used

the data to evaluate possible non-invariance in attitudes towards community policing

among officers in these three different functions. In particular, the results showed that

although social cohesion, loyalty, and civism dimensions of police culture related

positively to support community policing, the dimensions of autonomy and alienation

have negative relationships to support community policing.

43
 Stein and Griffith (2015) asserted that the effective implementation of community

policing programs relies on both the police officers and residents comprehending

completely the needs of their communities. The misalignment in understanding can serve

as a critical barrier to the success of crime prevention strategies, including community

policing. Most neighborhood research emphasized residents’ perceptions of their

neighborhoods while overlooking the perceptions of the police officers. Not doing so is

missing a critical element in ensuring the effective implementation of community

policing programs.

As such, Stein and Griffith (2015) examined both the perceptions of the police

and the residents in three high-crime neighborhoods located commonly in a Midwestern

city in the United States. Stein and Griffith (2015) reported that residents and police

officers expressed deviating perceptions and interpretations of the neighborhoods and

neighborhood measures. The residents’ perceptions of neighborhood measures were

found to be relatively consistent across the three neighborhoods, while police officers’

perceptions of their relationship with the residents varied across the three. Police officers

had more positive perceptions of their relationship with the residents in the neighborhood

with predominantly white residents because this is also the setting with an active crime

prevention program in place (Stein & Griffith, 2015). The results showed that the

opinions of the police officers with regard to the neighborhoods they patrolled drive their

perceptions of what the neighborhoods need in terms of policing instead of the actual

problems. What they think the communities need may not be what the residents believe

they need.

44
Current Community Policing and Crime Prevention

Several studies have been designed to evaluate community-oriented policing’s

effectiveness in the task of crime prevention, with mixed findings. Dunn, Atie, Kennedy,

Ali, O’Reilly, and Rogerson (2015) evaluated whether it is possible to combat terrorism

through community policing. They specifically focused on the NSW Police Force’s

Counter Radicalization Strategy, which is a community engagement strategy that made

use of community liaison officers’ expertise, deployed across Sydney’s Muslim

communities. Survey data was analyzed from Muslims in Sydney, showing positive

results on the community engagement initiative on the community. Included among its

success factors were the fact that it was public, it included partnership aspects, and it

fostered depth in relations. The results showed that the program had high levels of

community awareness and a majority perceived it as successful; however, the results also

indicated that there remained some level of community suspicion as well as critique,

which now needed more attention. The participants also called for the improvement of

aspects of community policing to have more and wider contact, higher visibility, and

greater partnership. The findings also led Dunn, Atie, Kennedy, Ali, O’Reilly, and

Rogerson (2015) to affirm the value and utility of community policing for antiterrorism

goals.

Public attention. Wade (2017) added that since 2014, there occurred various

high-profile police-involved shootings that caught public attention and interest. The

misunderstandings held by the public of police culture, legal knowledge, as well as

human behavior combined fostered an environment prone to social unrest, prone to

escalating to mass violence in the United States. Wade (2017) believed that having

45
educational initiatives on community-oriented policing services in the United States is

necessary, given the decentralized structure for policing services in place in the nation. If

the Community-Oriented Policing Services office grant assistance to law enforcement

and community members, significant school reforms can be carried out with the goal of

educating children on critical concepts such as police operations and making them more

knowledgeable of community members’ perceptions of police misconduct. Educational

services ensure access to proper and correct information that could address

misunderstandings about police and minorities, mostly perpetuated and spread by

different news media outlets and more recently, by social media. Educational initiatives

also allow for the youth and community members to have the ability to critically evaluate

the best method law officers can serve communities and meet their policing needs.

Diehr and McDaniel (2018) found that a lack of enough community-oriented

policing practices can partly mediate the association between racial residential

segregation and intraracial black or black-on-black homicide rates. Segregation is said to

be positively related to intraracial black homicide rates. This relationship is partly

mediated by a greater amount of community policing. The lesser amount or insufficient

amount of community policing can lead to higher levels of intra-racial black homicide

rates. To arrive at the findings, Diehr and McDaniel (2018) collected incorporated-place-

level secondary data from various sources and conducted a mediation analysis to

determine the relationships among the studied variables. In supporting what most

researchers have claimed, higher levels of segregation were linked with higher intraracial

homicide rates. What was newly uncovered was that the effect on the level of intraracial

homicide rates by segregation could be mediated by the lack of community policing

46
efforts. The findings also showed that the lack of community policing practices might

serve as an explanation for around 13% of the tense relationship between blacks and

whites.

Community policing refers to the absence of military action in fighting or

preventing crime. the definition ascribed to community-oriented policing can differ from

one department to another even within a single agency or between police jurisdictions.

An agency’s effort to meet the needs of all that it is trying to protect within a community,

regardless of their wealth, education, or state can come to serve as a defining moment in

the effort (Becker, 2017). Another premise of an effective community policing is that

police members are citizens as well, receiving their income on a full-time basis in

exchange for crime prevention and resolution (Becker, 2017). Most community-oriented

policing is conducted with the oversight of the fact that police officers are mere citizens

preventing crime in exchange for income, which can lead to distrust of the police.

According to COPS 2019 Annual Review in 2019, a multiagency effort will be

initiated to provide technical assistance to agencies in an effort to enhance their agency in

many areas, including community policing effectiveness. Collaborative reform in de-

escalation, intelligence and information sharing, active shooter response, crisis

intervention, and school safety will be topics discussed and shared through the state and

national agencies. As lessons are learned, the data will be shared will agencies that sign

up for and participate in the program. Upon completion of the program, the data will be

shared through websites designed to provide the latest information for agencies and

provide technical assistance to agencies that were not able to be part of the program

(Keith, 2019).

47
 Crime prevention. In general, crime prevention is achieved through several

methods, the majority of which through focused efforts to limit the incidence of certain

crimes. Harris (2009) showed that pay-at-pump initiatives as a method can be quite

successful at reducing crime rates. From 2005 to 2006, this initiative led to a 59% drop in

crimes taking place at gas stations. This specific strategy was developed through a

concerted effort of crime prevention specialists focused on reducing this one specific

crime. The drop in the crime rate at such a rate was a remarkable accomplishment,

especially to those who had to contend with the risk for some time. Other crime

prevention efforts methods include community watch programs, crime stopper programs,

and many other programs that are preventive instead of reaction in nature. Community-

oriented policing is one such method or effort to create a culture of crime prevention.

There are factors that can improve community-oriented policing outcomes in

relation to crime prevention. First is the factor of police officer attitudes, which have been

highlighted as not only in the carrying out of community-oriented policing practices but

also in ensuring the trust and positive perceptions of the police by the community

(Brunson, 2015; Roberts, 2018). Researchers have claimed that in order to examine

community policing in relation to crime rates, the police officers’ attitudes toward the

community should be examined first, as with their attitudes toward law enforcement

management (Brunson, 2015; Roberts, 2018). Researchers have learned and presented

that the attitudes of police officers are usually not what management believes them to be,

leading to a quandary when trying to foster a positive relationship through community

policing. According to Roberts (2018), there is often a disconnection between policies,

48
training provided commitment levels of the officers, and support given to community-

oriented policing (Brunson, 2015; Roberts, 2018).

Attitudes towards community-oriented policing have also been studied and

presented as a factor relating to the success or failure of crime reduction. Chappell (2007)

conducted a literature synthesis of studies published earlier during the gradual shift from

traditional to community-oriented policing. The results showed that positive attitudes of

police officers towards community-oriented policing can lead to effective crime

prevention. Ercikti, Vito, Walsh, and Higgins (2011) also examined attitudes and

community policing, particularly the attitudes of police managers. They focused on

police managers because their job satisfaction was expected to be higher compared to line

officers. The managers all had at least 15 years of service. In the findings, there were

indications that police managers’ positive attitudes toward community-oriented policing

also factored into such strategy’s success. Some studies revealed that officers’

commitment to community policing could be facilitated by organizational commitment

(Johnson, 2015; Rosenbaum & McCarty, 2017). Commitment to community policing, in

particular, was revealed to be linked to actual community policing behaviors. Officers

who were committed to the strategy of community policing were more likely to carry out

and participate in the activities of community policing more seriously. Additional data

revealed the factors crucial to community policing apart from officers’ attitudes and

commitment, including teamwork, technology, autonomy, and labor division (Lamin &

Teboh, 2016; Makin & Marenin, 2017). In the synthesis of these studies, the factors were

presented that the administration lacked the understanding of the principles and as to

49
whether they should be part of community police training and if they were effective or

noneffective from the perspective of the police officer or training officer.

Uluturk, Guler, and Karakaya (2014) explored officers’ attitudes towards

community-oriented policing and examined the reasons behind their attitudes. Gathering

data from 405 Turkish police officers, Uluturk, Guler, and Karakaya (2014) revealed that

the participants’ demographic characteristics, work orientation, training and level of

participating in decision-making, as well as perceptions toward the public all influenced

officers’ attitudes toward community-oriented policing. In particular, the results revealed

that most police officers had positive attitudes toward community policing and support

the initiatives of their department and in general. Uluturk, Guler, and Karakaya (2014)

found that police officers who participated in decision-making in relation to community

policing tend to be those with positive attitudes toward the strategy of community

policing decision-making. The same goes for those with service work orientation and

positive relationships with citizens.

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework Literature

Collective efficacy. The theory of collective efficacy serves as the theoretical framework

for this study. Sampson et al. (1997) first hypothesized that collective efficacy is the

social cohesion of the members of a community combined with their willingness to

intervene for the common good, is associated with reduced violence and crime within the

community. These authors posited that the aggregated demographic characteristics of

individual members of a community are not the sole basis for explaining and predicting

variations in crime rates; rather, the social and organizational characteristics of the

community are also important (Sampson et al., 1997). The authors further stated that the

50
capacity of community members to control the group-level processes and limit the signs

of social disorder is vital in maintaining order within the community.

It is a neighborhood-level concept where the members of the community assume

ownership and create a sense of agency for the betterment of their local community,

which represents the spatial location within which culture is shared, governmental

resources are provided, social interaction happens, and a sense of community is often

produced (Uchida, Swatt, Solomon, & Varano, 2013). Uchida et al. explained that this

sense of agency manifests in different forms of formal and informal social control, which

predict and influence the functioning of the community. Collective efficacy has also been

defined as the capacity of an individual to act for his/her group due to mutual goals,

interests, and values as well as the presence of trust among group members. Without this

individual action, group impotence is likely to increase, which can be harmful to minority

communities with high rates of crime (Petrosino & Pace, 2015).

Sampson et al. (1997) emphasized that the willingness of residents to partner with

the community for the common good is dependent on the conditions of mutual trust and

solidarity within the community. If distrust and fear are present, informal social control is

unlikely to manifest, and collective efficacy is negatively influenced. The destabilization

caused by population changes, such as a high rate of residential mobility, could also

weaken a community’s collective efficacy. Macroeconomic changes due to

deindustrialization and the outmigration of middle-class community members could also

affect collective efficacy. Race and class segregation could also intensify social isolation

of low-income residents, single parents, and other minorities, which could further lead to

decreased collective social control (Sampson et. al, 1997).

51
 To test their theory of collective efficacy, Sampson et al. (1997) performed an

analysis of 343 neighborhood clusters from 847 census tracts using data from the Project

on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN). Using a respective five-

item Likert scale, the measures used were (a) informal social control; and (b) social

cohesion and trust. Sampson et al. found that immigrant concentration was negatively

linked to collective efficacy and residential stability was positively related to collective

efficacy. High socioeconomic status and homeownership were also related to higher

levels of collective efficacy. The findings of their study showed that collective efficacy

had a mediating effect on neighborhood instability and violence. Collective efficacy had

positive effects on community stability and negative effects of violence. Collective

efficacy provided the central theoretical framework for study, as it further suggests

formal social control through community policing as a potential means of improving

collective efficacy. Nix et al. (2015) also performed a study on how a neighborhood’s

perceptions of collective efficacy helped predict the levels of trust within the community.

These researchers surveyed a random sample of 1,681 residents in a mid-sized city and

measured their perceptions of trust, the context of the neighborhood, and collective

efficacy (Nix et al., 2015). Their findings showed that collective efficacy was positively

related to levels of trust within the community, which was a crucial factor in Nix et al.

(2015). The studies by Nix et al (2015) were shown to validate the theory of collective

efficacy in analyzing disorder and crime at the community level.

Broken windows. Another common theory for analyzing neighborhood-level crime and

violence and which contributed to the theoretical underpinnings of this study is the theory

of broken windows policing, which posits that signs of disorder could potentially increase

52
crime and fear, both directly and indirectly (Abdullah, Marzbali, Bahauddin, & Tilaki,

2015). Wilson and Kelling (1982) hypothesized that disorder has a high degree of

influence in the decline of communities and contributes to higher crime rates in a

neighborhood. Broken windows theory translated to a no-tolerance approach in practice,

which theorized that cracking down on minor crime will reduce major crime (Howell,

2016). Howell also found that this approach has the potential of ignoring the needs of the

community due to its focus on punitive measures. The author further stated that the

broken windows theory could disproportionately affect minorities and misrepresent the

impact of the relationship between the community members and the police. Braga,

Welsh, and Schnell (2015) also found through a systematic review of the literature that

beyond broken windows policing, which has been found to have no strong association

with reduced crime, other police innovations, such as community policing, third-party

policing, and hot spots policing, have been found to reduce serious crime.

As a result of the review of these studies, the theory of collective efficacy was

found to be a more suitable framework for this study. Collective efficacy in this study

included the specific police officers that are engaged within the community. The use of

specific police officers expands upon the tested theory of collective efficacy by

employing the suggestion of Sampson et al. (1997) to include formal social control by

exploring the perspective of police officers and police administrators. In the context of

this study, collective efficacy was analyzed in the context of CP, which involves the

collaboration of the police, the residents, and other stakeholders in the design and

implementation of strategies for crime prevention (Pandey, 2014). The concept, goals,

53
and implementation of CP, as well as the challenges associated with it, are further

discussed in the following sections.

Community policing. Community policing is one of the latest models of policing

introduced in the United States and is the subject of interest for politicians, policymakers,

and law enforcement leaders at all levels of government (Amadi, 2014). CP is based on

close and frequent interactions between the police officers and the community with the

goal of solving local security problems (Czapska & Struzińska, 2018). The goal of

community policing is to increase the quality of life of the community by preventing and

reducing crime, increasing feelings of safety among the community’s members, and

improving the physical conditions of the community as a whole (Amadi, 2014). CP draws

on the premise that police officers are not limited to the traditional law enforcement

capacities and must draw on the potential of community involvement to define, prioritize,

and fight issues of crime (Gill et al., 2014). CP has been found to be effective, with

findings showing increased respect and sensitivity among members of the police force

and the members of the community (Laru-an & Beup, 2015). CP has also been found to

increase community engagement and encourage problem-solving efforts within members

(Maguire et al., 2017). Some researchers have suggested that CP has lost some of its

momenta due to the lack of perceptible positive results and the absence of specific criteria

for CP implementation (Gill et al., 2014).

The problem that was to be addressed was the gap in the knowledge regarding

effective training procedures for strengthened community policing. Addressing this gap

helped to advance the knowledge in the topic through empirical information from the

perspective of police officers and police administrators about community policing

54
training practices and procedures. The findings of this study added to the knowledge

regarding police officers’ and police administrators’ perceptions of community policing,

the barriers and challenges associated with its implementation, and the skills they

perceive to be vital to improve on current practices.

Qualitative Method Literature Review

Researchers who typically conduct quantitative studies do not always recognize

the legitimacy of the qualitative approach to research (Neuman, 2006). The qualitative

methodology is a research method that places or locates the observer in the world through

a situational activity (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). Quantitative and qualitative

approaches differ significantly; however, one commonality is that the individual

completing the research is the person developing the design to investigate a phenomenon.

Inexperience, bias, ineffective interview techniques, lack of subject-matter knowledge,

and the inability to build a rapport with participants are some factors that can limit a case

study (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). Further, researchers’ choice to conduct a qualitative

study means that they cannot effectively address each type of research question;

therefore, researchers often employ quantitative studies or mixed reviews to fully explore

a phenomenon (Anderson, 2010). The qualitative method may provide a means of

producing research findings that were not derived from statistical methods or other

procedures (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). A lack of derived findings may occur because the

qualitative method of research seems to be more suited to the temperament and

background of the individual completing the research as a result of the strong feelings

possessed about the issue of a proper police training (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).

55
 Many methods have been utilized in attempting to understand training and its role

in law enforcement efforts. Hur (2017) utilized quantitative regression analysis to

understand the number of training hours, variables such as poverty level and education,

and officer performance to evaluate the effectiveness of training. Hur did not evaluate

training from any perspective that allows for the qualitative understanding of what parts

of the training were effective. Hur stated that more hours do not necessarily coincide with

improved crime control performance. Raj and Rajkonwar (2017) conducted a quantitative

descriptive cross-sectional design and data analysis to understand what was being studied

in Assam police department training and the components of the training. Raj and

Rajkonwar (2017) did not include any information on the effectiveness, nor did it

consider how the training was being utilized in the community. Raj and Rajkonwar

(2017) are missing these elements that the research aimed to understand by utilizing

qualitative methods and adding to the body of knowledge.

Research Design Literature

Researchers must remain cognizant of internal bias when conducting qualitative

case studies. Preconceived ideas potentially influence the collection and interpretation of

data. Study participants should not be influential or skew study results. Qualitative case

studies require extensive time to collect and examine data. The interviewer should

discover time management and schedule interview dates and time; flexibility is required

for gaining access to the population and unanticipated disruptions. Notes need to decipher

and articulate; judgment and memory errors taint the creditability of the research study

(Yin, 2014).

56
 The case study design helps researchers explore various philosophical concerns

prompted by posing research questions asking how or why (Yin, 2014). The case study

design was an appropriate choice for this study because analysis of the police training

process, as experienced by individuals, groups, or departments, provides awareness on

best practices to promote collective efficacy and CP. The case study design was

appropriate to examine the current curriculum in police departments on the Texas Gulf

Coast.

White (2018) conducted a participative action research study that utilized the

participants to engage in the study and formulated strategies from the participation that

would allow for better community interaction involving adolescent criminal activity.

White’s results were positive, and leaders could see causal data that could later be

analyzed to mitigate adolescent crime; however, White (2018) did not discuss the training

that led to the involvement nor did the study relate to the perspective of the officers, only

the leaders that participated in the study. Poloka (2018) conducted a case study that was

to determine decision-making for veterans in crisis. This author evaluated the perspective

of Police Chiefs with respect to decision-making when encountering previous combat

veterans. The results eluded to funding, training, and “soft” skills; however, Poloka did

not address the perspectives of the officers within the encounters. The findings also did

not reflect on current training and the perspective of the trainers that teach officers about

the encounters. Such perspectives may fill the body of knowledge with the information

missing from previous studies.

57
 Conclusion

The review of the literature showed that distrust between the community members

and the police officers as well as between community members and other community

members had been reported as barriers to the proper implementation of crime prevention

strategies. CP, in particular, relies on the positive relationships between the community

and the police force; thus, trust and accountability are of utmost importance (Merkey,

2015). Researchers have explored the perceptions of citizens, police officers, and

administrators regarding the implementation of CP in various contexts. Many of the

findings revealed the effectiveness of training and understanding from the perspective of

the community; however, the perspective of the police officer on effective or

noneffective characteristics is widely missing from the literature.

Chapter Summary

The historical literature for this study was based on and led to the discussion of

the theory of collective efficacy posited by Sampson et al. (1997) and the theory of

broken windows of Braga et al. (2015). These theories give a historical perspective on

community policing that the literature explored. Amadi (2014) described a historical

background to the shift from the traditional model of policing to community policing.

The implementation and utilization of CP were widely documented in numerous studies

around the world. The challenges that face both the police and community were

discussed, including Taylor’s (1998) identification of the five major challenges in the

implementation of CP. Lastly, the role of trust in law enforcement was identified as it

relates to CP. Solakoglu (2016) explained that there had been a growing body of

literature about the public’s perception of the police. This literature needs to be examined

58
as a function of training and the historical perspective should be used to enlighten both

law enforcement, and the community of the positive nature of CP with an understanding

of what characteristics in the training are effective or noneffective from the perspective of

police officers and police trainers.

Chapter 3 begins with information concerning the research method and design

appropriateness. Chapter 3 also includes a discussion of the population and sample,

informed consent and confidentiality, and data collection procedures. Chapter 3 includes

information concerning instrument validity. Chapter 3 concludes with a discussion of

data analysis techniques deemed appropriate for this study.

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 Chapter 3

Research Methodology

The purpose of the qualitative single case study was to discover the perceptions of

police officers and police trainers regarding community police training effectiveness. To

address this purpose, a qualitative case study was conducted. The focus of the discussion

for this chapter is the justification of the appropriateness of qualitative case study and the

procedures that were implemented to address the purpose of this study. The sections

included in Chapter 3 include the research design and design appropriateness, research

method, research questions, role of the researcher, methodology, instrumentation,

procedures for recruitment, data collection, data analysis plan, issues of trustworthiness,

and ethical procedures. A summary of the chapter is then presented.

Research Method and Design Appropriateness

Researchers use the qualitative method when the aim is to understand individuals’

experiences of a certain phenomenon, interpret processes and meanings surrounding that

phenomenon, and use theoretically based concepts to explore that phenomenon

(Silverman, 2015; Yin, 2017). Qualitative research is appropriate for qualifying a social

or human problem (Marshall & Rossman, 2014).

A clear distinction exists between qualitative and quantitative methods.

Qualitative research includes various components and limited cases, whereas quantitative

studies include smaller components and a larger number of cases. The qualitative method

requires obtaining descriptive information, whereas the quantitative method involves

collecting and analyzing numerical data (Newman & Hitchcock, 2011). Qualitative

60
research includes humanistic and interactive approaches to investigate a phenomenon in

its natural environment.

Quantitative researchers aim to gather data for numerical analysis, conduct

statistical calculations, use statistical software and validated scales and find explanations

and correlations within the data (Silverman, 2015). A quantitative approach would be

inappropriate for this study, as the phenomenon studied—the gap between training

procedures and effective community policing practices—has largely to do with

behavioral aspects and perceptions of individuals and cannot be entirely quantified.

Perceptions can be quantified through certain survey methodologies, these approaches

provide superficial perceptions, while the research aimed to examine these perceptions

in-depth. The qualitative research method was selected because the purposes of this study

aligned with these aims: to understand officer and trainer experiences of community

policing training, to interpret the process and meanings surrounding police training, and

to use the theory and concept of collective efficacy and community policing in order to

assess training procedures.

The phenomenon that was explored in this study was effective community

policing. The case study design was selected to address the purpose of this research. Case

study designs seek the understanding of a certain concept or group within its specific

context and may utilize multiple methods of data collection (i.e., triangulation) to obtain

this understanding (Marshall & Rossman, 2014; Yin, 2017). A case study is appropriate

when exploring a phenomenon based on perceptions of a group of people, who form a

case of interest, within a bounded system in its natural environment (Yin, 2017). The case

study approach was utilized to explore the gap between community policing training and

61
its practice within the context of the police department training programs in the Texas

Gulf Coast area. The case study design was an appropriate choice for the study because

analysis of the police training process, as experienced by individuals, groups, or

departments, provides awareness on best practices to promote collective efficacy and CP.

The case study was appropriate to examine current curriculum in police departments on

the Texas Gulf Coast.

The phenomenological design was considered as a possible option for this study,

as the intent was to describe the perception of officers and trainers, which had not been

widely studied. The phenomenological method was eliminated because the focus of the

study was on community policing training and not the lived experience of the

participants. The use of a descriptive approach increased the knowledge and insight into

the ideas that officers and trainers have toward their use of training and its applicability

within the community networks. The phenomenological design requires an in-depth

exploration of the lived experience of individuals in order to make sense of a

phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994).

Research Questions

In addressing the identified general and specific problems, as well as utilizing

collective efficacy and community policing as the theoretical and conceptual frameworks

of the study, newly recruited officers’ and trainers’ perceptions of community policing

training in Texas Gulf Coast police departments were explored. The research questions

that drove this qualitative single case study were:

RQ1: What do departmental trainers perceive as effective community police

training principles?

62
 RQ2: What are police officers’ perspectives on the community police training

effectiveness in their application?

Population and Sample

The purpose of the qualitative single case study was to discover the perceptions of

police officers and police trainers regarding community police training effectiveness.

Based on the purpose, there was a need to collect data about community policing

practices. The source of primary qualitative data for this topic was police officers in

Texas Gulf Coast police departments. The target population for this study included police

officers and departmental trainers in Texas Gulf Coast police departments. This target

population was selected because of the relevant perceptions they have in relation to first-

hand experience of community policing practices, which is the central topic of this study.

A sample from the target population was recruited using purposive sampling. This

sampling strategy was employed to select participants based on a set of predetermined

criteria, namely recent recruits with one to five years’ experience and trainers, that align

with the requirements for addressing the research questions (Barratt, Ferris, & Lenton,

2015; Gentles, Charles, Ploeg, & McKibbon, 2015; Palinkas et al., 2015). Researchers

have claimed that purposive sampling is commonly used in qualitative case studies due to

the need to focus on a specific group of individuals related to a given case (Barratt et al.,

2015; Palinkas et al., 2015). Purposive sampling provides for a more concentrated and

narrowly focused population that can provide more specified insight (van Rijnsoever,

2017). A purposive sampling technique was appropriate for selecting the participants for

this case study.

63
 In selecting participants, a set of sampling criteria was used to determine their

eligibility. The sample participants were required to satisfy a set of criteria that aligned

with the problem, purpose, and research questions of the study. The eligibility criteria for

the police officers were as follows: (a) being a recent recruit (i.e., having between one to

five years of experience) or training officer; (b) belonging to police departments in the

Texas Gulf Coast area to focus the area of the sample; (c) having worked at the chosen

police department for at least one years. Participation was determined whether the

participants satisfied the set criteria through a set of screening questions, which was

asked during the recruitment phase. Recent—as opposed to more experienced—recruits

were appropriate for the study, as their perceptions were more recent, and since they

would be exposed to current training measures in police officer training. Interviewing

officers with at least one year with the department offered their relevant perceptions of

actual time spent in the field. The sample of training officers provided their unique

perspectives on the training procedures, as well as their insights into departmental

training ideologies

Recruitment began for this study by obtaining permission from the University

Institutional Review Board (IRB). The IRB reviewed the proposal, particularly the

methodology, to ensure that the procedures would not violate rights and ethical issues

related to human participants. After IRB approval, site authorization was obtained. The

departments do not possess a departmental IRB; therefore, permission from the police

chief or the designee of each police department was obtained to conduct the interviews

and obtain training materials. A list of potential participants was requested for this study,

specifically new recruits and training officers. After obtaining site permissions from the

64
different heads of the police departments included for this study, recruitment began by

visiting the police department facilities to personally invite recent recruits and training

officers to be a part of the study. The interviewer personally spoke to recruits and training

officers to explain the purpose and possible benefits of the study and to discuss the scope

of their participation in the study. The recent recruits and training officers were also

invited by distributing invitation letters to these personnel. In the invitation letter, the

details of the purpose of the study were included, possible benefits of the study, scope of

participation, and eligibility criteria (see attached invitation letter in Appendix B). The

police officers and trainers who expressed interest were asked to participate in a series of

screening questions to ensure their eligibility. Police officers (e.g., recent recruits and

trainers) who satisfied all the eligibility criteria received a copy of the informed consent

through email. The informed consent form contained information about the rights and

scope of participation in the study. The police officers were required to read and sign the

form if they agreed with the contents of the consent. The participants then sent a signed

copy to the interviewer through email. After receiving the signed copy, the interviewer

scheduled the interview with the participant.

Purposive sampling was used in this study to get at the specific experiences of

officers and trainers about the experienced phenomenon. The sample size for qualitative

case studies is usually based on the point of data saturation (Fusch & Ness, 2015). The

point of data saturation is characterized by the instant wherein the collection and analysis

of new participant data do not generate new themes or new codes (Fusch & Ness, 2015;

Tran, Porcher, Falissard, & Ravaud, 2016). Officers and trainers were recruited from

each of the departments; therefore, nine interviews for data collection were conducted.

65
The size of the sample fell within the range of appropriate sample sizes for case studies

(Boddy, 2016; van Rijnsoever, 2017).

Informed Consent and Confidentiality

Researchers must address ethical issues when human participants are included in

the data collection of a study (Denzin & Giardina, 2016). To address ethical issues, IRB

approval was sought and approved before starting the recruitment or data collection

procedures. Second, all potential participants received an informed consent form, which

they were required to read and sign before they had considered them as official

participants of this study. In the informed consent form. wording explained: (a) the

purpose and benefits of the study, (b) the scope and length of participation, (c) the

possible but minimal risks involved, (e) the volunteer nature of the participants, (f) data

handling procedures, and (f) confidentiality clauses (see Appendix A for the informed

consent form). Third, the identity of participants was kept confidential by using

pseudonyms, such as Officer 1, Officer 2, Trainer 1, Trainer 2, and so forth, instead of

their real names. These pseudonyms were used in the data sheets and findings reports.

Fourth, all data was stored properly. All printed materials were kept in a locked storage

cabinet inside a locked private office. All electronic files were stored in a password-

protected computer with limited accessibility. Access to the collected data was restricted.

All of the data will be stored for five years after the publishing of this study. After the

five years of storage, all data hard copy data will be destroyed by utilizing fire for

burning or permanent deletion from the computer memory. Fifth, no participant was

forced to participate in the study. All potential participants were able to decline or accept

66
the invitation without any consequence or incentive. All participants were informed about

how to quit the study at any time during the data collection phase.

Instrumentation

The sources of data for the case study were semistructured interviews and field

training materials. Semistructured interviews were appropriate because they allow the

participants to deviate if needed from the specific questions of the interviewer, while also

allowing the interviewer to keep the conversation centered on the central concepts and

research concerns (Silverman, 2015). The main instruments used were interview guides

for police trainers and police officers (see Appendix D for copies of the interview

guides). The general ideas of collective efficacy, namely the influence of social leaders,

the relationships within the community, and the role of demographics, contributed to the

development of the interview guide (Sampson, 2008). The table contained in Appendix E

illustrates the alignment of the specific interview questions with the research questions

and the particular domains of inquiry (e.g., principles, concepts, perspectives) aligned

with the research questions.

Field Testing

The questions in the interview guide were researcher-developed. The interview

questions were developed based on existing literature about effective community policing

and collective efficacy. The literature indicated the need for more training and a better

understanding of community policing as it related to collective efficacy (Stamper, 2016).

The questions in the interview were directly associated with the research questions of the

study. A field test to ensure the validity of the data collection instrument was conducted.

During the field test, two recent recruits of police departments and a trainer were asked to

67
participate in a mock interview using the initial set of interview questions. The

participants of the field test answered the questions similar to the way an interview

participant would. The participants of the field test then reviewed the appropriateness and

understandability of the questions in the interview guide. This review helped to ensure

that the questions were appropriate to address the research questions and would be easily

understood based on the feedback of members of the intended sample of this study.

Specifically, the participants provided feedback about the appropriateness of wording of

the questions based on the language that is common for the participants of the interview.

The field test participants were not utilized as participants for data collection and analysis

in the study. The answers from the field test were not recorded. Recommendations for

changes to the guide questions were considered based on the comments of the field test

participants. Participants commented that they did not feel comfortable answering

specific questions about race, gender, age, or ethnicity; however, questions of

demographics and economics were acceptable and retained. The participants also felt that

questions based on religion or social status within a given community may be intrusive

and were removed.

Issues of Trustworthiness

The qualitative methodology requires ensuring issues of trustworthiness (Lincoln

& Guba, 1985). To improve trustworthiness, issues of credibility, transferability,

dependability, and confirmability were addressed.

Credibility. Credibility refers to the internal validity of the study and the ability

to be reasonable, believable, and consistent with the general understanding of such

phenomena when seen from other participants or perspectives (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

68
Member checking was conducted to improve credibility. Birt, Scott, Cavers, Campbell,

and Walter (2016) claimed that member checks could help improve credibility by

allowing sources of the data to verify the correctness and accuracy of the data from the

interviews. Aside from member checks, a field test was conducted to improve credibility.

By conducting a field test, investigators can improve credibility by verifying whether the

questions included in the interview guide are appropriate for the intended sample who

will answer the questions (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014). Last, credibility may be

achieved through data saturation for content validity (Oberink, Boom, van Dijk, &

Visser, 2017).

Transferability. Transferability refers to external validity or the extent to which

the findings will be applicable to another setting or context (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The

research improved transferability by writing a thick description of the data collection and

analysis of the study. A detailed discussion of the findings of the study was provided to

improve transferability. Elo et al. (2014) described giving clear understanding of the

selection criteria for the participants when considering transferability. In this manner,

future researchers can easily determine whether the findings in the data are applicable to

other settings or contexts.

Dependability. Dependability is the qualitative counterpart to reliability and

refers to the ability to be counted upon or relied upon (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

Dependability was improved by conducting an audit trail. Copies of procedural

documents used for this study were provided to enable readers of the study to review the

flow and process. Audit trails help improve dependability by providing a basis for

reviewing the reliability of the procedures and findings of the study (Lincoln & Guba,

69
1985). An audit trail provided documentation about every step and procedure that occurs

in the study.

Confirmability. Confirmability is the qualitative counterpart of objectivity

(Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The confirmability of this study was improved by addressing

and minimizing researcher bias. Through a field test of the instrumentation with members

of the target population, personal biases were minimized that may have influenced during

the development of the questions for the interview. Subjectivity and improved

confirmability were also minimized through reflexivity, wherein personal beliefs and

assumptions related to the study and the findings were listed. This list was referenced and

checked before and after every interview. In this manner, awareness of possible sources

of bias when making interpretations of the data from the participants were noted.

Data Collection

Only one instrument was used by this study for data collection to address the

research questions of this study. Data was collected from nine participants composed of

officers and trainers from police departments in the Texas gulf coast. The interviewer

personally conducted nine individual interviews over the telephone. Telephone interviews

were performed so as not to apply unnecessary pressure from peers or supervision and

thus risk the presence of bias in the participants’ commentaries. Each interview lasted for

45 to 90 minutes. Each interview was audio-recorded for easier transcription. During

each interview, the interview guide was used when asking questions.

The interview involved three parts: introduction, interview proper, and summary

or conclusion, see appendix D for the interview guides. In the introduction, the

interviewer greeted the participants. An overview of the topic of the study was provided

70
by discussing the background and purpose of the study. The flow of the interview was

examined to give the participants an idea of what to expect during the question and

answer portion.

During the data collection interviews, questions were asked based on the items in

the interview guide. Follow-up questions were asked based on the initial answers of the

participants. After asking all questions in the interview guide, each participant had the

opportunity to questions the interview during each of the succeeding phases of the study.

All of the participant’s questions and comments were addressed. The interviewer also

discussed the member checking process, wherein participants were allowed to review

their own transcripts before analysis was performed. The participants exited the interview

and were thanked for the time spent in the data collection of this study. After each

interview, the interview session was transcribed from the recorded audio files. After

transcription, member checking was performed. Each participant was given a copy of

their respective interview transcripts within two days from conducting their interviews. In

the member checking, participants reviewed the contents of the transcripts in terms of

consistency and accuracy (Birt et al., 2016). Each participant had three days to review the

transcript and give any feedback on what needed possible correction. Necessary changes

were made after discussing the corrections with the participants.

Data Analysis

The data was analyzed using content analysis with the aid of NVivo and other

analysis software. Content analysis is a data analysis technique that researchers use to

determine concepts or words present in a text (Elo et al., 2014). In the data analysis

technique, researchers analyze the relationships, meaning, and presence of such concepts

71
or words and use such analysis to generate inferences regarding the themes that emerge

from the text and participants (Vaismoradi et al., 2013). Texts in the context of the study

were referred or referenced to the transcripts from the interviews as well as from the

TCOLE training curriculum documents collected from the trainers at the law enforcement

agency. To conduct content analysis, these texts were broken down, or coded, into

smaller categories on different levels and examined using cross-sectional as well as

relational analysis to explore themes (Vaismoradi et al., 2013). Transcriptions were coded

and analyzed according to themes found in the theoretical and conceptual frameworks of

collective efficacy and community policing, such as a focus on officer-civilian relations

and an emphasis on critical thinking and problem-solving skills. The interviewer

compared his notes against the transcription to ensure accuracy and compared emergent

themes to ensure data saturation. The transcriptions were compared to departmental

training materials to ensure an accurate understanding of specific training procedures that

may be referenced in the interviews. The analysis of perceptions regarding community

policing training focused on how closely the training and subsequent practices align with

a focus on building officers’ cultural competence and interpersonal skills, toward the aim

of strengthening officer-civilian relations and working toward collaborative social

control. Skills, such as interpersonal and soft skills, were desirable and would allow the

officer to better interact with members of the community.

Chapter Summary

The purpose of the qualitative single case study was to discover the perceptions of

police officers and police trainers regarding community police training effectiveness. The

phenomenon explored was effective community policing training concepts for

72
developing interaction skills in the community. The target population for this study was

police officers in Texas Gulf Coast police departments. Participants were recruited using

purposive sampling. The following eligibility criteria were used to recruit participants: (a)

recent recruits (between one to five years of experience) or training officers; (b)

belonging to police departments in the Texas Gulf Coast area to focus the area of the

sample; (c) having worked at the chosen police department for at least one year. Officers

and trainers were recruited from each of the departments and conduct a total of nine

telephone semi-structured interviews for data collection. The data was analyzed by

conducting a content analysis.

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 Chapter 4

Analysis and Results

The purpose of the qualitative single case study was to discover the perceptions of

police officers and police trainers regarding community police training effectiveness.

Chapter 4 includes a review of the research questions that guided this study, followed by

a description of the data collection process. Next, descriptions of the study sample are

provided, and then a discussion of the data analysis procedure. The chapter proceeds with

a presentation of this study’s findings and concludes with a summary of this chapter.

Research Questions

Two research questions to were developed to guide this study:

RQ1: What do departmental trainers perceive as effective community

police training principles?

RQ2: What are police officers’ perspectives on the community police

training effectiveness in their application?

Data Collection

Data was collected from nine participants, including six recently recruited police

officers and three trainers from departments in the Texas Gulf Coast area. The

interviewer personally conducted interviews to collect data from the participants. Nine

interviews were conducted individually over the telephone. Each interview lasted

approximately 45-90 minutes. Each interview was audio-recorded to ensure accurate

transcription. During each interview, the interview guide was used when asking

questions.

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 The interview involved three parts: introduction, interviewer questions, and

participant answers, and summary or conclusion. In the introduction, participants were

greeted, provided an overview of the topic of the study, and discussed the background

and purpose of the study. The flow of the interview was summarized to give the

participant an idea of what to expect during the question-and-answer portion.

During the introduction, the interviewer reviewed the terms of informed consent.

The participants had reviewed and signed the informed consent form prior to scheduling

their interviews. While reviewing the terms of informed consent, the participant was

invited to ask questions and express any concerns.

In the interview proper, questions were asked based on the items in the interview

guide. Follow-up questions were also asked based on the initial answers of the

participants. After answering the questions in the interview guide, each participant was

invited to ask questions about the interview or the study as a whole. All the questions and

comments from the participants were addressed. The interviewer also discussed the

member-checking process. Finally, the participant was thanked and concluded the

interview.

Data saturation was found to have occurred after the sixth officer’s interview and

after the third trainer’s interview. Principle answers to the interview questions began to

overlap with concepts such as transparency and practical training being present in the

responses to the related questions.

After each interview, the interviewer transcribed the audio-recording verbatim

into a Microsoft Word document. After transcription, member-checking was performed.

The interviewer emailed each participant a copy of his or her interview transcript within 2

75
days of conducting their interview. The participants reviewed the contents of the

transcripts for accuracy. Each participant was given three days to review the transcript

and to provide feedback with any need for making a correction. None of the participants

requested corrections in the transcribed interviews.

Demographics

The sample for this study included six recently recruited police officers (between

one and five years of experience) and three training officers from police departments in

the Texas Gulf Coast area. Recent recruits were an appropriate population for the study

because their experiences were of comparatively current training measures. The criterion

that officers have at least one year of experience allowed for better exploration of the

participants’ perceptions of the application and efficacy of training in the field.

All three trainers were males between the ages of 36 and 45 years. The trainers’

years of experience in their police departments ranged from 14 to 23 years. Two out of

three of the trainers (67%) identified as Latinx, and one out of three (33%) identified as

Caucasian/non-Latinx. Five out of six (83%) recent recruits were male, and one was

female. Recent recruits’ ages ranged from 25 to 30 years, with a mean of 27 years. Years

of experience ranged from two to four years, with a mean of three and a half years for

recent recruits.

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Table 2

Participant Demographics

Participant General Age Years in

Title Gender Category Ethnicity Service

Officer 1 Male 25 Caucasian 2

Officer 2 Male 25 Caucasian 2

Officer 3 Male 30 Latinx 2

Officer 4 Male 28 Caucasian 3

Officer 5 Male 28 Latinx 4

Officer 6 Female 29 Latinx 4

Trainer 1 Male 40 Latinx 14

Trainer 2 Male 36 Caucasian 19

Trainer 3 Male 45 Latinx 23

Data Analysis

After the participants verified the interview transcriptions, the interviewer

uploaded the data into NVivo 12 software and analyzed the transcripts following a

content analysis approach. The interviewer also uploaded one archival document,

retrieved from the departmental trainers and containing community police training

curriculum as established by Texas Commission on Law Enforcement, into NVivo and

analyzed it using the same procedure in order to provide an additional perspective on

training principles. When conducting content analysis, the transcripts and archival

documents were broken down or coded into smaller categories. In NVivo, this involved

placing phrases or groups of phrases that expressed similar themes, perceptions,

experiences, or ideas into a child node, and labeling the child node with a descriptive

77
word or phrase. The child nodes are sub-topics related to the parent node. Similar child

nodes were grouped under a parent node, which was labeled with a descriptive phrase.

The parent nodes represented major themes. Table 3 indicates the major themes that

emerged, the child node or sub-themes that were grouped into each theme, and the

number of phrases or groups of consecutive phrases from the data (i.e., data units) that

were grouped into each theme. Many of the child nodes presented a challenge as to their

ability to fit under multiple parent nodes. The analysis of the data needed understanding

as to its function under interaction, communication, trust, or effectiveness. The child

nodes were grouped with the best possible parent node and subsequent theme.

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Table 3

Data Analysis Themes and Codes

Theme
Theme Codes grouped into theme (code frequency in frequency
parentheses)

Theme 1: Importance of context on interactions (5); enhancing 27

Initiating community interactions (5); understanding differences
friendly, between police and community cultures (4);
culturally importance of continued learning under the FTO (4);
competent “get your head out of the badge” (3); comparing class
interactions is an and street learning (3); cultural competence (2);
effective increasing positive relationships in the community (1).
community
police training
principle
Theme 2: Teaching the why not the how (4); honesty is the best 11
Reasonable policy (3); keeping the public informed (2); giving
transparency is options to community members (2).
an effective
community
police training
principle
Theme 3: No textbook for real-life experience (7); explaining 33
Application of need for magnitude of deployment (6); respect as good
community practice (5); seeking positive interactions (5);
police training department and community exhibit reciprocal care (4);
increases trust benefits of expanding community policing ed to
and cooperation community members (4); evidence of changed
dynamics (2)
Theme 4: Where community policing ends (6); more training 25
Application of would be beneficial (5); some people can't be reached
community (5); cultural diversity classes (4); limited influence
police training from community leaders (3); critiquing political slant
has limited of diversity efforts (2)
effectiveness
Note. Frequency refers to the number of phrases or groups of phrases from the transcripts
that were grouped into the code or theme.

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Results

This presentation of the results of the data analysis is organized by research

question with two themes recognized per the research question. In relation to Research

Question 1, the results indicated the community police training principles that the trainers

perceived as effective. The results associated with Research Question 2 indicated the

recently recruited police officers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of community police

training when its principles were applied in practice.

Research Question 1. Research Question 1 of the study was “What do

departmental trainers perceive as effective community police training principles?” Eight

questions were used to elicit the trainer’s perceptions regarding RQ1. The interview data

was used to answer this research question from one-on-one, semistructured interviews

with three police trainers. In the following presentation of results, the quotations were

attributed to the pseudonyms assigned to the trainers (i.e., Trainer 1, Trainer 2, and

Trainer 3) to ensure the participants’ confidentiality. The presentation of the findings

associated with RQ1 was organized by an identifying theme (or subtheme).

Theme 1: Initiating friendly, culturally competent interactions is an effective

community police training principle. The trainers indicated that the core value on which

community policing was based was the goal of building or rebuilding trust between the

community and its police force. The trainers perceived that an effective community

police training principle for earning the community’s trust was teaching officers to reach

out to citizens by initiating friendly, culturally competent interactions in a

nonenforcement role. The trainers perceived the defensive insularity of police culture (the

“blue brotherhood”) as a reaction on the part of officers to the community’s distrust and

80
criticism of law enforcement, as well as a significant obstacle to officers’ building

community trust by initiating friendly, culturally competent interactions with citizens. In

order to overcome this obstacle, the trainers believed that recent recruits should be taught

to perceive themselves as normal men and women doing a job, rather than as a category

of a person whose role made them aloof from the community that they served.

In the archival document of the Texas Commission of Law Enforcement

(TCOLE) entitled Cultural Diversity Lesson Plan, the purpose of community policing

was described as follows:

As a result of law enforcement’s endeavor to increase its positive relationship and

communication efforts with the community a model titled “community policing”

has evolved. With this model, the law enforcement environment must work hand

in hand with the community. The theory is that this will bridge the gap between

community and police and allow a trust to initiate between these two players.

(TCOLE, Cultural Diversity Lesson Plan, n.d.)

The trainers shared this perception of community policing in which law

enforcement and the community work hand-in-hand as a means of building trust between

law enforcement and the community. For example, Trainer 1 stated, “In my mind, the

whole premise of community-oriented policing is to maintain the public trust.”

Trainers stated that training recent recruits to initiate friendly interactions with

citizens was an effective community police training principle for building public trust.

Trainer 1 described this principle as a “must,” stating, “Friendly self-generated

interaction with the public is a must if you're going to maintain that public trust…You

want to be friendly. You want to be approachable.” In his response, Trainer 2 alluded to

81
the importance for officers of thinking of themselves and relating to citizens as normal

men and women doing a job like any other, as a means of being friendly and

approachable:

Just be a normal person that's doing the job. If you were a plumber, if you were a

handyman, if you were a firefighter without the powers of arrest, without the

authority you have, you would just engage them in a one on one. Do it with the

badge on. (Trainer 2)

Trainer 2 indicated that he emphasized this perspective when he trained recent recruits:

One of the things I really focus on when I teach in the academy and when I was

an FTO [Field Training Officer] is to take your head out of the badge. You're a

normal person like everybody else…If you want to talk to somebody, talk to

them. Don't talk down to them. Don't talk accusatory toward them. If you see a

group that you want to say hi to pull up, “Hey, what's going on?” (Trainer 2)

Trainer 2 added that, in general, the FTO was responsible for teaching practical

applications of the principles of community policing to new recruits:

I think once [recruits] get out of the academy, it's up to the field training officer to

start [training in community policing]. One of the things we suggest here is is the

FTOs will take the probationary police officers [and] walk them through schools.

Talk to the kids. Interact with kids. Walk them into businesses, and don't just

shelter yourself in a car for twelve hours and ride around and just do the minimum

that you have to do, [but] get out and interact with [citizens]. (Trainer 2)

Trainer 3 stated that when he served as an FTO he told recent recruits, “Hey, I want you

to find some citizen out roaming around and just go have a conversation with him,

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nonlaw enforcement related.” The TCOLE Cultural Diversity Lesson Plan included

recommendations consistent with the reported principles of trainers, such as, “Make

positive contact with community group members from diverse backgrounds. Don’t let

them see you only when something negative has happened” and, “Allow the public to see

you as much as possible in a nonenforcement role.”

Trainers believed that in addition to being friendly, officers needed to be trained

to initiate interactions with community members in a culturally competent manner.

Trainer 1 described how the different cultures of different socioeconomic classes in the

same community required officers to adapt their initiations of friendly and culturally

competent interactions appropriately:

You go into poorer neighborhoods, you're going to talk to them and treat them

totally different, and not in a bad way than you will treat individuals in a rich

neighborhood…With rich people, or wealthier neighborhoods, higher-end

neighborhoods, you actually have to be more professional. Whereas with poorer

neighborhoods, you can actually be more yourself. You can actually interact more

like a human being than a robot. (Trainer 1)

Trainer 3 discussed the influence of culturally competent interactions on the building of

trust between communities and police, explaining, “Understanding where people are

coming from…I think it does actually play a part in how we're viewed.”

The trainers indicated that an important obstacle to officers’ initiating friendly,

culturally competent interactions with members of the community was the tendency for

law enforcement personnel to think of themselves as belonging to a culture apart from the

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communities they served. TCOLE’s Cultural Diversity Lesson Plan addressed this topic

in the following language:

Law Enforcement has been identified in our society as a sub-culture…due to [a

lack of trust between the police and society as a whole], police found themselves

looking to each other primarily for support…Numerous studies have indicated

that the nature of policing and the experiences officers go through on the job

cause them to band together…The [result] is a natural tendency [on the part of

law-enforcement personnel] to interpret behavior, motivations, and criminal

activity from the officer’s cultural point of view. (TCOLE, Cultural Diversity

Lesson Plan, n.d.)

To counteract the tendency toward insularity in police culture, in part as a way of training

officers to reach out in a friendly way toward members of the community, trainers

believed that adequate training in community policing could not be conducted in the

classroom alone. Trainer 2 stated:

You can't teach community policing inside a classroom…Every community is

different. Everybody that you're going to come across is different. You can't really

do it in the classroom. You need to get them out in the streets dealing with the

actual individuals themselves to really make them understand that sometimes

people respond differently to different situations and you're not going to be able to

teach all that in the classroom. You have to get them in the streets with the

citizens. (Trainer 2)

Theme 2: Reasonable transparency is an effective community police training

principle. The trainers perceived a reasonable and prudent level of transparency on the

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part of the police as a way of accomplishing community policing’s objective of building

community trust as an effective community police training principle. Reasonable

transparency involved teaching community members and leaders why the police acted as

they did. The obstacle to complete—as opposed to reasonable—transparency was that

apprising community members of specific law-enforcement tactics might allow citizens

to render those tactics ineffective, endangering officers and other members of the

community. The trainers recommended that police transparency should extend to “why”

police acted as they did, but not to “how” police performed their duties. Specific methods

for reasonable transparency were discussed; however, none were sufficiently consistent

in the views of all participants.

Trainer 1 described the relationship between building community trust and

transparency on the part of police as follows: “The first thing to maintain somebody's

trust, be it somebody you know, somebody you're related to, or somebody in the general

public, is just straight-up honesty.” Trainer 1 provided an example of how a reasonable

level of transparency might be provided in the field:

On traffic stops, you see a lot of officers nowadays that just walk up and demand

a license. But I tell them repeatedly, “These citizens that don't know you have a

fundamental right to know who you are, who you work for, and what you stopped

them for.” Again, just straight-up honesty. There's no sense in beating around the

bush on any scene. And when you give the people this kind of honesty, they're

more inclined to interact with you on a friendly level. (Trainer 1)

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Another way in which reasonable transparency might appear in day-to-day law-

enforcement practice was through officers’ explaining the reasoning behind

recommendations that were not legally enforceable. Trainer 2 stated:

Teaching [the young officer] that to give the [citizen an] option and explain why

this is the best option I think is the better outcome…You try to tell the young

officer to make [a citizen] go home [from a threatening situation] and there's

really no legal reason you can, that's where the community policing has changed.

If you can strongly suggest [that the citizen go home], you can give them the

reasons why, and if at any point they decide not to, when they do become a victim

of this person or this animal, then that falls back on them. You did everything in

your power legally to try to alleviate the situation. (Trainer 2)

The TCOLE’s Cultural Diversity Lesson Plan indicated a similar perspective, providing

the following recommendation related to reasonable transparency: “Take responsibility

for patiently educating citizens and the public about the role of the officer and about

standard operating procedures in law enforcement.”

Trainers emphasized that while reasonable transparency was an effective principle

of community police training, complete transparency was potentially dangerous. Trainer

1 stated:

Keeping [citizens] informed on why we do what we do, not necessarily how we

do it. Again, you don't want to give away any kind of special tactics that may

inevitably jeopardize your safety or somebody else's safety, yours or the public.

But why we do what we do, should be totally acceptable, explaining to the general

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 public. Because the more they understand why we do what we do, the more trust

and understanding they'll have with us. (Trainer 1)

Trainer 2 expressed a similar perception, stating:

I do not agree with showing [citizens] our tactics, because the tactics are what

keeps the officers that are going in and doing these jobs safely. Making them

aware of why certain things take place? Yeah, that's always good. Letting them

experience some of the stuff that the officer goes through and in situations? That's

good too. Giving them the tactics and how an officer's going to respond or a

SWAT team or a tactical team's going to respond, I think is not a good idea.

(Trainer 2)

Research Question 2. Research Question 2 of the study was “What are police

officers’ perspectives on the community police training effectiveness in their

application?” Eight questions were used to elicit the officer’s perceptions regarding RQ2.

From one-on-one semistructured interviews with six recently recruited police officers,

interview data was compiled and analyzed in order to answer the RQ2. In the following

presentation of results, the quotations were attributed to the pseudonyms assigned to the

officers (i.e., Officer 1, Officer 2, etc.) in order to ensure the participants’ confidentiality.

This presentation of the results associated with Research Question 2 is organized by

theme.

Theme 3: Application of community police training increases trust and

cooperation. The officers perceived community police training they had received as

effective, in that it had taught them to communicate with citizens in a manner that

promoted trust and safety. The officers perceived the increased trust between the

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community and the police as increasing the level of cooperation they received from

community members, with the result that they were better able to do their jobs, and law

enforcement became more effective. The officers agreed with the trainers in stating that

training in community policing needed to extend beyond the classroom in order to be

applied effectively. Participants suggested methods of application; however, they were

not sufficiently consistent in the view of all participants.

Officer 3 described some of the ways in which the application of community

police training increased the effectiveness of law enforcement by increasing trust and

cooperation between the community and the police:

[Application of community police training] forms a bond between the community

and the police officers, helps us to get to know the types of people we're serving

in our community. You start to know people on a first-name basis in areas that we

have a higher crime or high call volume, they start to feel more comfortable with

us. We're approachable when they want to tell us about anything they may have

seen or called us when they may have been afraid to do so in the past. (Officer 3)

Officer 2 described an experience he perceived as illustrating the contrast between

officers who had received community police training and officers who had not:

I had a woman who was cutting herself on the side of the street and I went out and

talked to her…Everything from that class worked with her…and it was like, okay,

can I ask you to put that razor down now? And she was quiet, and she stared at

the ground. It was just textbook, straight out of the class, and she took the razor

and she put it down, and I said thank you…[But then] this other officer who

hadn't taken the class yet had walked out, and he was an old-timer…and he goes,

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 “Get your fucking ass—” She grabbed that razor and just started going to town on

her arm again. (Officer 2)

Officers perceived the community police training principle of initiating friendly,

culturally competent interactions as effective in practice. Officer 6 stated, “You need to

be sociable with the community, get out and talk. Besides, regardless if you're on a call or

what, you go in the store to get something, talk to them, you know?” Officer 5 perceived

applying the principle of initiating friendly interactions as a means of promoting trust and

cooperation between police and the community:

If I'm driving through the poor part of town and there are little African American

kids outside, I'll always try and make a point to wave to them. Always. And if

they wave back, awesome. Sometimes they'll wave me down and want to talk.

(Officer 5)

Officers also expressed the perception that applying the community police

training principle of reasonable transparency with the public or explaining “why” police

do what they do but not “how” they do so was effective in promoting trust and

cooperation between the community and the police. Officer 4 spoke of the need for

reasonable transparency in relation to the perceived militarization of police:

I was concerned about the “militarization” of the police until I became a cop.

[Then] I was like, “Oh, this makes sense.” [But] you don't really have any voices

in the media explaining why we do what we do. Police don't explain it…I think if

we can explain to people better, if every police department could explain, “Hey,

this is why.” We can use the shootout in San Bernardino [as an example]…Had

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 we not had that armored vehicle and these special task forces and this special

weaponry equipment, there could have been way more loss of life. (Officer 4)

Officers emphasized that training in community policing could not be applied

effectively if it was given only in the classroom, and that field training was necessary for

effective application. Officer 1 stated, “Everything's standardized in the academy.

Whereas, when you're on the street you're not in the classroom anymore. You're dealing

with people on an individual basis so everybody's different.” Officer 3 expressed a

similar perception of the need for community police training to be given at least partly in

the field:

A lot of things you learn in the academy, it doesn't really click until you get on the

street, for me. I think maybe getting that exposure sometime in the academy, on

the street, then when you go back you actually understand what you're being

taught. (Officer 3)

Theme 4: Application of community police training has limited effectiveness.

The officers believed that the community police training principles recommended by

trainers were effective in increasing cooperation and trust between the community and

police, officers emphasized that, in many common situations, the application of those

principles was either ineffective or inappropriate. The officers attributed some of the

limits on the applicability of the principles of community police training to the need for

more and better training. Limiting factors were discussed; however, none were

sufficiently consistent in the view of all the participants.

Officer 2 described traffic accidents as situations in which the need for efficiency

made reasonable transparency in keeping the public informed inappropriate and

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ineffective, stating, “We had a major accident…And then everybody wants to stop and

ask you what happened, and it's like I can't talk…I can't answer everybody's question.”

Officer 3 expressed that safety concerns sometimes overrode considerations of

friendliness and transparency, explaining:

If we all have our guns drawn on somebody, and somebody at gunpoint, and

everyone wants to come out and stand right about the scene, yeah, I'm going to

tell them to go away because I don't know if this guy, he's potentially harmful, or

he's already assaulted somebody, he's fled from us, and I don't want that citizen to

be in the path of a bullet. (Officer 3)

The situation that Officer 3 described in the preceding quotation may appear to be

an outlier that would be unlikely to limit the application of community police training on

a day-to-day basis, but all officers who participated in this study reported experiences of

similar situations. The officers stated that life-threatening situations that attracted and

endangered spectators were not rare and that citizens’ desire to observe and record these

situations often presented a potentially lethal threat to those citizens’ safety. The officers

further reported that when they tried to shepherd citizens away from the scene of, for

example, a shootout or an armed standoff, citizens often resisted with aggressive

indignation and insisted on their right to observe and record. The officers had to assume

an authoritarian, unapproachable, opaque demeanor in order to drive citizens away from

scenes where they could be killed. Officer 4 expressed this perception in his overall

assessment of the limits on being friendly and reasonably transparent with community

members, stating:

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 There are times when we're not paid to be popular. A lot of times, I think police

admin forget that and that we have to be the bad guys, but if you look and you

think of a wider perspective, we're not the bad guy. We're just telling people what

they need to hear and what they need to do. (Officer 4)

The officers believed that additional and better training in community policing would

help them to apply their principles more effectively. Officer 6, for example, believed that

training in his department was inadequate:

They encourage community policing but with my agency, there's really only one

community policing officer who handles it all. And so you get all the new

recruits, and even some of the older ones that only thing to really learn about are

just through the academy. There's no real hands-on training or experience.

(Officer 6)

Officer 4 stated that academy training was also inadequate:

Honestly, I don't even remember what they went over at the academy. It was

really just pretty common-sense stuff. There was nothing enlightening. I

remember just sitting there and being like, “Duh. This is a no-brainer.” No one

walked away and was like, “I never thought of it like that.” It's kind of touchy-

feely. This all stuff is just common knowledge. It's like checking a box. (Officer

4)

Chapter Summary

The purpose of the qualitative single case study was to discover the perceptions of

police officers and police trainers regarding community police training effectiveness.

Data was collected for this study through one-on-one, semistructured interviews with

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three trainers and six recently recruited police officers in the Texas Gulf Coast area, as

well as the analysis of one archival document created by the Texas Commission of Law

Enforcement. The archival document and the interview transcripts were uploaded into

NVivo 12 software and analyzed these data using a content analysis procedure.

Two research questions were developed to guide this study. The first research

question was, “What do departmental trainers perceive as effective community police

training principles?” In the analysis of the findings, it was found that training in the

initiation of friendly, culturally competent interactions and in being reasonably

transparent with the public was perceived as effective community police training

principles. The second research question was, “What are police officers’ perspectives on

the community police training effectiveness in their application?” In the analysis of the

study’s findings, it was found that considerations of safety and efficiency often limited

the application of community policing principles. Chapter 5 includes a discussion,

interpretation, and implications of these findings.

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 Chapter 5

Conclusions and Recommendations

In recent years, police officers have experienced controversies due to the adverse

media reports and issues published against them. As a result, increased tensions and

pressure between the police officers and minority civilians have developed (Adegbile,

2017; Epp et al., 2017). Several researchers have since recommended strategies to ease the

hostility between the members of the police institutions, and the community stakeholders;

one framework for action suggested was community policing (Adegbile, 2017; Barthelemy

et al., 2016; Epp et al., 2017; Kahn et al., 2018; Kimbrough, 2016; Merkey, 2015; Sereni-

Massinger & Wood, 2016; Stampler, 2016; Williams et al., 2016). As Stamper (2016) and

Williams et al. (2016) defined, community policing involves the collaboration between the

law enforcement groups and the members of the community. Further, Amadi (2014)

explained that CP promotes the concept of a positive relationship between the police and

citizens of the community where the two groups join hands as they purposefully fight

crimes and other acts of violence that may be threatening the neighborhood. In order to

achieve the full potential and advantages of CP, there is then a call for more formal training

and re-evaluation of the knowledge and skills of the police officers under the CP program.

The creation of a curriculum that takes advantage of scenarios and real-world situations

could be a conduit to a better understanding of the knowledge and skills necessary to deal

with situations, mitigate confrontations, and build trust and cooperation.

The importance of exploring the effectiveness of the current training practices of

police officers and departmental trainers was found, and implementation of community

policing in general to maximize the possible benefits that CP may bring to the different

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communities. The purpose of the qualitative single case study was to discover the

perceptions of police officers and police trainers regarding community police training

effectiveness. In this chapter, the themes from the findings will be discussed in relation to

the literature. The study limitations, as well as recommendations for leaders, practitioners,

and future researchers, are presented. A brief summary concludes the chapter and study.

Research Questions

The following research questions guided the completion of the study. These were:

RQ1. What do departmental trainers perceive as effective community police

training principles?

RQ2. What are police officers’ perspectives on the community police training

effectiveness in their application?

Qualitative content analysis of the interview transcripts from the two sets of

participants (n=9) was used to analyze the data. Six police officers and three training

officers were recruited from police departments in the Texas Gulf Coast area. Following

a content analysis of the data and using NVivo12 by QSR software, four key themes were

identified addressing the two research questions of the study.

In response to the first research question which asked what departmental trainers

perceived as effective community police training principles, the interviewed participants

believed that initiating friendly, culturally competent interactions is an effective

community police training principle. Another essential finding was the belief that

reasonable transparency is an effective community police training principle. Meanwhile,

the second research question explored the police officers’ perspectives on the community

police training effectiveness in the application of its principles when policing. Again, two

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critical themes emerged from the analysis. The interviewed police officers reported that

the application of community police training increases trust and cooperation. Further, the

police officers admitted that the application of community police training has limited

effectiveness. In the next section, the formed themes are more thoroughly discussed in

relation to the literature.

Discussion of Findings

In this section, four key findings are discussed in relation to the literature reviewed

in the second chapter of the study. Table 4 contains the display of the themes and the

corresponding literature.

Table 4

Display of Themes and their Corresponding Literature

Research Questions Themes Supporting Literature

Research Question 1. Theme 1: Initiating friendly, Amadi, 2014;
What do departmental culturally competent Thomas, 2016;
trainers perceive as effective interactions is an effective Becker, 2017; Blakemore et
community police training community police training al. (1995;
principles? principle Sampson et al., 1997;
Stephens (2005)

Theme 2: Reasonable Wekesa & Muturi, 2016;

transparency is an effective Merkey, 2015
community police training
principle

Research Question 2. Theme 3: Application of Albrect. 2017;

What are police officer’s community police training Mulugeta & Mekuriaw,
perspectives on the increases trust and 2017;
community police training cooperation Bitaliwo, 2014;
effectiveness in their Becker, 2017
application?
Theme 4: Application of Stephens, 2005;
community police training Blakemore et al. (1995);
has limited effectiveness Guler et al. (2014)

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 RQ1: What do departmental trainers perceive as effective community police

training principles? The interviewed departmental trainers shared two major perceptions

of effective community training principles. The first major perception or theme was the

effectiveness of initiating friendly, culturally competent interactions. As reported in the

reviewed literature in the second chapter, the image of police members or officials has

mostly been unfriendly and unfavorable. The perception was corroborated by Amadi

(2014), who stated that the police members and citizens are, in most part, isolated or

alienated; leading to more significant conflicts across the country. Amadi added that this

perception led to the introduction of the practice of community policing to improve the

quality of life in communities, targeting the elimination of crime and disorder. The theme

also aligns with the study’s conceptual framework or the theory of collective efficacy

(Sampson et al., 1997), including its tenet that the strength of cooperative ties among the

community’s members and their members’ commitment to the good of the community,

will lead to the reduction of violence and crime in the area.

By integrating the value of openness, friendliness, and cultural competency as

critical values for the police officers, increased successes can be expected from the CP

practice (Amadi, 2014). Amadi also provided several methods to encourage interaction

and visibility within the community; these include the use of foot patrol, door-to-door

policing, directed patrol, and other substitutes to the practices under traditional policing.

In line with the need for interaction and communication between the police officers and

community members, they must also forge cooperation with one another to guarantee the

participation of the stakeholders and ensure the safety and protection of the community

(Amadi, 2014). The concepts expressed in the first theme such as interaction,

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friendliness, and cultural competency are vital concepts that must be instilled during the

training sessions of the police officers to gain the trust of the citizens and eventually,

encourage their active involvement as well (Amadi, 2014). Thomas’ (2016) finding can

also be used to support the first theme, where it was reported that the engagement of the

police and the community members allows the latter to more openly share their needs,

uncertainties, expectations from the police. This would enable the police officers to

identify the pressing issues and concerns within the community, focus on them, and

address them more effectively.

Developing an understanding between the community members and the police

officers may assist in community policing. The values of respect, acceptance, and

tolerance can be emphasized to both parties. As Trainer 2 indicated during the interview,

“If you want to talk to somebody, talk to them. Don't talk down to them.” Cultural

competence is then another relevant concept that was also deemed to be critical in the

training program of the police officers. Stephens (2005) argued that an increased

awareness through education and training will be needed to equip the current and future

police officers to manage not only the crimes and unrest; but also have the social skills to

efficiently work in diverse communities. In fact, Blakemore et al. (1995) introduced

diversity training and noted the effectiveness of standardized training in the area of

community policing. This is because for Blakemore et al., standardize training

encompassed limited practical training; and would not assist the officers when faced with

probable cultural and racial issues within the communities.

Cultural competency could also be affected indirectly by inherent bias. Inherent

bias points to the ideology that every person is born with and possesses a level of bias,

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whether racial, cultural, and other forms (Eberhardt, 2016). The ability to recognize

inherent bias and work to overcome it depends on the time spent realizing the bias and

working to overcome it. Having cultural competency helps build the understanding that

bias exists, and the trainer works to develop this concept to show the officer the best

method for dealing with different situations. Numerous scenarios and live contact with

different races and cultures help the officer build an understanding of what might work

best when dealing with individuals of different races or cultures. Officers need the

training and trainers expressed the view that only through the experience of practical

interacts can officers have the tools necessary to deal with diverse communities in a

professional manner. According to Eberhardt (2016), only through the experience of

racial bias can it be realized and then worked to be mitigated.

Another major theme generated from the analysis of the interviews in response to

the first research question was the perception that reasonable transparency is an effective

community police training principle. The interviewed departmental trainers found it

crucial to instill the value of transparency as they hone the knowledge and skills of the

police officers further. The departmental trainers believed that police officers would gain

the trust and confidence of the community members once they demonstrate transparency.

As Trainer 2, summarized: “Making them aware of why certain things take place? Yeah,

that's always good.” According to Wekesa and Muturi (2016), accountability is indeed a

crucial issue for communities that practice community policing. They also explained that

transparency and trust are both significant factors that can boost the morale of the

community and help promote more significant approval among the stakeholders (Wekesa

& Muturi, 2016). Additionally, Merkey (2015) highlighted that community policing can

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only be successful when both the community members and police officers develop

relationships built on trust and accountability, following the model of restorative justice.

Trainers also perceived opportunities for building transparency through the

training of civilians as to the equipment and what it is used for and in what situation. The

ability to show the community different equipment, including K-9, body armor, cameras,

entry equipment, and mobilized assault vehicles; allows them to understand what the

purpose of the equipment is and why it is utilized in the manner dictated by the situation.

The officers can run scenarios that would call for the utilization of specialty equipment to

give the community an understanding when it is ok to watch and when there may be a

scenario that causes law enforcement to keep the community away from a volatile

situation. The community members would be able to ask questions and give them an

opportunity to interact with officers and build transparency.

These two themes may suggest a correlation between cultural competency and

transparency are as equally important in the interaction among law enforcement and the

community. These themes provoke thought as to whether there could be an ability to

learn cultural competency and become transparent in interactions between individuals.

Trainers interviewed referenced the interaction with all races and cultures through

transparency and the ability to be professional in all instances. It is the larger principle of

professionalism as a value that trainers wish to convey to officers. The ability to be

professional in all interactions and do not need to change their demeanor or attitude for

each call is important because it can be taught, and the officer can learn from observation.

Scenarios that look to show interactions and possible outcomes could give the officers

real-world examples of cultural competency and how it leads to transparency. The

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trainers discussed the ability to give officers the training and tools for abstract situations

in which each is different. Whether through cooperative training with senior officers or

staged scenarios, it is important to find the principle of professionalism.

RQ2: What are police officers’ perspectives on the community police training

effectiveness in their application? The police officers’ views on the community police

training effectiveness in their application was explored in the second research question.

Two key themes emerged from the analysis, 1) the application of community police

training increases trust and cooperation. One police officer shared the effectiveness of

this practice as the newly formed bond and relationships with the community members

allow them to get to know the members more closely. As a result, community members

become at ease and entrust their welfare and safety to the police officers. In the literature,

the trust and cooperation of the community members were also deemed to be crucial in

the success of community policing (Becker, 2017). Albrect (2017) reported that

community distrust and unrest against police departments and their members can be a

cause of the latter’s ineffectiveness in fulfilling their jobs. For Albrect (2017), police

officers must perform their duty of serving all citizens despite their wealth, class, and

gender. Providing genuine and honest service from the police members can help in

gaining the trust and faith of the community members to the officers. Further, Mulgueta

and Mekuriaw (2016) reiterated that community policing implementation cannot succeed

without the proper promotion of values and the alignment of the two parties’ goals and

expectations. After the establishment of trust and cooperation, the two groups of

stakeholders can openly communicate and collaborate with one another as they work to

address the pressing issues and problems in the community. Finally, Bitaliwo (2014)

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posited that police officers must exert extra effort and work to improve both their image

and credibility, which includes gaining the trust of the citizens, as well as eliminating the

issues of police violence and civil conflicts.

Trust and cooperation are concepts that require both officers and the community

to understand and work together to make interactions less volatile. According to

Collective efficacy theory, as officers work to increase trust and cooperation, the

community must be receptive to their actions or these attempts will not result in better

interaction. As the community attempts to trust and cooperate with law enforcement, it

takes a single officer who does not embrace this trust and cooperation to set back these

attempts and turn the community away from law enforcement. It is this divergence in

trust and cooperation that leads to limited effectiveness. This limited effectiveness is

discussed in the next section as it is an important theme derived from the data collected

and analyzed.

The fourth and last theme of the study was the perception that the application of

community police training has had limited effectiveness. The interviewed police officers

also admitted that currently, although the desire for cooperation and development of trust

is present, the application of community policing has still not achieved its full potential.

Stephens (2005) supported this finding, stating that more education and targeted training

are essential to managing new crimes and disorder successfully. Stephens added that the

police officers must also be trained to develop the capability to clearly communicate and

respectfully interact with the diverse members of the communities under them.

Blakemore et al. (1995) also indicated that diversity training must be performed, and

standardized training must be modified as well.

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 According to Blakemore et al., police officers must complete more hands-on and

practical training in order to be more prepared for actual situations and to manage cases

concerning the culture, racial, and ethnic diversity of various communities. Guler et al.

(2014) echoed Blakemore’s statement and discussed how the current community policing

training programs are one-sided and are focused on safety issues rather than developing

the critical thinking abilities of the police officers. Training programs must build and

practice the decision-making abilities of the police officers that will enable them to

address issues in the best possible manner as they emerge, especially during critical

situations (Guler et al., 2014).

Limited effectiveness also refers to situations where the community members

simply do not like or agree with law enforcement and no level of transparency,

professionalism, trust or cooperation will change their minds. Officers must recognize

these situations and work to maintain the highest professionalism while carrying out their

duty. The officer needs to recognize that not all citizens are going to be supportive;

however, the onus is on the officer to maintain control and show the same integrity that

they would with citizens that respond favorably to law enforcement. This is another

instance in which real-world scenarios or cooperative practical training could help

officers to see the most effective method for interacting with individuals that hold

animosity towards law enforcement. Through a run-through of numerous scenarios, the

officer will recognize techniques and nuances that will help mitigate the situation.

Another possible causality of limited effectiveness in community policing could

be a lack of collective efficacy. According to Simpson (2008), neighborhoods are safer

when the citizen take an active role in their safety. By taking an active role, the citizens

103
begin to know their neighbors, leaders, and the police officers that patrol their

community. This banding together allows the citizens to pass on to law enforcement

when things do not seem right. The officers have the ability to coordinate patrols with

community leaders and build a relationship with individual families. These relationships

allow the officer to interact with the community and know who is in the community. The

officers are allowed to gather information in the hopes that the community will pass on

information as to who is committing crimes or who is a person of interest.

An analysis of these themes tends to suggest that there is a disconnection;

however, increasing trust and cooperation references to the principle of professionalism

discussed by the trainers and gives the officers perspective that no one method of

interaction is effective in every instance. Officers referenced that every situation is

different, and the community may not wish in every instance to be understanding as to

the purpose and necessity for interaction. The ability for officers to change perspectives

and approach different interactions with different thoughts and ideas can be important.

The officer needs to be dynamic in their ability to realize that an approach is not working

and adapt to the situation. Officers referenced training principles and their perspective on

how there are times to utilize specific principles or multiple principles in some cases. The

officers believed that classroom theory-based training did not take enough examples into

account and suggested few principles. This led the officers to believe that this style of

training had limited effectiveness. The perspective of the officers is that the training

needed real-world scenarios and the ability to see an interaction and why a person makes

a decision. It is these real-world interactions that the officer can remember of utilizing

critical thinking to understand when an interaction requires them to be dynamic and

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change their approach. It is not that that community policing training is ineffective, but

that not all methods and principles are effective in every situation.

Limitations

Upon completing the research study, three critical limitations were observed. First,

the small sample size was employed. The results were limited to the population and site

under review. Further, the themes of the study cannot be used to generalize all officers and

trainers participating in community policing training. The firsthand perceptions and

experiences of both the departmental trainers and police officers can still be employed by

the future researchers and police departments as crucial information on how to better

address the issues and possible ineffectiveness within their institutions. Another limitation

was the lack of analysis of an integral group or the community members themselves. The

collection of their perceptions may have been useful in confirming or disconfirming the

responses of the main groups of participants, such as the departmental trainers and the

police officers.

Finally, another limitation was the potential of biased or incomplete statements

from the two groups of participants. Although participants were constantly reassured that

their identities would remain confidential and all data will be destroyed after five years,

participants may have been afraid or uncomfortable to share their honest opinions given the

sensitivity of the issue or the fear of being recognized by their institution leaders

Recommendations for Leaders and Practitioners

The findings of this study may help policymakers and leaders who provide

curriculum design to better understand the challenges of training police officers to serve

their communities. The results of the study may be used to inform curriculum creators of

105
the importance the perspective of officers and trainers for creating training initiatives.

The findings of this study can also inform leadership training programs. This information

can be used in developing a step-by-step curriculum that focuses on the four themes.

Each theme is related to another as cultural competency can lead to transparency;

transparency can lead to trust and cooperation.

Based on the findings presented, several recommendations were developed that

may be helpful for leaders and practitioners. The police leaders, community leaders, and

other concerned practitioners who may have access to the results may consider the

following:

1. Review and examine the firsthand perceptions and experiences shared by the

departmental trainers and police officers through their responses and as

presented in chapter 4. By doing so, the institution leaders can collect relevant

information on the strengths and weaknesses of the community policing

training and the community policing program as a whole. Further, the themes

uncovered from the study can guide the leaders on how to incorporate the

principles of trust, cooperation, and cultural competency in the training

programs of the police officers.

2. Conduct regular evaluations and gathering of feedback from departmental

trainers and police officers. Through a conducting of evaluations and feedback,

the leaders will gain updated knowledge and information about the needs of the

officers and address them accordingly.

3. For the community leaders, the results of this research study can be employed to

gain the perspectives, feelings, and experiences of the police officers. By doing

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 so, the community leaders can better understand their partnering police officers

which can lead to an improved relationship between the two parties. As

mentioned in the literature, the community members and police officers have

somehow been estranged from one another due to the negative news and issues

about them. Both parties and groups of stakeholders should consider developing

a stronger and more open relationship in order to achieve their common goal of

successfully promoting a safe and protected community.

4. For curriculum creators and policymakers, the results of the study and the

literature referenced in Chapter 2 discussed the need for additional training and

more practical training. The current curriculum focuses on classroom learning

and the utilization of respect and understanding. The trainers and officers

interviewed in the study noted that every interaction is different and that there is

a need for practical training, whether through scenarios or cooperative training

that gives the officers the ability to see live interaction with individuals, the use

of practical training is a necessity. The four themes point to abstract concepts

such as culturally competent interaction, transparency, trust, and cooperation;

however, the ability to transfer these concepts to real-world interaction relies on

the utilization of training and experience. The curriculum can be created that

utilizes scenarios and real-world opportunities for the officer to experience the

interactions that may contain instances of abusiveness to law enforcement. The

officers could learn techniques for utilizing community policing concepts and

principles that will allow them to better interact with the community.

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 These recommendations could lead to the development of a curriculum that

involves each of the groups that were discussed. The training of officers could become

more driven by social interaction. The creation of scenarios that show the officer what the

citizen is feeling during an interaction. The scenarios could be scripted to show the officer

what the person is thinking during the interaction utilizing community members or leaders.

These participants could give the officers insight into the mind of people they approach or

have contact with during interaction. These mock scenarios could be scheduled with

community leaders during training cycles to bring the community into the training. Law

enforcement trainers could utilize these interactions to point out what-to and what-not-to-

do during interactions. The person involved would give their feelings about how they felt

during the interaction and provide feedback tom the officers. Other training courses utilize

this form of interaction that brings citizens into the course, including driving while

intoxicated training where citizens are utilized to understand levels of intoxication for field

sobriety testing. The more transparency created within the community the more likely to

build trust and cooperation.

Recommendations for Future Research

Several key recommendations for future researchers interested in this phenomenon

are now offered. Based on the results, the following can be recommended:

1. As the two perceptions and experiences of the departmental trainers and police

officers were gathered, there was no way of confirming or disconfirming their

responses with another key stakeholder or the members of the community. It

would be helpful for future researchers to conduct interviews with community

leaders and their members. The responses of the other party can be used to

108
 uncover their perceptions and suggestions on how community policing can

succeed in their respective communities. The additional interviews can probe

whether community policing has been effective in their communities. The

community leaders and members can also provide more targeted

recommendations on the training concepts and skills that must be incorporated

in order for the police officers to improve their services to the communities.

2. With the additional data from the community leaders and members, the

different sets of analyzed interviews can then be used to triangulate themes and

uncover the most significant perceptions that will emerge. The results of the

data triangulation can then be employed to improve the current framework of

the practice of community policing. With the triangulation method, different

results and diverse themes could be established as well. The future results can

then be employed to uncover possible knowledge and concepts that were not

found in the study. Themes that were not shared or generated from the police

officers and their trainers could be formed and could be used to develop other

crucial data that could make community policing training more effective in the

future.

3. Future research could consider larger agencies to get a better mix of officers and

trainers to interview. Larger agencies with a larger geographical area could add

much more diversity to the officer’s perspective on dealing with communities.

The larger agencies will allow for more officers and trainers that may give

different perspectives from the data included in the study. These perspectives

109
 could validate the data gathered or give different themes that would allow for

triangulation with the current data.

4. Future research could also consider the use of different research methodologies.

The phenomenological methodology could be utilized and interview a law

enforcement individual that has been with a department for numerous years and

discuss their perspective of the evolution of community policing training. The

research could be completed utilizing narrative inquiry. The interviews would

be based upon the lived experiences of officers and focus on implicit bias as it

relates to community policing training. Last, future research could interview

officers in relation to their daily lives and activities on the job and allow these

perspectives to generate hidden or unknown themes. This type of research

would be grounded research and allow the data to create the questions and

themes.

5. Future research may also look to collective efficacy theory to explore the

utilization of principles within the region of the Texas Gulf Coast that this study

was conducted. The utilization of the principles of collective efficacy could give

insight into the community and how they interact with one another. Community

leaders and prominent citizens could be interviewed to give their perspective on

the state of the community with an emphasis on law enforcement and their

effectiveness. Researchers could utilize a quantitative approach utilizing

surveys to get a broad idea of what the citizens as a whole believe in reference

to the effectiveness of their leaders and law enforcement. The data could then

be analyzed to develop an understanding of how the community sees itself and

110
 law enforcement. This would be utilized to give insight to the citizens as well as

law enforcement.

Each of these recommendations builds upon the data collected and analyzed in the

study to attempt to create an opportunity for triangulation and validation of the themes

recognized from the data collected. Data from the community can help to affirm or negate

the perspective of the officers and trainers. Larger agencies will bring in a more diverse set

of perspectives that include race, gender, ethnicity, or other cultural aspects that will give a

more homogeneous set of data. Last, different methods will broaden the perspectives from

which future researchers perceive the data collected. The data collection can follow a

qualitative ideology or look to quantitative means for collecting and analyzing data.

Quantitative methods will help to shore up the finds or give new themes for researchers to

ponder.

Chapter Summary and Conclusions

This study holds significance to society and leaders because it gives the

perspective of the individuals that are directly affected by the training and principles of

community policing. Many studies reference the opinions or data collected from

administrators. Much of this data has the potential to be influenced by political concerns

and bias. The perspectives of the individuals that interact with the community deliver a

perspective that could be utilized to bridge the gap between society, law enforcement

leadership, and the literature that has been completed on community policing.

Reservations, concerns, perceptions, and feelings of officers and trainers were

discovered regarding their training experiences and impact on their interactions within

the community. In the analysis of the findings of this study, it was concluded that there

111
are shortcomings of many training principles and the lack of the existing training to teach

empathy and the soft skills of decision making. The officers and trainers discussed

individual outliers, individuals that simply do not like law enforcement, that would not

respond to the principles of community policing. All four themes were corroborated and

supported by various authors, scholars, and researchers. The themes uncovered in the

study can be used to improve and develop more effective training measures in police

departments and institutions across the country. By incorporating the values of trust,

friendliness, cultural competence, accountability, and transparency into the training of the

police officers, they can then develop the much-needed skills as they serve and go out to

the communities. Further, the police officers can be provided with a modified training

program, one that is focused on hands-on or practical training sessions. The participants

also expressed their desire to go beyond the traditional techniques of training and to learn

from the actual conditions and scenarios outside the classroom. By following the

suggestions of the study participants, the implementation of an effective community

policing can be achieved. It may be possible to facilitate long-term positive social change

by refining police strategies and promoting cooperative social control. Community

policing may be used as a tool to improve the lives of the community members and

restore the trust and faith of the citizens to the police officers. It was believed to be

appropriate to utilize the qualitative method and single case study design to collect rich

information from the perspective of the trainers and police officers that are tasked with

interacting with the community. The data collection and analysis process allowed tapping

into resources that were seldom utilized in the past. The perspectives of police officers in

their own words produced an “Ah-ha!” moment when several officers stated that they

112
believed in community policing principles; however, the principles need to be related to

real-world scenarios to give them the best opportunity to interact fairly, professionally,

and without inherent bias.

113
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 Appendix A

Informed Consent

INFORMED CONSENT: PARTICIPANTS 18 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER

Greetings,

My name is Travis Richardson and I am a student at the University of Phoenix working on a Doctorate in
Organizational Leadership and Management. I am conducting a research study entitled Developing
Understanding in Effective Community Policing.

The study is an attempt to build an understanding of community police training and what officers and trainers
believe make a good training protocol. The study will help to determine best practices or even lessons learned for
the participants. The study will not focus on any one department and/ or the training they provide. It will simply get
the perspective of the participant on what they believe is effective community police training.

The purpose of the research study is to understand the nature of effective community policing practices in Texas
gulf coast police training.

Your participation will involve 30 to 45 minutes of your time to answer some questions about community policing
over the phone. I will be recording the session with a pocket recorder for later analysis. I will be completing 18 of
these style interviews and no one will know whom I have spoken with for the study. You may stop the interview at
any time if you feel uncomfortable or simply choose not to answer one of the interview questions.

You can decide to be a part of this study or not. Once you start, you can withdraw from the study at any time
without any repercussions. The results of the research study may be published but your identity will remain
confidential and your name will not be made known to any outside parties.
In this research, there are no foreseeable risks to you.
Although there may be no direct benefit to you, a possible benefit from your being part of this study is that the
policing community may find information in the themes and constructs that will help in dealing with community
policing.
If you have any questions about the research study, please call me at 409-457-9599 or email me at
[email protected]. For questions about your rights as a study d participant,
ti i t or any concerns or
complaints please contact the University of Phoenix Institutional Review Board at [email protected].
complaints,
As a participant in this study, you should understand the following:

1. You may decide not to be part of this study or you may want to withdraw from the study at any time. If you
want to withdraw, please call me at 409-457-9599 or email me at [email protected].
2. Your identity will be kept confidential.
3. Travis Richardson, the researcher, has fully explained the nature of the research study and has answered
all of your questions and concerns.
4. If interviews are conducted, you give permission for the researcher, Travis Richardson, to record them.
The information from these recorded interviews may be transcribed, and the data will be coded to assure
that your identity is protected.
5. Data will be kept secure by being stored in a safe on an external hard drive. The paper documents will also
be stored within the safe. Only, Travis Richardson, will have access to the safe. The data will be kept for
three (3) years, and then destroyed by magnetization and shredding of paper documents. The results of
this study may be published.

By signing this form, you agree that you understand the nature of the study, the possible risks and benefits to you
as a participant, and how your identity will be kept confidential. When you sign this form, this means that you are 18
years old or older and that you give your permission to volunteer as a participant in the study that is described here.

( ) I accept the above terms. ( ) I do not accept the above terms. (CHECK ONE)

130
 Appendix B

Invitation Letter

Request for Doctoral Case Study Participation

To: Police Officer/ Trainer
From: Travis Richardson
Reference: Letter of Invitation
Dear Officer/ Trainer,
My name is Travis Richardson, and this is a request for your participation with an
upcoming qualitative case study as part of my dissertation with the University of Phoenix. The
case study is designed to understand effective community police principles taught in training and
utilized in the community.
The purpose of the research is to discover the perceptions of police officers and police
trainers regarding community police training effectiveness. The overall intent is gaining your
perspective on community police principle that are effective or non-effective. The interview
process will last approximately 45 minutes. The sample consist of 6 law enforcement officers
and 3 law enforcement trainers. Your organization’s participation would be in the form of a
telephone interview with one potential follow-up interview, phone call, or email.
Any and all requests for anonymity or withdrawal from participation will be immediately
honored without question. Furthermore, participants have the right not to answer questions that
they deem sensitive. I have included the Informed Consent form that explain how I will maintain
confidentiality.
A summary of my qualifications for this study include over 19 years of experience in law
enforcement. I am a current member of the Hitchcock Police Department.
Your experience and potential insight would be invaluable to the law enforcement
profession and this study.
If you have any questions or would like to participate, please sign the Informed Consent
and email to me at [email protected]. Also call me at XXX-XXX-XXXX to
schedule the interview.
Thank you for your consideration.
Sincerely,
Travis Richardson, DM Candidate
University of Phoenix

131
 Appendix C

Permissions Letter

PREMISES, RECRUITMENT AND NAME (PRN) USE PERMISSION

Hitchcock Police Department

Please complete the following by check marking any permissions listed here that you approve, and please
provide your signature, title, date, and organizational information below. If you have any questions or concerns
about this research study, please contact the University of Phoenix Institutional Review Board via email at
[email protected].

I hereby authorize, Travis Richardson, a researcher from University of Phoenix, to use the
premises (facility identified above and address below) to conduct a study entitled Developing
Understanding in Effective Community Policing. The study will discuss effective community police
training in a general sense. The study will not name the department and all affiliations will be kept
confidential on a spreadsheet locked in a safe.
I hereby authorize Travis Richardson, a researcher from University of Phoenix, to recruit
subjects for participation in a study entitled Developing Understanding in Effective Community
Policing. The study will discuss effective community police training in a general sense. The study will not
name the department and all affiliations will be kept confidential on a spreadsheet locked in a safe; at the
facility identified above.
I hereby authorize Travis Richardson, a researcher from University of Phoenix, to use the name
of the facility, organization, university, institution, or association identified above when publishing results
from the study entitled Developing Understanding in Effective Community Policing. The study will
discuss effective community police training in a general sense. The study will not name the department and
all affiliations will be kept confidential on a spreadsheet locked in a safe. This permission is to thank the
department in my acknowledgements.

Signature Date

Name
Address of Facility
Title

Phone Number Email Address

132
 Appendix D

Interview Guides

Law Enforcement Trainers

A. Introduction – Interview Protocol

x Welcome participants
x Remind them of the purpose of the study
x Remind them about their permission (or non-permission) to be audiotaped (for
those that change their minds, I will take field notes and permit them to continue
with the interview process)
x Remind them of the use of pseudonyms and no data will be link backed to them
or their respective agency.
x Any questions, if none, let’s begin….

B. Demographic Information
1. How long have you been a police officer?
2. What is your current assignment within the police agency?
3. What is your academic educational level?
4. Are you comfortable engaging in this interview?

C. Interview Questions: General

1. What are your thoughts on Community Policing and its’ effectiveness in community and police
relations?
2. Have you investigated the differences in community police training between police academies
and departmental training?
3. Do you utilize training that varies from the standardize curriculum published by the state?
4. If so, can you compare and contrast community policing training from the academy, state, and
departmental training?

D. Interview Questions: Specific

1. From you experience, is there any of the principle you teach in community police training
officers should be utilizing in their daily routine? Be specific.
2. If you employ concepts of Community Policing within your training, can you discuss how these
concepts should be utilized?
3. How do you feel about the training of concepts in Community Policing and 21st century policing
concepts in enforcing law within the community?
4. In your experience, does the economics of the community serve a role in the communities
understanding of community policing and do you train differently for different
demographics?

133
 Law Enforcement Officers

A. Introduction – Interview Protocol

x Welcome participants
x Remind them of the purpose of the study
x Remind them about their permission (or non-permission) to be audiotaped (for
those that change their minds, I will take field notes and permit them to continue
with the interview process)
x Remind them of the use of pseudonyms and no data will be link backed to them
or their respective agency.
x Any questions, if none, let’s begin….

B. Demographic Information
1. How long have you been a police officer?
2. What is your current assignment within the police agency?
3. What is your academic educational level?
4. Are you comfortable engaging in this interview?

C. Interview Questions: General

1. What are your thoughts on Community Policing and its’ effectiveness in community and police
relations?
2. Have you received training in community policing and /or 21st century policing concepts to
enforce laws within your community since leaving the academy?
3. If so, can you compare and contrast community policing training from the academy and
departmental training?

D. Interview Questions: Specific

1. From you training, is there any of the principle you learned in community police training
you utilize in your daily activities? Be specific.
2. If you employ concepts of Community Policing to enforce laws within the community, can you
discuss your involvement as you patrol?
3. How do you feel about the concept of Community Policing and 21st century policing concepts in
enforcing law within your community?
4. In your experience, does the economics of the community serve a role in the communities
understanding of community policing?
5. Does the involvement of community leaders have an effect on community policing?

134
 Appendix E

Interview Question Alignment Matrix

Research Question Interview Questions Attempted Principle Alignment
RQ1: What do departmental trainers
perceive as effective community police
training principles?
1. From your experience, is there any of Establish training principles
the principles you teach in community
police training that officers should be
utilizing in their daily routine? Be
specific.
2. If you employ concepts of community Establish concepts
policing within your training, can you
discuss how these concepts should be
utilized?

3. How do you feel about the training of Perspective on concept training

concepts in community policing and 21st
century policing concepts in enforcing law
within the community?

4. In your experience, does the economics Perspective on concepts from the

of the community serve a role in the literature
community’s understanding of community
policing, and do you train differently for
different demographics?

5. Does the involvement of community Perspective on collective efficacy

leaders have an effect on community principles
policing, and does the training reflect their
involvement?
RQ2: What are police officers’
perspectives on the community police
training effectiveness in their application?
1. From your training, is there any of the Establish principles
principles you learned in community
police training that you utilize in your
daily activities? Be specific.

2. If you employ concepts of community Establish concepts

policing to enforce laws within the
community, can you discuss your
involvement as you patrol?

3. How do you feel about the concept of Perspective on established concepts

community policing and 21st century
policing concepts in enforcing laws within
the community?

4. In your experience, does the economics Perspective on concepts from the

of the community serve a role in the literature
community’s understanding of community
policing, and do you train differently for
different demographics?

RQ2: What are police officers’ 5. Does the involvement of community Collective efficacy principles
perspectives on the community police leaders have an effect on community
training effectiveness in their application? policing, and does the training reflect their
involvement?

135